TRANSFORMERS

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 2

Topics
• Introduction.
to be Discussed
• Iron Losses.
• Principle of Operation. • Hysterisis Loss.
• Step-Up and Step-Down • Eddy current Loss.
Transformer.
• EMF Equation. • Construction of a
Transformer.
• Effect of Frequency.
• Conditions for Ideal • Laminations.
Transformer. • Core Type Transformer.
• Drawing the Phasor Diagram. • Shell Type Transformer.
• Volt-Amperes (in Ideal • How I0 changes on Loading ?
Transformer). • Practical Transformer on
• Impedance Transformation, Load.
• Practical Transformer at no 1. Effect of Winding
Load.
Resistance.
1. Effect of Magnetization.
2. Effect of Core Losses. 2. Effect of Flux Leakage.
• Leakage flux in a transformer

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 3

• Autotransformers.
• Equivalent Circuit.
• Applications.
• Simplified Equivalent Circuit.
• Saving of copper.
• Approximate Equivalent
Circuit. • Advantages.
• Voltage Regulation. • Disadvantages.
• Condition for Zero • Transformer Testing.
Regulation. (1) Open-Circuit Test.
• Condition for Maximum (2) Short-Circuit Test.
Regulation.
• Efficiency of a Transformer.
• Power Losses in
Transformers.
• Condition for Maximum
Efficiency.
• All-day Efficiency.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 4

Introduction
• A transformer is a highly efficient (about 99.5 %) static
(non-moving) device.
• It transfers electrical energy form one circuit to another
(usually from one ac voltage level to another), without any
change in its frequency.
• There exists no simple device that can accomplish such
changes in dc voltages.
• Transformation of voltage is necessary at different stages
of the electrical network consisting of generation,
transmission and distribution.
• Small-size transformers are used in communication
circuits, radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits,
instrumentation and control systems.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 5

Principle of Operation
It operates on the principle of mutual induction
between two coils.
When two coils are inductively coupled and if current
in one coil is changed uniformly, then an EMF gets
induced in the other coil.
This EMF can drive a current, when a closed path is
provided to it.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 6

▪ It consists of two inductive coils electrically

separated but magnetically linked through a
common magnetic circuit.
▪ Coil in which electrical energy is fed is Primary
Winding.
▪ Coil in which other load is connected is called
as Secondary Winding.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 7

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 8

(a) Construction.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 9

(b) Symbol.
 N1 : Number of turns in the Primary
 N2 : Number of turns in the Secondary
 E1 : EMF Induced in the Primary
 E2 : EMF Induced in the Secondary
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 10

Step-Up and Step-Down Transformer

If N1 < N2 E1 < E2 Step up

Click
If N1 > N2 E1 > E2 Step down
Click
The transformation ratio,
N 2 E2
K= =
N1 E1

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 11

EMF Equation
Due to the sinusoidally varying voltage V applied to the
1
primary voltage, the flux set up in the core,
 = m sin t = m sin 2 ft
The resulting induced emf in a winding of N turns,
d d
e = −N = − N (m sin t )
dt dt
= − Nm cos t =  Nm sin (t −  / 2)
Thus, the peak value of the induced emf, Em = ωNΦm.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 12

Therefore, the rms value of the induced emf E,

Em  Nm 2 fNm
E= = = = 4.44 fNm
2 2 2

or E = 4.44 fNm

This equation, known as emf equation of transformer.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 13

Effect of Frequency
• At a given flux, emf of a transformer increases with
frequency.
• By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can
be made physically more compact.
• Because a given core is able to transfer more power
without reaching saturation.
• Aircraft and military equipments employ 400-Hz
power supplies which reduces size and weight.
• Disadvantage : The core loss and conductor
resistance increases due to skin effect.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 14

Conditions for Ideal Transformer :

1. The permeability (μ) of the core is infinite, (i.e., the
magnetic circuit has zero reluctance so that no
mmf is needed to set up the flux in the core).
2. The core of the transformer has no losses.
3. The resistance of its windings is zero, hence no
I2R losses in the windings.
4. Entire flux in the core links both the windings, i.e.,
there is no leakage flux.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 15

Ideal transformer

(a) The circuit.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 16

(b) The phasor

diagram.

