1.

CONDUCTING MATERIALS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing a study of this chapter, you will be able to,

• Define mobility and conductivity.
• Describe classical free electron theory of solids.
• Derive expression for electrical and thermal conductivities.
• State Wiedemann-Franz law and Lorentz number.
• Explain the energy bands of solids.
• Describe band theory of solids.
• Explain Fermi energy and Fermi distribution function.
• Explain density of energy states.
2 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Conductivity is the word, which is associated with all types of materials. Generally
electrical conductivity is defined as the property of the material, which allows the electric
current to pass through the material. It is also stated as the reciprocal of resistivity and its
unit is mho.
Normally the word conductivity is associated with both electrical and thermal
conductivity. Further electrical conductivity can also be stated as the ratio between the
current density ‘J’ and the applied electric field intensity ‘E’. Electrical conductivity is
denoted by the notation ‘σ’.
i.e., σ = J/E
In particular the electrical conductivity will not depend on the dimensions of the
material. But it is dependent of temperature and the amount of impurities present in that
material.

1.2 CONDUCTION IN METALS

It is known that metals are good conductors due to the absence of energy gap and
also due to the availability of free electrons. The current flow in a metal or conductor
is very high due to large free electron density. The free electron or conduction electron
is nothing but the detached valence electron from the outer most orbit of the atom in a
metal.
The drifting of free electrons under the influence of the applied electric field
causes the current flow. In metals, the electrical conductivity decreases with increase of
temperature and with the addition of impurity. Thus the current flow gets reduced due to
the increase of temperature and addition of impurities.
 Conducting Materials 3

1.3 MOBILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

According to classical free electron theory of electron model of a metal, the free
electrons are assumed like the molecules of a gas in a container which are constantly
moving in all direction. During motion, they collide with each other and there is no loss
of energy. Based on this, a metal or conductor is visualised as a region containing a
periodic array of tightly bound positive ions in three dimension through which the
electrons move quite freely. During movement, the electron collide with each other and
with the positive ions.
The average distance travelled between two successive collisions is called mean
free path. Since all the electrons are moving in random direction the average current is
zero.
If we apply a constant electric field to the metal, the electrons are accelerated
towards the positive potential. Hence it will obtain small drift velocity ‘Vd’ which will
be in opposite to the field direction.
The magnitude of drift velocity is proportional to applied electric field
strength ‘E’.
∴ Vd ∝ E
Vd = µE
Where µ ⇒ mobility of electrons.
Mobility is defined as the velocity gained by the electron per unit electric
field strength.

Due to the drift velocity, the electrons move in a particular direction. Such a
directed flow of electrons constitutes current.
Let ‘n’ be the concentration of free electrons. Then the current density is given by
J = neVd = neµE [where Vd = µE]
J=σE
or σ = neµ
σ - electrical conductivity
4 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

This is the microscopic form of ohm’s law. Thus the electrical conductivity
is directly proportional to mobility of electrons. Normally mobility depends on
temperature (T).

1.4 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

In 1900, Drude and Lorentz proposed this theory. It is a macroscopic theory. They
gave an explanation for electrical and thermal conductivity based on the assumption that
metal contains more number of free electrons similar to that of gas which contains more
number of free gas molecules. Hence it is called as free electron theory.
(Postulates of free electron theory is similar to that of kinetic theory of gases.)

1.4.1 POSTULATES OF FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. A metal composed of many number of atoms.

2. Each atom have nucleus around which the electrons are revolving.
3. The movement of electrons (free electrons) in an atom is similar to that of
molecules of a gas inside a container.
4. In the absence of external electrical field, the electrons move in random
direction. During the movement they may collide with the positive ions which are
present in the lattice. Further they may collide with the neighbouring free
electrons. But the collisions are elastic. (It means there is no loss of energy)
5. The free electrons move freely inside the metal without any mutual interaction
between them. Hence they obey laws of kinetic theory of gases.
6. Classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution statistics can be applied to classical free
electron theory of electrons.
7. In the absence of external field, the net movement of electrons in one direction
is zero. Hence in that particular direction the resultant velocity of free electron is
zero.
8. In the presence of external electric field, the free electrons are moving towards
positive potential even though they collide with each other or with positive ions present
in the lattice. As a result, they acquire velocity which is called drift velocity ‘Vd’.
 Conducting Materials 5

Drift velocity ‘Vd’ is defined as the average velocity acquired by a free electron in
a particular direction in the presence of external electrical field.
9. The time taken by the free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its
disturbed position in the presence of external electric field is called as ‘Relaxation
Time’ ‘τ’.
10. The average time taken by a free electron between two successive collisions is
called as collision time ‘τc’.

