Contents 11

Differentiation
11.1 Introducing Differentiation 2

11.2 Using a Table of Derivatives 11

11.3 Higher Derivatives 24

11.4 Differentiating Products and Quotients 29

11.5 The Chain Rule 38

11.6 Parametric Differentiation 44

11.7 Implicit Differentiation 51

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn what a derivative is and how to obtain the derivative of
many commonly occurring functions. You will learn of the relationship between a derivative
and the tangent line to a curve. You will learn something of the limiting process which
arises in many areas of mathematics. You will learn how to use a table of derivatives to
obtain the derivative of simple combinations of functions. Finally, you will learn how to take
higher derivatives
Introducing  

Differentiation 11.1 

Introduction
Differentiation is a technique which can be used for analysing the way in which functions change. In
particular, it measures how rapidly a function is changing at any point. In engineering applications
the function may, for example, represent the magnetic field strength of a motor, the voltage across
a capacitor, the temperature of a chemical mix, and it is often important to know how quickly these
quantities change.
In this Section we explain what is meant by the gradient of a curve and introduce differentiation as
a method for finding the gradient at any point.

 
• understand functional notation, e.g. y = f (x)
Prerequisites
• be able to calculate the gradient of a straight
Before starting this Section you should . . . line

' 
$
• explain what is meant by the tangent to a
curve

Learning Outcomes • explain what is meant by the gradient of a

curve at a point
On completion you should be able to . . .
• calculate the derivative of a number of simple
functions from first principles
& %

2 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
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1. Drawing tangents

Look at the graph shown in Figure 1a. A and B are two points on the graph, and they have been
joined by a straight line. The straight line segment AB is known as a chord. We have lengthened
the chord on both sides so that it extends beyond both A and B.

y y y

A A A
!1 !2 !
x x x

Figure 1a Figure 1b Figure 1c

In Figure 1b we have moved point B nearer to point A before drawing the extended chord. Imagine
what would happen if we continue moving B nearer and nearer to A. You can do this for yourself by
drawing additional points on the graph. Eventually, when B coincides with A, the extended chord is
a straight line which just touches the curve at A. This line is now called the tangent to the curve
at A, and is shown in Figure 1c.
If we know the position of two points on the line we can find the gradient of the straight line and
can calculate the gradient of the tangent. We define the gradient of the curve at A to be the
gradient of the tangent there. If this gradient is large at a particular point, the rate at which the
function is changing is large too. If the gradient is small, the rate at which the function is changing
is small. This is illustrated in Figure 2. Because of this, the gradient at A is also known as the
instantaneous rate of change of the curve at A. Recall from your knowledge of the straight line,
that if the line slopes upwards as we look from left to right, the gradient of the line is positive,
whereas if the line slopes downwards, the gradient is negative.

y y

! !
x x

The gradient of the tangent at P is small, so the The gradient of the tangent at Q is large so the rate
rate at which the function is changing is small. rate at which the function is changing is large.

Figure 2

HELM (2008): 3
Section 11.1: Introducing Differentiation
 Key Point 1
The gradient of the curve at a point, P , is equal to tan θ where θ is the angle the tangent line at
P makes with the positive x axis.

θ
x

Figure 3

Task

Draw in, by eye, tangents to the curve shown below, at points A to E. State
whether each tangent has positive, negative or zero gradient.

A D
E
C

B x

Your solution

Answer
A negative, B zero, C positive, D zero, E negative

In the following subsection we will see how to calculate the gradient of a curve precisely.

4 HELM (2008):
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2. Finding the gradient at a specific point

In this subsection we shall consider a simple function to illustrate the calculation of a gradient. Look
at the graph of the function y(x) = x2 shown in Figure 4. Notice that the gradient of the graph
changes as we move from point to point. In some places the gradient is positive; at others it is
negative. The gradient is greater at some points than at others. In fact the gradient changes from
point to point as we move along the curve.