• We take flux Φ as reference phasor, as it is common to

both the primary and secondary.
• EMF E1 and E2 lag flux Φ by 90°.
• The emf E1 in the primary exactly counter balances the
applied voltage V1. Hence, E1 is called counter emf or
back emf .
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 17

Drawing the Phasor Diagram

V1 = -E1

90
O Click
Flux,

E1

Click
E2

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 18

Volt-Amperes (in Ideal Transformer)

The current I in the primary is just sufficient to provide mmf I N
1 1 1
to overcome the demagnetizing effect of the secondary mmf
I2N2. Hence,
I 2 N1 1
I1 N1 = I 2 N 2 or = =
I1 N 2 K
Note that the current is transformed in the reverse ratio of the
voltage. If V2 > V1, then I2 < I1. Also, we have
E1I1 = E2 I 2
Hence, in an ideal transformer the input VA and output VA are
identical.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 19

Impedance Transformation

V1 V1  (V2 I 2 )  V1   I 2   V2   1   1 
Zeq = = =         =       ZL
I1 I1  (V2 I 2 )  V2   I1   I 2   K   K 

or Zeq = ZL / K 2

The concept of impedance transformation is used for

impedance matching.
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 20

Example 1
• A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 30 primary
turns and 350 secondary turns. The net cross-
sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the
primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-Hz
supply, calculate
(a) the peak value of flux density in the core,
(b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding,
and
(c) the primary current when the secondary
current is 100 A. (Neglect losses.)

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 21

Solution :
(a) The peak value of the flux, Click
E1 230
m = = = 0.034534 Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44  50  30
m 0.034534
 Bm = = −4
= 1.3814 T
A 250 10
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary, Click
N 350
E2 = E1  2 = 230  = 2683.33 V  2.683 kV
N1 30
(c) The primary current, Click
 N2   350 
I1 = I 2   = 100    = 1166.67 A  1.167 kA
 N1   30 

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 22

Example 2
Determine the load current IL in the ac circuit
shown.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 23

Solution :
Transforming the load impedance into the primary

Click
300
Ip = = 0.87235.53° A Click
20 + j 20 + 2 (2 − j10)
2

 I L = 2  I p = 2  0.87235.53 = 1.7435.53° A

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 24

Practical Transformer at no Load

• There are following two reasons why the no-load
current (also called exciting current) I0 is not zero :
1. Effect of Magnetization :
• No magnetic material can have infinite
permeability.
• A finite mmf is needed to establish magnetic flux in
the core.
• An in-phase magnetizing current Im in the
primary is needed.
• Im is purely reactive (current Im lags voltage V1 by
90°).
• This effect is modelled by putting X0 in parallel with
the ideal transformer.
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 25

2. Effect of Core Losses :

• There exist hysteresis and eddy current losses for the
energy loss in the core.
• The source must supply enough power to the primary
to meet the core losses.
• These iron losses can be represented by putting a
resistance R0 in parallel.
• The core-loss current Iw flowing through R0 is in
phase with the applied voltage V1,

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 26

(a) The circuit.

(b) The equivalent circuit.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 27

• The R0-X0 circuit is called exciting circuit.

I 0 = I w2 + I m2 ; 0 = tan −1 ( I m / I w );
and Input power = Iron loss
= V1 I w = V1 I 0 cos 0

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 28

Modified phasor diagram

V1 = -E1

Iw 0 I0
Click
O Flux, 
Im

Click
E1

E2 = V2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 29

Iron Losses
• The core losses occur in iron core,
hence these are also called iron
losses.
• There are two reasons for these
losses:
1. Hysteresis Loss.
2. Eddy current loss.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 30

Hysterisis Loss

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 31

• When alternating current flows through the windings,

the core material undergoes cyclic process of
magnetization and demagnetization.

Ph = K h B f V
n
m

Kh = hysteresis coefficient
whose value depends upon the material
(Kh = 0.025 for cast steel, Kh = 0.001 for silicon steel)
Bm = maximum flux density (in tesla)
n = a constant, depending upon the material
f = frequency (in hertz)
V = volume of the core material (in m3)

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 32

Eddy current Loss

Pe = K e Bm2 f 2t 2V
where Ke = a constant dependent upon the material
t = thickness of laminations (in metre)

Pi = Ph + Pe
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 33

Construction of a Transformer
• There are two basic parts of a transformer :
• Magnetic Core
• Winding or Coils

Magnetic core Winding or coil

Yoke

Limb

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 34

Laminations
• The core of a transformer
is usually laminated to
reduce the eddy
currents.
◼ These laminations may be
different sections of E,I,T,F.
◼ They are stacked finally to
get the complete core of the
transformer.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 35

Two Types of Transformers

(1) Core Type Transformer :

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 36

◼ The windings surround a considerable part of the

core.
◼ Both the windings are divided into two parts and
half of each winding is placed on each limb, side by
side.
◼ This is done to reduce the leakage of the magnetic
flux.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 37

Practically, the windings are placed as follows.