1.5 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

It is known that, in the absence of external electric field, the electron moves in
random direction inside the metal. When the external electric field is given to two ends
of the conductor (metal), the electrons will move towards the positive terminal. Now the
direction of flow of electrons is confined to one direction. Hence it is said that current
flows through the conductor. It can be illustrated with the following Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Flow of current in a conductor

Let ‘e’ be the charge of the electron and ‘n’ is the free electron density in the metal, then
the current flowing through unit area in the metal is given by
J = neVd …..(1.1)
where J - current density
Vd - drift velocity
The force experienced by the electron due to the presence of external electric field is
given by F = eE …..(1.2)
where e - charge of the electron
6 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

E - electric field intensity

By Newton’s second law,
F = ma ....(1.3)
where m - mass of the electron
a - acceleration due to gravity
Equating Equations (1.2) and (1.3)
 Conducting Materials 7

It is defined as the quantity of charges flowing per unit area per unit time
maintained across unit potential gradient. Unit : Ohm−1m−1

1.6 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat energy conducted per
unit area per unit time when unit temperature gradient is maintained between
two ends.
Generally in metals, the thermal conductivity takes place not only due to thermal
motion of free electrons but also due to the thermally excited lattice vibrations called
phonons. Thermal conductivity is denoted by the notation ‘K’.
∴ Ktotal = Kelectron + Kphonon
Normally all electrical conductors are good conductors of heat (Thermal
conductors). But all thermal conductors need not be of good electrical conductors.

1.6.1 EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Consider a rod XY of uniform dimension. Let the two ends of the rod are at
different temperatures. X is the hot end and it is at ‘T1’ temperature and Y is the cold
end and it is at T2 temperature. Let 2l be the length of the rod. Let us consider a cross
sectional area ‘z’ which is at a distance of ‘l ‘ from both ends, and is equal to the mean
free path (l) of the electron between the ends X and Y. It is illustrated in the following
Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Thermal conductivity

8 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

It is assumed that, there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all six
directions. Metal is considered as three dimensional material and hence it can move
in x, y, z, x′, y′ and z′directions. Let ‘v’ be the thermal velocity and if ‘n’ is the free
electron density, then an average of (1/6) nv electrons will travel in any one direction. It is
illustrated in the following Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3
Conducting Materials 9
10 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.7 WIEDEMANN - FRANZ LAW AND LORENTZ NUMBER

It states that the ratio between the thermal conductivity (K) and the electrical
conductivity (σ) of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
that metal.

L - Lorentz number
The value of ‘L’ is 2.44 × 10−8 W Ω K−2 at 293 K.
For deriving Wiedemann Franz law, we can use the expression for K and σ obtained
by classical theory.
We know,
 Conducting Materials 11

The classical value of Lorentz number and the experimental value of Lorentz
number does not match with each other. This discrepancy among the values is the failure
of classical theory. Later this discrepancy was solved by Quantum theory.
12 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.7.1 VERIFICATION OF LORENTZ NUMBER BY QUANTUM THEORY

The discrepancy was solved by replacing the mass of the electron (m) by effective
mass (m*) in Quantum theory.

Effective mass (m*) is defined as the mass of the electron in an accelerated

potential.

Thus the experimental value is in good agreement with Lorentz number and the
quantum theory verifies Wiedemann-Franz law.
 Conducting Materials 13

1.7.2 SUCCESS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It gives the explanation for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
2. It verifies ohm’s law.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann - Franz law.
4. It is used to explain optical properties of metals.

1.7.3 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. The experimental and theoretical values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat are found to be varied.
3. It cannot explain the conductivity of semi conductor and insulator.
4. It does not explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect and magnetism etc.
5. Further it states that all the electrons will absorb energy but quantum theory states
only few electrons will absorb energy.
6. According to classical theory, K/σT = constant for all temperatures. But
according to quantum theory K/σT ≠ constant for all temperatures which is true in
practice.
7. The value of Lorentz number is not in agreement with experimental value and
the discrepancy is solved by quantum theory.

