Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works.

More restrictively,
literature is writing that is considered to be an art form, or any single writing deemed to have
artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary
usage. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was
used to refer to all written accounts, though contemporary definitions extend the term to include
texts that are spoken or sung (oral literature). Literature can be classified according to whether it
is fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or prose; it can be further distinguished according
to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized
according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations
(genre).
The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to have non-written
verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of
language or writing itself. Developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing
distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature.

Definitions[edit]
There have been various attempts to define "literature". [1] Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their
attempt to answer the question "What is Literature?" with the observation:
The quest to discover a definition for "literature" is a road that is much travelled, though the
point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and
vague, and they inevitably change over time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining
literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as
well. [2]
Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a "culturally relative definition". [3] In Western
Europe prior to the eighteenth century, literature denoted all books and writing. [3] A more
restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to
demarcate "imaginative" writing.[4][5] Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can
be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its
subject of analysis both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works.
The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that
possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing')
tradition.[6] This sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh
Edition (1910–11) when it classifies literature as "the best expression of the best thought
reduced to writing."[7] Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what
constitutes "literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regarded as
literature has the potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time. [6]
The formalist definition is that "literature" foregrounds poetic effects; it is the "literariness" or
"poetic" of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing
(e.g., journalism).[8][9] Jim Meyer considers this a useful characteristic in explaining the use of the
term to mean published material in a particular field (e.g., "scientific literature"), as such writing
must use language according to particular standards. [1] The problem with the formalist definition
is that in order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of language, those uses must
first be identified; this is difficult because "ordinary language" is an unstable category, differing
according to social categories and across history. [10]
Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar,"
originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter".[11] In spite of this, the term has
also been applied to spoken or sung texts.[1][12]
Major forms[edit]
Poetry[edit]
Main article: Poetry

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are
arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke
meanings in addition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning.[13] Poetry has traditionally
been distinguished from prose by its being set in verse;[a] prose is cast in sentences, poetry
in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across metre
or the visual aspects of the poem. [18] Prior to the nineteenth century, poetry was commonly
understood to be something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is
"any kind of subject consisting of Rythm or Verses". [13] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence
(his Poetics), "poetry" before the nineteenth century was usually less a technical designation for
verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. [4] As a form it may pre-date literacy,
with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition; [19][20] hence it
constitutes the earliest example of literature.
Prose[edit]
Main article: Prose
Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than
rhythmic structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it
differs from poetry.[18][21] On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the
case of Ancient Greece] recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a
comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical period".[22]

● Novel: a long fictional prose narrative. It was the form's close relation to real life that
differentiated it from the chivalric romance;[23][24]in most European languages the equivalent
term is roman, indicating the proximity of the forms.[24] In English, the term emerged from
the Romance languages in the late fifteenth century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to
indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction. [25] Although there are
many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel", [26] the modern novel form
emerges late in cultural history — roughly during the eighteenth century. [27] Initially subject to
much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both
popularly and critically.[24][28][29]
● Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and short story;
the publisher Melville House classifies it as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short
story".[30] There is no precise definition in terms of word or page count. [31] Literary
prizes and publishing houses often have their own arbitrary limits, [32] which vary according to
 their particular intentions. Summarising the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi
concludes "[it is a form] whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity". [33] It
has been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results,
both some that are shared with the novel or short story, [34][35] and others unique to the form.
[36]

● Short story: a dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether
one should, distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it also has a contested origin,
[37]
variably suggested as the earliest short narratives (e.g. the Bible), early short story writers
(e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern short story writers (e.g. Anton Chekhov).
[38]
Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have suggested that the short story has a
characteristic subject matter or structure; [39][40] these discussions often position the form in
some relation to the novel.[41]
Drama[edit]
Main article: Drama
Drama is literature intended for performance.[42] The form is often combined with music and
dance, as in opera and musical theatre. A play is a subset of this form, referring to the written
dramatic work of a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises
chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance
rather than at reading. A closet drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather
than to be performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully
on the page.[43] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.
Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial
knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated
with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-
known historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious themes.
With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to
this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio
broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely,
television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.

History[edit]
Main article: History of literature

Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II", from the Luxor Temple, New
Kingdom
The history of literature follows closely the development of civilization. When defined exclusively
as written work, Ancient Egyptian literature,[44] along with Sumerian literature are considered the
world's oldest literatures.[45] The primary genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt—didactic texts,
hymns and prayers, and tales—were almost entirely written in verse; [46] while use of poetic
devices is clearly recognisable, the prosody of the verse is unknown.[47]
Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the
origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual
messages predominate in the pre-urban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to
middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of
deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long
periods before being written down.
Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual
or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters’ actions and
words or the authors’ style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than
just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science,
religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very
important in terms of learning about our [who?]history. Through the study of past literature
we[who?] are able to learn about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each
of the different periods all throughout history. This can even help us to understand references
made in more modern literature because authors often make references to Greek mythology and
other old religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each of the
aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book
about the history of economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but one can
also learn about these things in fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their
works, like when Lord Byron talks about the Spanish and the French in ‘‘Childe Harold’s
Pilgrimage: Canto I’’[48] and expresses his opinions through his character Childe Harold. Through
literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see
how all academic fields have roots in literature. [49]Information became easier to pass down from
generation to generation once we began to write it down. Eventually everything was written
down, from things like home remedies and cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions
and religious practices. From there people were able to study literature, improve on ideas,
further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the medical field or trades could be started.
In much the same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as
we[who?] continue to evolve and learn more and more.
As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative
and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature
in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier
periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the
Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban
culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric
poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles,
particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the
most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-
literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary
medium.
In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military
science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock
printing, produced the world's first print cultures.[50] Much of Chinese literature originates with
the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269
BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism,
of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese
history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy
emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece
of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389
BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early
genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas,
dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The
Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–
1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c.
1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or
the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[51] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st
centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th
century AD. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who
wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient
Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry,
historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are
the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyric poets,
and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in
Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age,
only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known
as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre. [52]

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and author of the Faust books
Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints
and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance,
an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial,
religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of
the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based
and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples are the
Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature
integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the
explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and
fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual
experience and emotion. But as the 19th-century went on, European fiction evolved
towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends.
Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political
change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasising
unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such
as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather
than external realities.
Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed
formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science
fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to
blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S.
Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second
World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.