To minimize the cost of insulation, the low voltage (LV)

winding is placed adjacent to the core and high voltage (HV)
winding is placed around the LV winding
Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 38

(2) Shell Type Transformer

◼ The core surrounds a considerable part of the windings.

◼ It has three limbs.

◼ Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
◼ The flux divides equally in the central limb and returns
through the outer two legs.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 39

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 40

How I0 changes on Loading ?

Φ Φ’
I0 + I1’
I2

V1 E1 N1 N2 Click
E2 V2

Click

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 41

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 42

• In this process, the primary current increases by I1’.

• This current is known as primary balancing current,
or load component of primary current.
• Under such a condition, the secondary ampere-turns
must be counterbalanced by the primary ampere-
turns.
N I = N2 I 2
'
1 1

 N2 
 I =
'
1  I 2 = KI 2 and I1 = I 0 + I1'
 N1 

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 43

Volt Ampere Rating of a Transformer

• Output power depends on cos2 ( power factor of
secondary).
• As pf can change depending on the load, the rating is not
specified in watts or kilowatts.
• But is indicated as a product of voltage and current called
VA RATING.
Fore ideal transformer : V1 I1 = V2 I 2
V1 I 1 V2 I 2
kVA rating of a transformer = =
1000 1000
kVA rating  1000 kVA rating  1000
I1 (full load) = I 2 (full load) =
V1 V2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 44

Transformers rating in kVA ?

• Transformers are rated in VA, because the manufacturer

does not know the power factor of the load which you are
going to connect.
• So the customer should not exceed the VA rating of the
transformer.
• In case of motors, the manufacturer knows exactly the
power factor at full load.
• That is why motors are rated in kW.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 45

Example 3
• A single-phase, 230-V/110-V, 50-Hz transformer takes an
input of 350 volt amperes at no load while working at
rated voltage. The core loss is 110 W. Find
(a) the no-load power factor,
(b) the loss component of no-load current, and
(c) the magnetizing component of no-load current.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 46

Solution : (a) Given : V1I 0 = 350 VA

Click
VA 350
 I0 = = = 1.52 A
V1 230 Click
The core loss = Input power at no load, Pi = V1I 0 cos 0

Pi 110 W Click
 pf = cos 0 = = = 0.314
V1 I 0 350 VA
(b) The loss component of no-load current, Click
I w = I 0 cos 0 = 1.52  0.314 = 0.478 A
(c) The magnetizing component of no-load current, Click

I m = I 02 − I w2 = (1.52)2 − (0.478)2 = 1.44 A

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 47

Example 4
• A 100-kVA, 4000-V/200-V, 50-Hz, single-phase
transformer has 100 secondary turns. Determine
(a) the primary and secondary currents,
(b) the number of primary turns, and
(c) the maximum value of the flux.
Solution : The kVA rating = V1I1 = V2I2 = 100 kVA.
Click
kVA rating 100 000
 I1 = = = 25 A
V1 4000
kVA rating 100 000
I2 = = = 500 A
V2 200

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 48

N1 V1
(b) Since =
N 2 V2
 V1   4000 
 N1 =   N 2 =    100 = 2000
 V2   200 

(c) E2 = 4.44 f  m N 2
E2 200
 m = =
4.44 fN 2 4.44  50 100
= 9.01 mWb

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 49

Phasor Diagram for Resistive Load

V1 = -E1
I1
I1
1
0 I Click
0
O
Flux,  Click
I2

E1
E2 = V2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 50

Phasor Diagram for Inductive Load

I1
V1 = -E1 I1
1
0
I0 Click
O
Flux,  Click
2
I2
E1

E2 = V2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 51

Phasor Diagram for Capacitive

Load
V1 = -E1
I1
1
I1
0 Click
I0
O
Flux,  Click

2 I2

E1

E2 = V2
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 52

Phasor Diagrams for Different Types of Loads

(a) Resistive. (b) Inductive. (c) Capacitive.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 53

• Is it ever possible that the load connected to the

secondary is capacitive but the overall power factor is
inductive ?
• Ans. : Yes. See the phasor diagram for capacitive load.Click
• Is it ever possible that the load connected to the
secondary is inductive but the overall power factor is
capacitive?
• Ans. : No. Not possible.

