Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 5: Flow of Water and Flow Nets in Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know the effect of water to the state of soil.

2. Determine the permeability of soil in the laboratory test.
3. Learn the different methods in determining the permeability of soil in the field.
4. Know the importance of permeability in the civil engineering construction.
5. Apply the principles of permeability in the solution of practical problems.
Content:

I. Flow of Water in Soil

A. Introduction

Soils have interconnected voids through which water can flow from points of high energy to
points of low energy. The study of flow of water through porous soil; media is important in soil
mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various
hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water underground
construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are
subject to seepage forces.

B. Definition of Key Terms

1. Groundwater is water under gravity in excess of that required to fill the soil pores.
2. Head ( H ) is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
3. Coefficient of permeability ( k ) is the proportionality constant to determine the flow velocity
of water through soils.
4. Maximum dry unit weight ( d(max) ) is the maximum unit weight that a soil can attain using a
specified means of compaction.
5. Optimum water content ( opt ) is the water content required to allow a soil to attain its
maximum dry unit weight.

C. Bernoulli’s Equation: From fluid mechanics- the total head at a point in water under motion can
be given by the sum of the pressure velocity and elevation head.

h
uA
w uB
Flow
w
hA
hB

ZA
L ZB

Datum

u v2
h= + + Z
w 2g

Pressure Velocity Elevation

head head head

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 Where: h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
w= unit weight of water

1. Darcy’s law: In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water
through saturated soils, which may be expressed as
v=ki
Where: v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time through a unit gross
cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as coefficient of permeability)
i = hydraulic gradient
h
i =
L
∆h = headloss between points A and B
L = distance between A and B
The flow of water is:
Q = Akit

Where: ∆h = hA – hB
A = cross-sectional area of flow path
Q = quantity of flow in unit time
t = elapsed time

2. Flow Rate
q = KiA
Where: q = flow rate
A = cross sectional area of soil
i = hydraulic gradient

3. Critical hydraulic gradient

Gs − 1
ic =
1+e
Where: ic = critical hydraulic gradient
Gs = sp. gr. gr. soil
e = void ratio

4. Seepage velocity or Interstitial Velocity

V(1+e)
Vs =
e
Where: V = discharge velocity
Vs= seepage velocity
e = void ratio

5. Coefficient of Leakage
K′
Le =
b′

Where: Le = coefficient of leakage

K’ = coefficient of permeability of semipervious layer of thickness b’

6. Retardation Coefficient
K
a=
K′
b′

Where: K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer of thickness b’

a = retardation coefficient

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7. Leakage Factor

Kb
B= √
K′
b′

Where: B = leakage factor

K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer of thickness b
K’ = coefficient of semipervious layer of thickness b’

D. Hydraulic Conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity of soils on several factors such as fluid viscosity,
pore-size distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles and
degree of soil saturation.

1. Absolute Permeability
K
k̅ =
w

Where: k̅ = absolute permeability

w = unit weight of water
 = viscosity of water
K = hydraulic conductivity or permeability

2. Transmissivity of Soil Stratum

T = k̅b
Where: T = transmissivity of soil stratum
k̅ = average coefficient of permeability
b = thickness of aquifer

3. Typical Values of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soils

Soil Type K ( cm/sec ) K ( ft/min )

Clean gravel 1.0 – 100 2.0 – 200
Coarse sand 1.0 – 0. 01 2.0 – 0. 02
Fine sand 0. 01 – 0. 001 0. 02 – 0. 002
Silty clay 0. 001 – 0. 00001 0. 002 – 0. 00002
Clay < 0. 000001 < 0. 000002

Essential points:
1. The flow of water through soils is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the average flow
velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
2. The proportionality coefficient in Darcy’s law is called the coefficient of permeability or
hydraulic conductivity, k.
3. The value of k is influenced by the void ratio, particle size distribution, and the wholeness of the
soil mass.
4. Homogenous clays are practically impervious while sands and gravels are pervious.

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E. Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity: Coefficient of Permeability“ K “

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil; the
constant head test and the falling head test. A brief description of each follows:
𝐐𝐋
1. Constant head permeability test : 𝐊 =
𝐀𝐡𝐭

Water

Porous stone

Soil specimen
L
Porous stone

The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained

soils. A typical constant-head apparatus is shown in the figure. Water is allowed to flow through a
cylindrical sample of soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in graduated
cylinder at a convenient duration (t).
In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that
the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After
a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

Q = Avt = A (ki ) t

QL
K=
Aht
q = KiA

Where: Q = volume of water collected in a graduated flask

A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
t = duration of collection of water
L = length of specimen
i = hydraulic gradient
h
i=
L

Temperature Correction

R T = 2.42 − 0.475 lnT

Corrected K 20oC = R T K

Where: RT = temperature correction

T = temperature in oC at which measurement was made
Baseline temperature is 20oC

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 aL h
2. Falling head test: K = ln [ 1 ]
A(t2 −t1 ) h2