1.7.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

S.No Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity
1. It is only due to free electrons. It is due to both electrons and phonons.
2. The coefficient of electrical con- The coefficient of thermal conduc-
ductivity is defined as the amount tivity is defined as the quantity of
of charges flowing per unit area heat conducted per unit area per unit
per unit time maintained at unit time maintained at unit temperature
potential gradient. gradient.
3. Electrical conductivity takes Thermal conductivity takes place from
place from higher potential side hot end to cold end.
to lower potential side.
4. Unit : Ohm–1 m–1 Unit : W m–1 K–1
14 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Solved Problems

1. Calculate the drift velocity of copper and current density for a wire of diameter
0.20 cm which carries a current of 15 A. Given n = 8.46 × 1028/m3.
Solution

2. The resistivity of copper at 30ºC is 2.54 × 10−8 and the density of free electrons,
n = 8.5 × 1028/m3. Calculate the mean free path. Given at 30ºC, C = 1.731 × 105 m/s.
Solution
 Conducting Materials 15

3. A conducting material in the form of a rod contains 9 × 1028 electrons per m3. Calculate
its resistivity at room temperature and also the mobility of electrons if the collision
time for electron scattering is 2.2 × 10−14 sec.
Solution

4. The density of silver is 10.47 × 103 Kg/m3. Assume that each silver atom provides
2 conduction electrons. The conductivity of silver at 25ºC is 8.5 × 107 Ω−1m−1.
Calculate the density and mobility of electron in Ag with atomic weight
107.9 × 10−3 kg/m3.
Solution
16 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

5. The resistivity of a metal at room temperature is 1.5 × 10−8 Ωm. The effective number
of conduction electron is 0.8 per atom and the Fermi energy is 5.3eV. Estimate the
mean free path of conduction electrons. Calculate the relaxation time and drift
velocity in a field of 110 Vm−1. Given free electron density (n) = 5.86 × 1028/m3.
Solution
 Conducting Materials 17

1.8 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Introduction

To overcome the drawbacks of classical free electron theory, another theory

was proposed by Sommerfeld in 1928. He applied quantum concepts to classical free
electron theory and hence the theory is known as quantum free electron theory. He
replaced Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics by Fermi-Dirac Statistics.
Postulates
According to the quantum free electron theory, the electron is treated as a wave.
Therefore, the electron is said to obey the quantum concepts.
Velocity and energy distribution of the electron is given by Fermi Dirac
distribution function. The electron must obey the Pauli’s exclusion principle. Energy of
the electron is quantized.
Except these modifications, Sommerfeld kept the other concepts of the classical
free electron theory as follows
• Free electrons are fully responsible for electrical conduction.
• Electrons are free to move anywhere with in the crystal.
• Repulsive force between electrons is ignored.
• When external electric field is applied, electrons are accelerated towards positive
pole of the battery with drift velocity.
Merits and Demerits of Quantum Theory

Merits
It explains electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity
of metals, electronic specfic heat, photo electric effect, compton effect etc.
Demerits
• It fails to provide the difference between metals, semiconductors and insulators.
• It could not explain the positive value of Hall Co-efficient.
18 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.9 ENERGY LEVELS IN SOLIDS

In the case of single isolated atom, there is a single energy level. (as in the case of
single hydrogen atom). But when two atoms are brought very close to each other, there
will be some modifications in the energy levels. We know, in the case of solids, the
atoms are arranged in a systematic space lattice. The close proximity of atoms results in
the intermixing of electrons of neighbouring atoms. Due to this intermixing, number of
permissible energy level increases.
Consider a solid specimen made up of ‘n’ number of atoms. When atoms come
close to each other to create a solid, isolated energy levels are split up into ‘n’ levels
i.e., when two atoms come close to each other, energy level split up into two levels. So
we can define the energy band as follows.
“Splitting up of energy levels, which are so closely placed form a band of energy
levels known as energy band.”
Discrete energy levels of two isolated atoms.

(a) Discrete energy levels of two isolated atoms (b) Energy bands of two interacting atoms
Figure 1.4

1.10 ENERGY BANDS

When the atoms in a solid interact splitting up of energy levels takes place. Degree
of splitting is proportional to number of atoms and inter atomic distance.
Figure 1.5 shows energy band structure of a solid. It may be noticed that allowed
energy bands are separated by forbidden energy gap.
 Conducting Materials 19

The degree of splitting of energy levels also

depends on distance from the nucleus. Electrons
present in the inner orbits are screened by the
electrons in the outer orbits. Therefore energy
levels nearer to nucleus are split up with lesser
degree. They are always full. Energy level
corresponds to valence electrons split up more and
forms band with wider space.
Electrons while occupying a band, they first
fill the lowest energy level i.e ascending order of
energy. If all the energy levels are filled by elec-
trons in a band, band is said to be full. When the
bands are not completely filled or empty, the band
is called as partly filled or empty band. Figure 1.5 Energy band

Band width

All range of energies from the lowest to the highest level of a energy band is called
width of a band or band width.