Click

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 54

Example 5
• A single-phase, 440-V/110-V, 50-Hz transformer takes a
no-load current of 5 A at 0.2 power factor lagging. If the
secondary supplies a current of 120 A at a power factor of
0.8 lagging to a load, determine the primary current and
the primary power factor. Also, draw the phasor diagram.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 55

Solution :
0 = cos −1 0.2 = 78.46 and 2 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87
V2 110 1
K= = =
V1 440 4 Click

 I = K  I 2 = (1/ 4) 120 = 30 A; I = 30 − 36.87 A

'
1
'
1

I1 = I1' + I 0 = 30 − 36.87 + 5 − 78.46 = 33.9 − 42.49° A

Click
Primary power factor,
Click
pf = cos 1 = cos 42.49 = 0.737(lagging)

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 56

Next
Practical Transformer on
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 57

Load
• We now consider the deviations from the last two
ideality conditions :

1. The resistance of its windings is zero.

2. There is no leakage flux.

• The effects of these deviations become more

prominent when a practical transformer is put on load.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 58

(1) Effect of Winding Resistance

• Current flow through the windings causes a power
loss called I2R loss or copper loss.
• This effect is accounted for by including a resistance
R1 in the primary and resistance R2 in the secondary

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 59

(2) Effect of Flux Leakage

• The difference between the total flux linking with the
primary and the useful mutual flux Φu linking with both the
windings is called the primary leakage flux, ΦL1.
• Similarly, ΦL2 represents the secondary leakage flux.
• Flux leakage results in energy being alternately stored in
and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle
of the power supply.
• It is not directly a power loss, but causes the secondary
voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary
voltage, particularly under heavy loads.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 60

Leakage flux in a transformer

(a) Its definition. (b) Its effect accounted for.

• The useful mutual flux Φu is responsible for the

transformer action.
• The leakage flux ΦL1 induces an emf EL1 in the
primary winding.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 61

• Similarly, flux ΦL2 induces an emf EL2 in the

secondary.
• Hence, we include reactances X1 and X2 in the
primary and secondary windings, in the equivalent
circuit.
• The paths of leakage fluxes ΦL1 and ΦL2 are almost
entirely due to the long air paths and are therefore
practically constant.
• The reluctance of the paths being very high, X1 and
X2 are relatively small even on full load.
• However, the useful flux Φu remains almost
independent of the load.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 62

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 63

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

It is merely a representation of the following KVL equations :
V1 = I1R1 + jI1 X1 − E1 = I1 (R1 + jX1 ) − E1
E2 = I 2 R2 + jI 2 X 2 + V2 = I 2 (R2 + jX 2 ) + V2

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 64
V1 I1X1
V1 = −E1 + I1 ( R1 + jX 1 )
I1Z1 I1R1
E2 = V2 + I 2 ( R2 + jX 2 )
I1'
Practical Transformer on
-E1 I1
Phasor Diagram for

1
Resistive Load

0
I0
O
m

I2

V2 E1

I2R2 I2Z2

I2X2 E2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 65

Practical Transformer on
Inductive Load

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 66

Practical Transformer on
Capacitive Load

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 67

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

• The no-load current I0 is only about 3-5 % percent of the
full-load current.
• The exciting circuit R0-X0 in is shifted to the left of
impedance R1-X1.

Transforming the impedances from the secondary to the

primary side.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 68

Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the primary side

Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 ) and X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K 2 )

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 69

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

As referred to As referred to
primary side. secondary side.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 70

Example 5
• A single-phase, 50-kVA, 4400-V/220-V, 50-Hz transformer
has R1 = 3.45 Ω, R2 = 0.009 Ω, X1 = 5.2 Ω and X2 = 0.015
Ω. Calculate
(a) the Re as referred to the primary,
(b) the Re as referred to the secondary,
(c) the Xe as referred to the primary,
(d) the Xe as referred to the secondary,
(e) the Ze as referred to the primary,
(f) the Ze as referred to the secondary, and
(g) the total copper loss.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 71

Solution : Full-load primary current, Click

kVA 50 000
I1 = = = 11.36 A Click
V1 4400
kVA 50 000
Full-load secondary current, I2 = = = 227.27 A
V2 220
V2 220 1
K= = = = 0.05 Click
V1 4400 20
(a) Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 ) = 3.45 + [0.009 /(0.05) 2 ] = 7.05 Ω
Click
(b) Re2 = K R1 + R2 = (0.05)  3.45 + 0.009 = 0.0176 Ω
2 2

Click
(c) X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K ) = 5.2 + [0.015 /(0.05) ] = 11.2 Ω
2 2