15 B(4,16)
y = x2

10
the slope is
the slope is
positive here
negative here
5

A(1,1)

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

Figure 4
Inspect the graph carefully and make the following observations:
(a) A is the point with coordinates (1, 1).
(b) B is the point with coordinates (4, 16).
(c) We can calculate the gradient of the line AB from the formula
difference between y coordinates
gradient =
difference between x coordinates
16 − 1 15
Therefore the gradient of chord AB is equal to = = 5. The gradient of AB is not the
4−1 3
same as the gradient of the graph at A but we can regard it as an approximation, or estimate of the
gradient at A. Is it an over-estimate or under-estimate ?

Task

Add the point C to the graph in Figure 4 where C has coordinates (3, 9). Draw
the line AC and calculate its gradient.

Your solution
gradient =

HELM (2008): 5
Section 11.1: Introducing Differentiation
 Answer
9−1
= 4. Would you agree that this is a better estimate of the gradient at A than using AB?
3−1
We now carry the last task further by introducing point D at (2, 4) and point E at (1.5, 2.25) as
shown in Figure 5. The gradient of AD is found to be 3 and the gradient of AE is 2.5.
y y = x2

15 B(4,16)

10

5
D(2,4)
E(1.5, 2.25)
A(1,1)

1 2 3 4 x
Figure 5
Observe that each time we carry out this procedure, and move the second point closer to A, the
gradient of the line drawn is getting closer and closer to the gradient of the tangent at A. If we
continue, the value we eventually obtain is the gradient of the tangent at A whose value is 2 as we
will see shortly. This procedure illustrates how we define the gradient of the curve at A.

3. Finding the gradient at a general point

We now carry out the previous procedure more mathematically. Consider the graph of y(x) = x2 in
Figure 6. Let point A be any point with coordinates (a, a2 ), and let point B be a second point with
x coordinate (a + h).
The y coordinate at A is a2 , because A lies on the graph y = x2 .
Similarly the y coordinate at B is (a + h)2 .
Therefore the gradient of the chord AB is
(a + h)2 − a2
h
This simplifies to
a2 + 2ha + h2 − a2 2ha + h2 h(2a + h)
= = = 2a + h
h h h
This is the gradient of the line AB. As we let B move closer to A the value of h gets smaller and
smaller and eventually tends to zero. We write this as h → 0.
Now, as h → 0, the gradient of AB tends to 2a. Thus the gradient of the tangent to the curve at
point A is 2a. Because A is an arbitrary point, this result gives us a formula for finding the gradient
of the graph of y = x2 at any point: the gradient is simply twice the x coordinate there. For
example when x = 3 the gradient is 2 × 3, that is 6, and when x = 1 the gradient is 2 × 1, that is 2
as we saw in the previous subsection.

6 HELM (2008):
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y
B(a+h, (a+h)2)

A(a,a2)
h
x

Figure 6
Generally, at a point whose coordinate is x the gradient is given by 2x. The function, 2x which
gives the gradient of y = x2 is called the derivative of y with respect to x. It has other names too
including the rate of change of y with respect to x.
A special notation is used to represent the derivative. It is not a particularly user-friendly notation
dy
but it is important to get used to it anyway. We write the derivative as , pronounced ‘dee y over
dx
dee x’ or ‘dee y by dee x’ or even ‘dee y, dee x’.
dy
is not a fraction - so you can’t do things like cancel the d’s - just remember that it is the symbol
dx
or notation for the derivative. An alternative notation for the derivative is y 0 .

Key Point 2
dy
The derivative of y(x) is written or y 0 (x) or simply y 0
dx

Exercises
1. Carry out the procedure above for the function y = 3x2 :
(a) Let A be the point (a, 3a2 ).
(b) Let B be the point (a + h, 3(a + h)2 ).
(c) Find the gradient of the line AB.
(d) Let h → 0 to find the gradient of the curve at A.
2. Carry out the procedure above for the function y = x3 :
(a) Let A be the point (a, a3 ).
(b) Let B be the point (a + h, (a + h)3 ).
(c) Find the gradient of the line AB.
(d) Let h → 0 to find the gradient of the curve at A.