Valence band, Conduction band and Forbidden gap

Energy band formed by all the valence electrons of atoms in a solid is known as
valence band. In solid, no valence electrons are continued to their corresponding atoms
i.e., valence electrons are common to entire solid. Therefore, the valence band formed
by individual valence energy levels taken as common to entire solid.
Band just above the valence band will be empty at absolute zero. When
temperature increases, electrons are transferred to upper band, these electrons are called
conduction electrons or free electrons responsible for electrical conduction in a solid.
Therefore, the energy band occupying free electrons or conduction electrons is called
conduction band. This is also common to entire solid.
The energy difference between valence band (outermost energy level) and
conduction band (lower most) is called band gap or energy gap.
Electrons are not able to go across forbidden energy gap under normal conditions.
Large amount of energy should be given to electrons to promote them from lower energy
level to higher energy level. We can promote electrons to higher levels only in a partially
filled band.
20 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Classical free electron theory says that electrical conduction is possible in a solid
if free electrons are available. But band theory suggested that for electrical conduction
there should be
1. Sufficient number of free electrons
2. Vacant levels just above the completely occupied levels.
Free electrons can move to vacant levels just above the completely filled levels by
gaining energy from current source. While moving to empty level, electrons constitute
current. So partially filled band is required for electrical conduction.
In the case of empty band and completely filled band, electrons cannot make tran-
sitions to higher energy levels within the band.

Figure 1.6 Energy band diagram of conductors Figure 1.7 Energy band diagram of semiconductors

In certain materials, upper vacant band (conduction band) overlaps on valence

band. In such cases, even a small electric field increase the energy of the electrons to
jump into higher vacant level and constitute the flow of current. These kind of solids
are known as conductors. So conductor can be defined as follows “Solid in which the
conduction and valence bands overlap with each other. There is no energy gap (i.e. Eg
= 0) between the bands.
In some materials, valence band and conduction band are separated by forbidden
gap. Width of the forbidden band leads to further classification of solids as insulators
and semiconductor.
 Conducting Materials 21

At absolute zero, both in semicon-

ductors and insulators, valence band is
completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty. No electrons are present
in conduction band, so conduction is not
possible in semiconductors and insulators at
absolute zero.
At room temperature some of
the electrons gain energy and goes to
conduction band if energy gap (Eg) is lesser
than 2eV.
Therefore materials showing negli-
Figure 1.8 Energy band diagram of insulators
gible conductivity at 0K and considerable
conductivity at room temperature are called semiconductors. Energy gap in semiconduc-
tors approximately ranges from ≅ 0.5eV to 2eV. Here it is important to note that the
vacancies made by electrons in the valence band, considered as charge carriers. They
are known as holes. At normal temperature, number of electrons present in conduction
band of the semiconductors is very small. Obviously when compared with conductors,
conductivity of the semiconductors is very small.
In certain materials, forbidden energy gap is greater than 3eV. It is very
difficult for electrons to gain more energy from external source and go to conduction
band. So conductivity is very less. Solids which have band gap greater than 3eV, having
negligible electrical conductivity are known as insulators. They may also known as
dielectric materials.

1.12 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Fermi energy

According to quantum free electron theory, the energy levels are discrete. But the
spacing between the energy level is very small in the order of 10–27eV. So energy levels
seem to be continuous.
22 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Two electrons can occupy an energy level

with opposite spins. So maximum number of
electrons in an energy level is 2. (Pauli’s exclu-
sion principle).
If there are ‘n’ electrons at 0 K, the
number of energy levels will be n/2 (filled),
outermost energy level (n/2th) is known as
Fermi energy level.
At 0 K, below Fermi energy level all the Figure 1.9 Energy levels occupied by electrons
energy levels are completely filled and above
Fermi level all the levels are empty. As temperature increases, electrons gain energy and
goes to higher energy level above the Fermi level.

Fermi distribution function

Fermi distribution function is used to calculate the probability of an electron

occupying a given energy level. It gives the probability of the energy level F(E)
occupied by an electron.
where EF - Fermi energy
k - Boltzmann constant
T - Temperature in Kelvin
The value of F(E) lies between 0 and 1.

Case (i): At 0 Kelvin

At 0 K, electrons are filled up to a maximum energy level called Fermi energy
level. Above the Fermi energy level, all the energy levels are empty.