(d) X e2 = K 2 X 1 + X 2 = (0.05) 2  5.2 + 0.015 = 0.028 Ω Click

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 72

(e) Ze1 = Re12 + X e12 = (7.05)2 + (11.2)2 = 13.23 Ω

(f) Ze2 = Re22 + X e22 = (0.0176)2 + (0.028)2 = 0.0331 Ω

Click
(g) Total copper loss
= I12 R1 + I 22 R2 = (11.36)2  3.45 + (227)2  0.009 = 909 W
Alternatively, by considering equivalent resistances,
total copper loss
Click
= I12 Re1 = (11.36) 2  7.05 = 909.8 W
Click
= I 22 Re2 = (227.27)2  0.0176 = 909 W

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 73

Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the
change in its secondary terminal voltage from no load to full
load, the primary voltage being assumed constant.
V2(0) = secondary terminal voltage at no load,
and V2 = secondary terminal voltage at full load.

The voltage drop V2(0) - V2 is called the inherent regulation.

V2(0) − V2
(i ) Per unit regulation down =
V2(0)
V2(0) − V2
% regulation down =  100
V2(0)

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 74

V2(0) − V2
(ii) Per unit regulation up =
V2
V2(0) − V2
% regulation up = 100
V2

Normally, when nothing is specified, ‘regulation’ means

‘regulation down’.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 75

Exact voltage drop =

V2(0) − V2 = OC − OA = OG − OA = AG = AF+FG

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 76

Approximate voltage drop, AF = AE + EF = AE + BD

= I 2 Re2 cos  + I 2 X e2 sin 

In case of leading power factor,

Approximate voltage drop, AF = AE − EF = AE − BD
= I 2 Re2 cos  − I 2 X e2 sin 
In general,
Approximate voltage drop = I 2 Re2 cos   I 2 X e2 sin 

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 77

I 2 Re 2 cos   I 2 X e 2 sin 
% Regulation = 100
V2(0)
= Vr cos   Vx sin 
Use + sign for lagging power factor and – sign for leading
power factor.

Condition for Zero Regulation :

Possible only if the load has leading power
factor.

Re 2
I 2 Re 2 cos  − I 2 X e 2 sin  = 0  tan =
X e2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 78

Note that for leading power factor, if the

magnitude of the phase angle  is high, we may
have
I 2 X e2 sin   I 2 Re2 cos 

• The regulation then becomes negative.

• It means that on increasing the load, the

terminal voltage increases.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 79

Condition for Maximum Regulation

Maximum regulation can occur only for inductive
load. The voltage drop is maximum when

d
( I 2 Re 2 cos  + I 2 X e 2 sin  ) = 0
d

 (− I 2 Re 2 sin  + I 2 X e 2 cos  ) = 0
X e2
 tan  =
Re 2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 80

Example 6

Solution :

Click

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 81

Example 7

Solution :

Click

 the load voltage, V2 = 240 − 6 = 234V

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 82

Example 8
• A single-phase, 40-kVA, 6600-V/250-V,
transformer has primary and secondary
resistances R1 = 10 Ω and R2 = 0.02 Ω,
respectively. The equivalent leakage reactance
as referred to the primary is 35 Ω. Find the full-
load regulation for the load power factor of
(a) unity,
(b) 0.8 lagging, and
(c) 0.8 leading.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 83

Solution : Given : R1 = 10 Ω; R2 = 0.02 Ω; Xe1 = 35 Ω

250
the turns-ratio, K = = 0.0379
6600
40 000 Click
the full-load current, I 2 = = 160 A
250
 Re2 = K 2 R1 + R2 = (0.0379) 2 10 + 0.02 = 0.0343 
Click
and X e2 = K X e1 = (0.0379)  35 = 0.0502 
2 2

(a) For power factor, cos  = 1; sin  = 0. Hence,

I 2 Re 2 cos  + I 2 X e 2 sin  Click

 % Regulation = 100
V2(0)
160  0.0343 1 + 0
= 100 = 2.195 %
250
Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 84

(b) For power factor, cos  = 0.8 (lagging,  positive);

sin  = 1 − cos 2  = 0.6 Click

I 2 Re2 cos  + I 2 X e2 sin 

 % Regulation =  100
V2(0)
160  0.0343  0.8 + 160  0.0502  0.6
= 100 = 3.68 %
250

(c) For power factor, cos  = 0.8 (leading,  negative);

sin  = 0.6
I 2 Re2 cos  − I 2 X e2 sin  Click
 % Regulation = 100
V2(0)
160  0.0343  0.8 − 160  0.0502  0.6
= 100 = −0.172 %
250