Area = a
Standpipe

h1
h2 Porous stone

Soil specimen

Porous stone

The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these
soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant head test. A compacted soil
sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder (shown in the
figure). Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its
disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a
standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (ho changes with time as flow occurs
through the soil. At different times, the head of water is recorded.
In this test the water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference, h 1,
at time t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such that the head
difference at time t = t2 is h2.
aL h1
K = 2.303 log10
At h2

Where: a = cross sectional area of standpipe

L = length of specimen
A = cross sectional area of soil specimen
(t2 – t1) = time interval between the head difference h1 and h2
h1 = initial head
h2 = final head

Temperature Correction

R T = 2.42 − 0.475 lnT

Corrected K 20oC = R T K

Where: RT = temperature correction

T = temperature in oC at which measurement was made
Baseline temperature is 20oC

Essential points:

1. The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained

soils.
2. The falling-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-grained soils.

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F. Permeability of Loose Filter Sands - Allen Hazen’s Formula

K = c (D10)2
Where: c = 100 cm/sec

G. Relation of Coefficient of Permeability and Void Ratio

K1 e21
Casagrande Equation: =
K2 e22

Where: K1 = coefficient of permeability at void ratio e1

K2 = cefficient permeability at void ratio e2

Casagrande Equation: K = 1.4e2 K 0.85

Where: K = hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio e

e = void ratio
K0.85 = corresponding value at a void ratio of 0. 85

e3
1
K1 1+ e1
Kozeny-Carman equation: = e3
K2 2
1+ e2

H. Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction
changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify
calculations. The following derivations relate to the equivalent hydraulic conductivities for flow in
vertical and horizontal directions through multilayered soils with horizontal stratification.

The figure shows n layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction. Let us consider a cross
section of unit length passing through the n layer and perpendicular to the direction of flow

H
K v(eqv) =
h1 h2 h
+ + 3
K v1 K v2 K v3

K h1 h1 + K h2 h2 + k h3 h3
K h(eqv) =
H

I. Field Determination of Permeability of Soil - Pumping from Hydraulic Wells

In some compaction work in clayey soils, the compaction must be done in a manner so that a
certain specified upper level of hydraulic conductivity of the soil is achieved. Examples of such works
are compaction of the core of an earth dam and installation of clay liners in solid-waste disposal sites.
Underground water constitutes an important source of water supply. The stratum of soil in
which this water is known as aquifer. On the basis of their hydraulic characteristics, wells are divided
into two categories: gravity or water table wells, and artesian or pressure wells. If the pressure at the
surface of the surrounding underground water is atmospheric, the well is of the gravity type; if the

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pressure is above atmospheric because of an impervious soil stratum overlies the aquifer, the well is
artesian.
Assume that the water surrounding a well has a horizontal surface under static conditions.
The lateral flow of water toward the well requires the existence of hydraulic gradient, this gradient
being caused by a difference in pressure. To create this difference in pressure, the surface of the
surrounding water assumes the shape of an inverted “cone” during pumping of the well, as shown in
the figure. This cone is known as the cone of depression, the cross section of the cone at the water
surface is called the circle of influence, and the distance through which the water surface is lowered
at the well is termed drawdown. The discharge corresponding to a drawdown 1 m is called specific
capacity of the well.

r2

1. Permeability test by pumping from wells

Pumping test from a well in an unconfined permeable layer underlain by an impermeable

stratum

r
2.303 Q log10 ( 1 )
r2
K= 2 2)
л(h1 − h2

r
Q ln ( 1 )
r2
K=
л(h1 − h22 )
2

r
Q log10 ( 1 )
r2
K=
2.727 H(h1 − h2 )

Where: Q = pumping discharge

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 Pumping test from a well penetrating the full depth in a confined aquifer

r
Q ln ( 1 )
r2
K=
2л H(h1 − h2 )

Where: H = depth of confined aquifer

(G− G′ )
2. Settling velocity: V =
18n

л
3. Capillary tubes: hc ( ) d2 Gs = лdσ
4

Where: hc = height of water will rise

d = diameter of tube
σ = surface tension of water

J. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity from Auger Holes

Hydraulic conductivity can also be estimated in the field from single auger holes. These three
types of tests are often called slug tests. Holes are made in the field that extends to a depth L below
the groundwater table. Water is first bailed out of the hole. This creates a flow of groundwater into
the auger hole through its perimeter and from the bottom. The rise of water level in the auger hole
with time is recorded. The hydraulic conductivity can be calculated from these readings as,

40 r y
K=
(20 + ) (2 − ) y t
L y
r L

Where: r = radius of the auger hole (m)

y = average value of the distance of the water level in the auger hole
measured from the groundwater table during a time interval of t (m)

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 Problems

1. For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand, the following values are given
(refer to constant head figure).

 Length of specimen = 10 in
 Diameter of specimen = 2. 5 in
 Head difference = 18 in
 Water collected in 2 minutes = 0. 031 in3

Determine

a. Hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in/min

b. Discharge velocity in in/min
c. Seepage velocity in in/min

The void ratio of the soil specimen is 0. 46.