Case (ii) When E < EF T=0K

T = 0, E – EF is negative
 Conducting Materials 23

So it is clear that, 100% chance for the electron to be filled below the Fermi energy level.

When E > EF T = 0 K
T = 0, (E − EF) is positive

So no chance for an electron to be filled with in the Fermi energy level.

Case (iii) When E = EF, At T > 0 k

T > 0, E – EF = 0

So probability of finding an electron below Fermi energy level is 0.5 i.e., 50%. A
graph is drawn between energy and F(E) at 0 K. The graph is shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Filled energy levels at 0 K Figure 1.11 Filled energy levels at temperature higher than 0 K

Electrons gain energy above 0 K and move to higher energy levels. Pauli’s
exclusion principle tells that an electron can enter into empty state only. Therefore
electrons with thermal energy must go into the states above EF. We know average energy
associated with a particle is in the order of kT. So electrons having energy EF + kT will
go to higher energy states. At room temperature value of kT is very low. Therefore only
few electrons goes to higher energy levels. A graph is drawn between energy and F(E)
at T > 0, the graph will be shown in Figure 1.11.
24 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

1.13 DENSITY OF STATES AND CARRIER CONCENTRATION

The Fermi distribution function is used to find the energy distribution of
electrons in metals and semi conductors. The density of states is defined as the number of
quantum states present in a metal between the energies E and E + dE per unit volume.

A graph is drawn between number of states and energy. Graph obtained is shown
in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12

To fill the electrons in energy level, we must know the number of available energy
states with in the energy interval.
Let us see the calculation of density of states in a cubical metal piece with sides
‘a’. Let nx, ny and nz be the co-ordinate axes. Draw sphere in these axes with radius
n2 = nx2 + ny2 + nz2 and energy E.
Sphere is considered to be made up of large number of coaxial hollow spheres.
Each and every hollow sphere denotes a particular energy value.
Therefore change in nx, ny and nz value will change E and hence the radius ‘n’.
Consider a spherical shell of thickness dn, made up of two hollow spheres of radius n
and n + dn from the origin. We can find number of energy states between the energy
levels E and E + dE by calculating the number of energy states between the shells of
radii n and n + dn.
Number of energy states in the sphere of radius n is (4/3) πn3.
 Conducting Materials 25

Figure 1.13
We know nx, ny and nz can have only positive value. So we can take only one
octant of the sphere i.e., 1/8th of the volume of sphere.
26 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

We know that the energy of an electron in a cubical metal piece of side r is

 Conducting Materials 27

N(E)dE represents the number of filled energy levels for the energy difference
dE.
The probability of filling of electrons in a given energy state can be determined
by Fermi function F(E).
N(E) dE = n(E) dE F(E) …..(1.34)
Substituting the value of Equation (1.33) in Equation (1.34), we get,

Fermi energy at 0 Kelvin

We know at 0 K, F(E) = 1
By integrating Equation (1.35) between the limits 0 to EF (Fermi energy), we can get the
number of energy levels (N) within the Fermi energy (EF)
28 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Average energy of an electron at 0 Kelvin

 Conducting Materials 29

1.14 APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS IN ELECTRIC

INDUCTION FURNACE
The electric induction furnace is a type of melting furnace that uses electric currents
to melt metal. Induction furnaces are ideal for melting and alloying a wide variety of
metals with minimum melt losses, however, little refining of the metal is possible.
Principle

The principle of induction furnace is the Induction heating

Induction Heating

Induction heating is a form of non-contact heating for conductive materials. The

principle of induction heating is mainly based on Electromagnetic induction and Joule
effect. Any electrically conductive material placed in a variable magnetic field induces
electric currents in the materials called eddy currents, which lead to joule heating.
Basic Design of Induction Furnace

There are many different designs for the electric induction furnace, but they all
center on a basic idea. The electrical coil is placed around or inside of the crucible, which
holds the metal to be melted. The crucible is divided into two different parts. The lower
section of the crucible holds the melt in its purest form, while the upper section is used to
remove the slag. Crucibles may also be equipped with strong lids to remove air from the
crucible making a purer melt.
30 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Types of Induction furnace

There are two main types of induction furnace

1. Coreless
2. Channel

i. Coreless induction furnaces

The furnace consists of an outer cylindrical steel shell. The inner surface of the
shell is covered with an insulating material made of mica or asbestos, while the bottom
surface is covered with refractory bricks. A refractory crucible which contains the charge
of metal to be melted rests on the brick work and surrounded by a helical coil made
of copper tube. The copper tube being a heavy tube requires active cooling and this is
achieved by passing a flow of water through it. The space between the crucible and the
shell is packed by a dry refractory mass that provides the necessary insulation. The core-
less induction furnace is commonly used to melt all grades of steels and irons as well as
many non-ferrous alloys. The furnace is ideal for re-melting and alloying because of the
high degree of control over temperature while the induction current provides good circu-
lation of the melt.