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 85

Efficiency oftheaefficiency
Like any other machine, Transformer
of a transformer is defined as
Power output Power output Po
= = =
Power input Power output + Power losses Po + Pl
Power lost

Input
Output
power
power

• Large-size transformers are designed to be more efficient ( > 98 %)

• But, the efficiency of small transformers (used in power adapters for
charging mobile phones) is not more than 85 %.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 86

Power Losses in Transformers

(i) Copper losses or I2R losses :

Pc = I12 R1 + I 22 R2 = I12 Re1 = I 22 Re2

The copper losses are variable with current. Assuming the

voltage to remain constant, the current is proportional to
the VA. Therefore, the copper losses for a given load (and
hence for given VA) is given as
2
 VA 
Pc =   Pc(FL)
 VA FL 

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 87

(ii) Iron losses or core losses :

Due to hysteresis and eddy-currents. Pi = Ph + Pe.

Since the flux Φm does not vary more than about 2 %

between no load and full load, it is usual to assume
the core losses constant at all loads.

In general, the efficiency,

Po Po V2 I 2 cos 2
= = =
Po + Pl Po + Pc + Pi V2 I 2 cos 2 + I 22 Re 2 + Pi

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 88

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Assuming the operation at a constant voltage and a constant power
factor, for what load (i.e., what value of I2) the efficiency becomes
maximum ?
Let us first divide the numerator and denominator by I2, to get
V2 cos 2
=
V2 cos 2 + I 2 Re2 + Pi / I 2
The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of the above
equation is minimum,

d Pi
(V2 cos 2 + I 2 Re2 + Pi / I 2 ) = 0 or Re2 − 2 = 0
dI 2 I2
or I 22 Re2 = Pi or Pc = Pi

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 89

Condition :

Copper loss = Iron loss

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 90

All-day Efficiency
• The efficiency defined above is called commercial
efficiency.
• In a distribution transformer, the primary remains
energized all the time. But the load on the secondary is
intermittent and variable during the day.
• The core losses occur throughout the day, but the copper
losses occur only when the transformer is loaded.
• Such transformers, therefore, are designed to have
minimum core losses. This gives them better all-day
efficiency, defined below.

Output energy (in kW h) in a cycle of 24 hours

all-day =
Total input energy (in kW h)

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 91

Example 9
• For a single-phase, 50-Hz, 150-kVA transformer,
the required no-load voltage ratio is 5000-V/250-
V and the full-load copper losses are 1800 W and
core losses are 1500 W. Find
(a) the number of turns in each winding for a
maximum core flux of 0.06 Wb,
(b) the efficiency at half rated kVA, and unity
power factor,
(c) the efficiency at full load, and 0.8 power
factor lagging, and
(d) the kVA load for maximum efficiency.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 92

Solution :
(a) Using the emf equation, we have Click
E2 = 4.44 fN 2  m
E2 250
 N2 = = = 18.8(say, 19 turns)
4.44 f  m 4.44  50  0.06
E1 5000
and N1 = N2 =  19 = 380 turns
E2 250
(b) At half rated-kVA, the current is half the full-load
current, and hence the output power too reduces by 0.5.
Thus, Click
Po = 0.5  (kVA)  (power factor) = 0.5 150 1 = 75 kW
Pc = (0.5) 2  (full-load copper loss) = (0.5) 2 1800 W = 0.45 kW
Click
Iron losses (fixed), Pi = 1500 W = 1.5 kW
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 93

Po 75
 =  100 =  100 = 97.47 %
Po + Pc + Pi 75 + 0.45 + 1.5
(c) At full load and 0.8 power factor,
Click
Po = (kVA)  (power factor) = 150  0.8 = 120 kW
Pc = 1800 W = 1.8 kW; and Pi = 1500 W = 1.5kW
Po 120
 =  100 =  100 = 97.3 %
Po + Pc + Pi 120 + 1.8 + 1.5

(d) Let x be the fraction of full-load kVA at which the Click

efficiency becomes maximum
Pc = Pi or x 2 1800 = 1500 x = 1500 /1800 = 0.913
Therefore, the load kVA under the condition of maximum
efficiency,
Click
= (Full-load kVA)  x = 150  0.913 = 137 kVA

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 94

Example 10
• For a single-phase, 200-kVA, distribution transformer has
full-load copper losses of 3.02 kW and iron losses of 1.6
kW. It has following load distribution over a 24-hour day :
(i) 80 kW at unity power factor, for 6 hours.
(ii) 160 kW at 0.8 power factor (lagging), for 8 hours.
(iii) No load, for the remaining 10 hours.
Determine its all-day efficiency.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 95