2. For a variable head permeability test, the following are given: length of specimen = 15 in, area of
specimen = 3 in2, and k = 0. 0688 in/min. What should be the area of the standpipe for the head
drop from 25 to 12 in in 8 min?

3. The hydraulic conductivity of a clayey soil is 3 x 10 -7 cm/sec. The viscosity of water at 25oC is 0.
0911 x 10-4 g.sec/cm2. Calculate the absolute permeability.

4. Compute the critical hydraulic gradient of coarse gravel with a coefficient of permeability k = 10
cm/sec with a specific gravity of 2. 61 and void ratio e = 0. 65.

5. The coefficient of permeability of sand at a void ratio of 0. 62 is 0. 03 cm/sec. compute the

coefficient of permeability at a void ratio of 0. 48.

6. Sand with rounded grains has an effective size of 0. 080 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 3. 5.
Estimate its coefficient of permeability.

7. For a sandy soil, the following are given:

Maximum void ratio = 0. 70
Minimum void ratio = 0. 46
Hydraulic conductivity of sand at a relative density of 80% is 0. 006 cm/sec
Determine the
a. Void ratio at a relative density of 80%.
b. Void ratio at a relative density of 50%.
c. Hydraulic conductivity of the sand at a relative density of 50%.

8. From the figure shown:

H1=3m K1= 2x10-4cm/sec

H2=3m K2= 1x10-5cm/sec

H
H3=3m K3= 2x10-3cm/sec

H4=3m K4= 1x10-3cm/sec

Determine the

a. Equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction.

b. Equivalent coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction.
c. Ratio of equivalent permeability.
d. Flow if i = 0. 70.

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9. A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as shown in the figure.

3.5m K1=35m/day

5.5m
3.5m 4.2m
K2=20m/day

2km
Compute the
a. Equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.
b. Hydraulic gradient.
c. Flow rate from one stream to another per meter width.

10. The bottom of a stream consists of silty clay has a coefficient of permeability of 0. 06 m/day and
has an average depth of 2.0 m. The underlying aquifer of fine sand has an average thickness of 20
m. Coefficient of permeability of fine sand is 3m/day.

2m K = 0.06 m/day

Fine Sand
20m
K = 3 m/day

Determine the
a. Coefficient of leakage.
b. Retardation coefficient.
c. Leakage factor.

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II. Flow Nets in Soil

A. Introduction

The continuity equation of an isotropic medium represents two orthogonal families of curves,
the flow lines and equipotential lines. A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential
lines is called a flow net. Flow nets are constructed for the calculation of groundwater flow and the
evaluation of heads in the media.
To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential
lines in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersects the flow lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.

B. Definition of Terms

1. Flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium.

2. Equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is equal.

3. Flow net is a combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines.

4. Seepage stress is the stress (similar to frictional stress in pipes) imposed on a soil as water flows
through it.

5. Static liquefaction is the behavior of a soil as viscous fluid when seepage reduces the effective
stress to zero.

To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential
lines in such a way that

a. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.

b. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.

Drawing a flow net takes several trials, while constructing the flow net and keep the boundary
conditions in mind.

Essential points:

1. Streamlines or flow lines represent flow paths of particles of water.

2. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel.
3. The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant.
4. Flow cannot occur across flow lines.
5. The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line.
6. Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other.
7. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head loss.

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C. Characteristics of a Flow Net

1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.

2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares

D. Rate of Seepage through the Foundation

KHNf n
1. For isotropic soils: Q = (rate of seepage from a flow net)
Nd

Where: Kx = Kz = K = coefficient of permeability

Nf = number of flow channels
Nd = number of potential drops

√Kx Kz H Nf
2. For non-isotropic soils: Q =
Nd

Where: Kx = Kz Where: K = KxKz

Uplift Pressure under Hydraulic structures

There are 7 equipotential drops: Nd = 7
Loss of head for each potential: H

Seepage through an Earth Dam on an Impervious Base

KHNf
a. Q =
Nd

Where: Q = seepage through the earth dam

K = coefficient of permeability

K(h21 − h32 )
b. Q =
2L

c. Q = KL tanθ sinθ

d d2 H2
L= − √ 2 −
cosθ cos θ sin2 θ

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Seepage through the foundation

Weighted Creep Ratio

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 Problems
1. Calculate the seepage loss per meter length of the sheet pile (at right angle to the cross section
shown). K = 6.5x10-6 m/sec.

2. From the figure shown,

Compute the

a. Uplift pressure at C.
b. Uplift force per unit length along the axis of the weir.
c. Seepage through the foundation.

3. The depth of water outside the cofferdam is 10 m and the penetration of the sheet piles below
the original surface of the sand is 18 m. The water level in the ditch is 20 m below the outside
water level. If the coefficient of permeability k = 0. 005 m/sec, what will be the seepage into the
ditches per meter of length of the entire cofferdam.

10m
20m

18m
8m
A B

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4. From the given cross – section of a dam, compute the weighted creep ratio for the safety of the
structure against piping.

h1=40
m
h2=40
m

20m 70m
10m
Sheet pile

References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

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