Fig.1.14 Coreless induction furance

 Conducting Materials 31

Channel induction furnaces

The channel induction furnace consists of a refractory lined steel shell which con-
tains the molten metal. The steel shell connected by a throat is an induction unit which
forms the melting component of the furnace. The induction unit consists of an iron core in
the form of a ring around which a primary induction coil is wound. This assembly forms a
simple transformer in which the molten metal loops comprise the secondary component.
The heat generated within the loop causes the metal to circulate into furnace. The circu-
lation of the molten metal effects a useful stirring action in the melt. Channel induction
furnaces are commonly used for melting low melting point alloys and or as a holding and
superheating unit for higher melting point alloys such as cast iron.

Fig. 1.15 Channel induction furance

Features of Induction Furnace

• An electric induction furnace requires an electric coil to produce the charge

• The crucible is made of stronger materials that can resist the required heat
• The electric coil itself cooled by a water system so that it does not overheat or melt
• The induction furnace can range in size, from a small furnace used for very precise
alloys only about a kilogram in weight to a much larger furnaces made to mass pro-
duce clean metal for many different applications.
• The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient and well-control-
lable melting process compared to other methods of metal melting
• Induction furnace capacities range from less than one kilogram to one hundred
32 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

tonnes capacity, and are used to melt iron, steel, copper, aluminum and precious
metals
• The one major drawback to induction furnace usage in a foundry is the lack of refin-
ing capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation products and of a known
composition, and some alloying elements may be lost due to oxidation (and must be
re-added to the melt)

Solved Problems

1. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for E − EF = 0.01 eV at
300 K.
Solution
 Conducting Materials 33

2. Using Fermi function calculate the temperature at which there is 1% probability

that an electron in a solid, if E − EF = 0.3 eV.
Solution

3. Determine the value of probability of occupation of electron with energy kT above the
Fermi energy at that temperature and justify your answer.
Solution
34 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Exercise Problems
1. The following datas are given for Copper.
i) density = 8.92 × 103 kg/m3 ii) Resistivity = 1.73 × 108 Ωm
iii) Atomic weight = 63.5
Calculate the mobility and the average time collision of electrons in copper
obeying classical laws. [Ans: t = 2.43 × 10−11 sec, µ = 4.27 m2V−1s−1]
2. Sodium metal with a BCC structure has two atoms per unit cell. The radius of
sodium atom is 1.85 Å. Calculate its electrical resistivity at 0º C, if the classical
value of mean free time at this temperature is 3 × 10−14 s.
[Ans: 4.616 × 10−8 Ωm]
3. Density and atomic weight of metallic copper are 8.93 × 103 kg/m3 and 63.5 Kg
respectively. If the electrical conductivity of Copper is 6 × 107 Ω−1m−1. Calculate the
mean free time. Mass of the free electron is 9.11 × 10−31 kg.
[Ans: t = 2.518 × 10−14 s]
4. Calculate the number of states per unit volume in an energy interval of 0.03eV above
the fermi energy of sodium metal. The fermi energy of sodium at 0 K is 3.2 eV.
[Ans : 3.6 × 1026 states]
5. Calculate the fermi energy of copper at 0 K (ρ = 8.92 × 103 Kg/m3,
Atomic weight = 63.5) [Ans: 7.003 eV]
6. Free electron density of aluminium is 20.10 × 1026 m−3 calculate its fermi energy
at 0 K. [Ans: 5.618 eV]

Review Questions
Short questions
1. Define free electron.
2. Mention some of the postulates of classical free electron theory.
3. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?
4. Define drift velocity.
 Conducting Materials 35

5. Define mean free path.

6. Define relaxation time and collision time.
7. Distinguish between relaxation time and collision time.
8. State Wiedemann Franz law.
9. Define Lorentz number.
10. Differentiate between electrical and thermal conductivity.
11. What is band theory of solids?
12. How solid materials are classified based on band theory of solids?
13. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
14. Write down the expression for the Fermi-Dirac distribution law.
15. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
16. Draw Fermi distribution curve for 0 K and at any temperature T K. (or) How does
Fermi function varies with temperature?
17. Define density of states. What is its use?