Solution :
(i) For 80 kW load at unity power factor (for 6 hours) :
Click
Output energy = 80  6 = 480 kW h
Po 80
kVA = = = 80 kVA
pf 1
2 2
 kVA   80 
 Pc =   Pc(FL) =    (3.02) = 0.4832 kW
 kVA FL   200  Click

Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW

Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 0.4832 kW + 1.6 kW = 2.0832 kW

 Total energy losses in 6 hours = 2.0832  6 = 12.50 kW h

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 96

(ii) For 160-kW load at 0.8 power factor (for 8 hours) :

Output energy = 160  8 = 1280 kW h Click
Po 160
kVA = = = 200 kVA = kVA FL
pf 0.8
 Copper losses, Pc = Pc(FL) = 3.02 kW

Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW

Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 3.02 kW + 1.6 kW = 4.62 kW
 Total energy losses in 8 hours = 4.62  8 = 36.96 kW h
(iii) For the no-load period of 10 hours :
Output energy Po = 0 Click
Copper losses, Pc = 0
Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW
Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 0 + 1.6 = 1.6 kW
Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 97

 Total energy losses in 10 hours = 1.6 10 = 16 kW h

Thus, for 24-hour period :

Total output energy, Wo = 480 + 1280 = 1760 kW h

Total energy losses, Wl = 12.50 + 36.96 +16 = 65.46 kW h

Click
 All-day efficiency,
Wo 1760
all-day =  100 = 100 = 96.41%
Wo + Wl 1760 + 65.46

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 98

Autotransformer
• It is a special transformer that is useful in power
systems, motor starters, variable ac sources, etc.
▪ An autotransformer is a transformer which has a part of
its winding common to the primary and secondary
circuits.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 99

Applications
• Boosting or buckling of supply voltage by a small
amount.
• Starting of ac machines, where the voltage is
raised in two or more steps.
• Continuously varying ac supply as in variacs.

(a) Step-down (b) Step-up

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 100

The turns-ratio is given as

N 2 V2
K= =
N1 V1
• The portion YZ of the winding is called common winding.
• The portion XY is called series winding.
• In variacs (variable autotransformers), point Y is made
a sliding contact so as to give a variable output voltage.
Consider the Step-down autotransformer :
The volt-amperes on the two sides must be the same,
V1I1 = V2 I 2  V2 I 2 = V2 I1 + V2 (I 2 − I1 )

• The part V2I1 is conductively transferred through the winding

XY.
• The remaining part is inductively transferred through the
winding YZ.
Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 101

Saving of copper in an autotransformer

• For the same voltage ratio and capacity (volt-ampere
rating), an autotransformer needs much less copper
compared to a two-winding transformer.
• The cross-sectional area of a conductor is proportional to
the current carried by it, and its length is proportional to the
number of turns. Therefore,
Weight of copper  NI = kNI
For a two-winding transformer :
Weight of copper in primary = kN1 I1
Weight of copper in secondary = kN 2 I 2
Total weight of copper = k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 )
Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 102

For a step-up autotransformer :

Weight of copper in portion XY = k ( N1 − N 2 ) I1
Weight of copper in portion YZ = kN 2 ( I 2 − I1 )
Total weight of copper = k ( N1 − N 2 ) I1 + kN 2 ( I 2 − I1 )
= k[( N1 − 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ]

Therefore, the ratio of copper- weights for the two

cases is
  N 2    I1   N 2 
1 − 2     +  
k[( N1 − 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ]  N I N
 1    2   1  [1 − 2 K ]K + K
= = = 1− K
k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 )  I1   N 2  K+K
   + 
I
 2  1 N

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 103

• Evidently, the saving is large if K is close to unity.

• A unity transformation ratio means that no copper is
needed at all for the autotransformer.
• The winding can be removed all together.
• The volt-amperes are conductively transformed
directly to the load !

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 104

Advantages of autotransformers
A saving in cost since less copper is needed.
Less volume, hence less weight.
A higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2R losses.
A continuously variable output voltage is achievable if a
sliding contact is used.
A smaller percentage voltage regulation.
Higher VA Rating.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 105
Disadvantages of
autotransformers
The primary and secondary windings are not
electrically separate, hence if an open-circuit
occurs in the secondary winding the full primary
voltage appears across the secondary.
Low impedance hence high short circuit currents
for short circuits on secondary side.
No electrical separation between primary and
secondary which is risky in case of high voltage
levels.
Economical only when the voltage ratio is less
than 2.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 106

Transformer Testing
• There are two simple tests to determine the equivalent-
circuit parameters and its efficiency and regulation:
• Open-circuit test (OC Test)
• Short-circuit test (SC Test)

• Advantage of these tests is without actually loading the

transformers, we can determine the Losses and
Regulation, for full-load.