Descriptive questions
1. State the postulates of classical free electron theory of solids.
2. Define electrical conductivity and derive an expression for it.
3. Define thermal conductivity and derive an expression for it.
4. Derive an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity and hence deduce
Wiedemann Franz law.
5. Obtain the value for Lorentz number by using Quantum free electron theory.
6. Explain the concept of Band theory of solids. How the solids are classified on the
basis of band theory of solids.
7. Write down the Fermi - Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function
varies with temperature.
8. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the carrier
concentration in metals.
9. With a neat diagram, derive an expression for density of states.
10. Explain the principle and working of induction furance in detail.
36 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

Question Bank
1. The unit of electrical conductivity is _________________
a. mho m-1 b. mho m c. ohm m d. ohm m-1
2. The unit of electrical resistance is _________________
a. mho m-1 b. mho m c. ohm d. ohm m-1
3. The unit of electrical resistivity is _________________
a. mho m-1 b. mho m c. ohm m d. ohm m-1
4. The unit of conductance is _________________
a. mho m-1 b. mho m c. ohm m d. ohm m-1
5. The unit of drift velocity is _________________
a. m s-1 b. mho m c. ohm m d. ohm m-1
6. The unit of mobility is _________________
a. v-1m2s-1 b. v-1m s-1 c. v-1m2s d. ohm m-1
7. The resistance of the most of the conducting materials __ with increase in temperature
a. Increases b. Decreases c. Remain same d. first decreases and then increases
8. In metals the type of bond present is:
a. Metallic bond b. Covalent bond c. Ionic bond d. organic bond
9. Gold and silver are
a. dielectric materials b. low resistivity conducting materials.
c. magnetic materials. d. insulating materials.
10. Resistivity of conductors is most affected by
a. composition b. temperature c. pressure d. current
11. Example of high resistivity material is
a. Nichrome b. Silver c. Gold d. Copper
12. Metals are good conductors of electricity because
a. they contain free electrons b. the atoms are lightly packed
c. they have high melting point d. They have high resistivity
13. The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions is called
a. collision time b. relaxation time c. collision path d. mean free path
14. For metals, relaxation time (t) is equal to………
a. collision time b. relaxation time c. collision path d. mean free path
15. The failure of classical theory in Widemann Franz law solved by replacing the mass of
______________ by effective mass.
a. proton b. electron c. neutron d. positron
16. Solid which have band gap greater than 4eV is ______________
a. insulator b. conductor c. semiconductor d. ceramic material
17. Number of energy states in the sphere of radius n is ______________
a. 3pn b. 4pn2 c. 4/3pn2 (d) 4/3pn3
18. According to quantum theory electrons obey
a. Maxwell distribution function b. Fermi distribution function
c. Bose Einstein statistics d. All the above
 Conducting Materials 37

19. Classical free electron theory explains the conductivity of

a. Super conductor b. Semiconductor c. Insulator d. Conductor
20. The energy difference between the valence band and conduction band is
*
a. Band length b. Energy band c. Band gap d. band energy
21. during the intermixing, the number of permissible energy level
a. increases b. decreases c. increases and then decreases d. decreases and then increases
22.__________________ says that the electrical conduction is possible in a solid if free electrons are
available.
a. Band theory b. Classical free electron theory c. Ohm’s law d. Domain theory
23. The value of F (E) lies between
a. 0 and 1 b. 1 and 2 c. -1 and 1 d. 0 and -1
24. At 0 K, above the Fermi energy level all the energy levels are ______________
a. completely filled b. completely empty c. partially filled d. 25% filled
25. Acording to classical theory, electrons obey
a. Maxwell distribution function b. Fermi distribution function
c. Bose Einstein statistics d. All the above
26. At 0 K, below the Fermi energy level all the energy levels are ______________
a. completely filled b. completely empty c. partially filled d. 25% filled
27. The electrical conductivity (σ) of the material is 3.497 × 107 mho m-1. Calculate the electrical
resistivity.
a. 3.497 × 10-7 mho m-1 b. 0.2859 × 10-7 ohm m
c. 3.497 × 10 ohm m d. 0.2859 × 10-7 ohm
7

28. Average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collision is______________
a. collision time b. relaxation time c. collision path d. mean free path
29. Time taken by an electron to reach its equilibrium position from the disturbed position due to the
application of external field is______________
a. collision time b. relaxation time c. collision path d. mean free path
30. Drift velocity acquired per unit electric field is______________
a. collision time b. relaxation time c. collision path d. mean free path