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 107

(1) Open-Circuit Test

• This test determines the no-load current and the
parameters of the exciting circuit of the transformer.
• Generally, the low voltage (LV) side is supplied rated
voltage through a variac.
• The high voltage (HV) side is left open.

Open Circuit

Low voltage

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 108

• The I2R loss on no load is negligibly small compared with

the core loss.
• Hence the wattmeter reading, Wo, can be assumed to
give the core loss of the transformer.
Calculations :
V2
Pi = Wo ; I0 = Io ; K=
V1
Wo
Iw = ; I m = I 02 − I w2 ;
V1
V1 V1
R0 = ; X0 =
Iw Im

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 109

(2) Short-Circuit Test

• This test determines the equivalent resistance and leakage
reactance.
• Generally, the LV side of the transformer is short-circuited
through a suitable ammeter A2.
• A low voltage is applied to the primary (HV) side.
• This voltage is adjusted with the help of a variac so as to
circulate full-load currents in the primary and secondary
circuits.

Short Circuit

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 110

• The reading of ammeter A1, Isc, gives the full-load current

in the primary winding.
• Since the applied voltage (and hence the flux) is small,
the core loss is negligibly small.
• Hence, the wattmeter reading, Wsc, gives the copper
loss (Pc).
Calculations :
Wsc Vsc
Re1 = 2 ; Z e1 = ; X e1 = Z e12 − Re12
I sc I sc

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 111

Example 11
• A single-phase, 50-Hz, 12-kVA, 200-V/400-V transformer
gives the following test results :
(i) Open-circuit test (with HV winding open)
: 200 V, 1.3 A, 120 W
(ii) Short-circuit test (with LV winding short-circuited)
: 22 V, 30 A, 200 W
Calculate :
(a) the magnetizing current and the core-loss current, and
(b) the parameters of equivalent circuit as referred to the
low voltage winding.

Next
 Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 112

Solution :
(a) The wattmeter reading, 120 W, in the open-circuit test gives
the core losses. Therefore, the core-loss current is given as
W 120 W
Click
Iw = o = = 0.6 A
V1 200 V
 I m = I 02 − I w2 = (1.3)2 − (0.6)2 = 1.15 A
(b) The parameters of the exciting circuit are given by the open-
circuit test, as Click
V1 200 V V1 200 V
R0 = = = 333 Ω and X0 = = = 174 Ω
I w 0.6 A I m 1.15 A
V 200 V 1 12 kVA
Now, K = 2 = = and I FL = = 30 A
V1 400 V 2 400 V
This confirms that the short-circuit test has been done at the
rated full-load
Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 113

Wsc 200 W Vsc 22 V

 Re1 = 2
= 2
= 0.222  and Z e1 = = = 0.733 
I sc (30 A) I sc 30 A

The equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to

the secondary side (low voltage winding), Click
2
1
Re2 = K Re1 =    0.222 = 0.055 Ω
2

2
2
1
and X e2 = K X e1 =    0.699 = 0.175 Ω
2

2

Next
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 114

Review
• Introduction. • Iron Losses.
• Principle of Operation. • Hysterisis Loss.
• Step-Up and Step-Down • Eddy current Loss.
Transformer.
• Construction of a Transformer.
• EMF Equation.
• Effect of Frequency. • Laminations.
• Conditions for Ideal • Core Type Transformer.
Transformer. • Shell Type Transformer.
• Drawing the Phasor Diagram. • How I0 changes on Loading ?
• Volt-Amperes (in Ideal • Practical Transformer on Load.
Transformer).
• Effect of Winding Resistance.
• Impedance Transformation,
• Practical Transformer at no • Effect of Flux Leakage.
Load. • Leakage flux in a transformer
1. Effect of Magnetization.
2. Effect of Core Losses.
Thursday, June 8, 2023 Transformers 115

• Autotransformers.
• Equivalent Circuit.
• Applications.
• Simplified Equivalent Circuit.
• Saving of copper.
• Approximate Equivalent
Circuit. • Advantages.
• Voltage Regulation. • Disadvantages.
• Condition for Zero • Transformer Testing.
Regulation. (1) Open-Circuit Test.
• Condition for Maximum (2) Short-Circuit Test.
Regulation.
• Efficiency of a Transformer.
• Power Losses in
Transformers.
• Condition for Maximum
Efficiency.
• All-day Efficiency.

Next