Answers
1. a 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. a 9. b 10. b 11. a
12.a 13. d 14. a 15. b 16. a 17. d 18. b 19. d 20. c 21. a 22.b
23.a 24. b 25. a 26.a 27. b 28. d 29. b 30. b
38 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

PART – B
1. What is electron theory of solids?
The electrons in the outermost orbit of the atoms which constitute the solids determine its electrical
properties. The electron theory of solids explains the structure and properties of solids through
their electronic structure.
2. What are the main stages of electron theory of solids?
The main stages of electron theory of solids are
• Classical free electron theory (Drude and Lorentz free electron theory)
• Quantum free electron theory (Sommerfeld Quantum theory)
• Zone theory or Band theory of solids.
3. What are special features of classical free electron theory of solids?
The special features of classical free electron theory of solids are the following
• A solid metal is made up of atoms with nucleus at its centre, around which the electrons are
revolving
• In a metal, the free electrons of an atom are free to move about the entire volume
of the metal like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container. These free electrons in
the metal are responsible for electrical conduction.
4. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?
Merits of classical free electron theory are
1. It is used to verify ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann – Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
5. Define mean free path.
The average distance travelled by the free electron between any two successive collisions in the
presence of an applied field is known as mean free path. It is the product of drift velocity of the
electrons (vd) and collision time (τc)
λ = vd τc
6. Define relaxation time of an electron.
The average time taken by the free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its disturbed
position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time. It is a measure
that the electrons can relax when a constraint (electric field) is removed. It is approximately equal
to 10-14 second.
7. Define drift velocity of electron? How is it different from the thermal velocity of an
electron?
The average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction after a steady state
is reached on the application of an electric field is called drift velocity. It is denoted as vd.
The thermal velocity is random in nature and is very high (105 m/s.), but the drift velocity is
unidirectional and is very small (50 cm/s).
 Conducting Materials 39

8. Define mobility of electrons. (EI AU May 2003)

In addition to thermal motion, electrons drift due to the applied field. The magnitude of the drift
velocity per unit electric field is defined as the mobility of electrons (μ)
where vd - drift velocity of electrons
E - Electric field.
9. Define electrical conductivity.
Electrical conductivity is defined as the current density per unit electric field.
J - current density E - electric field
10. State Wiedemann – Franz law and what is Lorentz number?
Wiedemann – Franz law states that the ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical conductivity
(σ) is directly proportional to absolute temperature (T) and this ratio is constant
11.  Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons with a mobility of 3.5 x 10-3 m2
V-1 s-1 in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V/m
Given data:
Mobility of free electrons (μ) = 3.5 x 10-3 m2V-1 s-1
Electric field strength of copper (E) = 0.5 V/m
vd = ?
Formula
Drift velocity vd = μx E
= 3.5 x 10-3 x 0.5=1.75 x 10-3
vd = 0.00175 m/s
12. Write Fermi – Dirac distribution function. Explain.
The probability F(E) of an electron occupying a given energy level at temperature T is called
Fermi – Dirac distribution function. It is given by
40 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering

13. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
Fermi level: is the level at finite temperature 0K in which the probability of the
electron occupation is ½ at any temperature above 0K and also it is the level of maximum energy
of the filled states at 0K.
Fermi energy: is the energy of the state at which the probability of the electron
occupation is ½ at any temperature above 0K. It is also maximum energy of filled states at 0K.
Importance: Fermi level and Fermi energy is to determine the probability of an electron
occupying a given energy level at a given temperature.

14. Draw the Fermi distribution curve at 0K and at any temperature TK. (or) How does the
Fermi function varies with temperature.
Fermi function varies with respect to the temperature as shown in fig. At 0K, all the energy states
below EF are filled and all those above it are empty.
Now when the temperature is increased, the electron takes an energy kT and hence
Fermi function falls to zero.

15. Define density of states. What is its use?

Density of states is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume
in an energy interval E and E + dE. It is denoted by Z (E).
It is used to determine Fermi energy at any temperature.
16. Write a few applications of conducting materials in conducting concrete.
Conducting concrete has the potential applications such as electrical grounding, heating, cathodic
protection of reinforcing steel in concrete structures such as bridge and parking garages and EMI.
17. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper and current density in wire of diameter
0.16 cm which carries a steady current of 10 A. Given = 8.46×1028/m3.
Ans: Drift velocity Vd = 3.67 ×10-4 m/s
18. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20° C are 390 WΩm-1k-1 and
5.87 ×107 ohm-1m-1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.
L = 2.267 ×10-8 WΩk-2