HELM (2008): 7
Section 11.1: Introducing Differentiation
 Answers
dy
1. gradient AB = 6a + 3h, gradient at A = 6a. So, if y = 3x2 , = 6x,
dx
dy
2. gradient AB = 3a2 + 3ah + h2 , gradient at A = 3a2 . So, if y = x3 , = 3x2 .
dx

4. Differentiation of a general function from first principles

Consider the graph of y = f (x) shown in Figure 7.

y y=f(x) y y=f(x)
(x+h, f(x+h)) B

A h A
(x, f(x)) !
x x

Figure 7: As h → 0 the chord AB becomes the tangent at A

Carefully make the following observations:

(a) Point A has coordinates (x, f (x)).
(b) Point B has coordinates (x + h, f (x + h)).
(c) The straight line AB has gradient

f (x + h) − f (x)
h

(d) If we let h → 0 we can find the gradient of the graph of y = f (x) at the arbitrary
point A, provided we can evaluate the appropriate limit on h. The resulting limit is the
df
derivative of f with respect to x and is written or f 0 (x).
dx

8 HELM (2008):
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Key Point 3
Definition of Derivative
Given y = f (x), its derivative is defined as

df f (x + h) − f (x)
= in the limit as h tends to 0.
dx h
This is written
df f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h
df
In a graphical context, the value of at A is equal to tan θ which is the tangent of the angle that
dx
the gradient line makes with the positive x-axis.

Example 1
Differentiate f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3 from first principles.

Solution
 
df f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h
[(x + h)2 + 2(x + h) + 3] − [x2 + 2x + 3]
 
= lim
h→0 h
 2
x + 2xh + h2 + 2x + 2h + 3 − x2 − 2x − 3]

= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 + 2h
 
= lim
h→0 h
= lim {2x + h + 2}
h→0

= 2x + 2

HELM (2008): 9
Section 11.1: Introducing Differentiation
 Exercises
df
1. Use the definition of the derivative to find when
dx
1
(a) f (x) = 4x2 , (b) f (x) = 2x3 , (c) f (x) = 7x + 3, (d) f (x) = .
x
(Harder: try (e) f (x) = sin x and use the small angle approximation sin θ ≈ θ if θ is small and
measured in radians.)
2. Using your results from Exercise 1 calculate the gradient of the following graphs at the given
points:
(a) f (x) = 4x2 at x = −2, (b) f (x) = 2x3 at x = 2, (c) f (x) = 7x + 3 at x = −5,
1
(d) f (x) = at x = 1/2.
x
x
3. Find the rate of change of the function y(x) = at x = 3 by considering the interval
x+3
x = 3 to x = 3 + h.

Answers
1. (a) 8x, (b) 6x2 , (c) 7, (d) −1/x2 , (e) cos x.
2. (a) −16, (b) 24, (c) 7, (d) −4
3. 1/12

10 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
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Using a Table of  

Derivatives 11.2 

Introduction
In Section 11.1 you were introduced to the idea of a derivative and you calculated some derivatives
from first principles. Rather than calculating the derivative of a function from first principles it is
common practice to use a table of derivatives. This Section provides such a table and shows you
how to use it.

#
• understand the meaning of the term
Prerequisites ‘derivative’
dy
Before starting this Section you should . . . • understand what is meant by the notation
dx
" !
 

Learning Outcomes • use a table of derivatives to perform

differentiation
On completion you should be able to . . .
 

HELM (2008): 11
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
1. Table of derivatives
Table 1 lists some of the common functions used in engineering and their corresponding derivatives.
Remember that in each case the function in the right-hand column gives the rate of change, or the
gradient of the graph, of the function on the left at a particular value of x.
N.B. The angle must always be in radians when differentiating trigonometric functions.

Table 1
Common functions and their derivatives
(In this table k, n and c are constants)

Function Derivative
constant 0
x 1
kx k
n
x nxn−1
n
kx knxn−1
ex ex
kx
e kekx
ln x 1/x
ln kx 1/x
sin x cos x
sin kx k cos kx
sin(kx + c) k cos(kx + c)
cos x − sin x
cos kx −k sin kx
cos(kx + c) −k sin(kx + c)
tan x sec2 x
tan kx k sec2 kx
tan(kx + c) k sec2 (kx + c)
In the trigonometric functions the angle is in radians.

Key Point 4
Particularly important is the rule for differentiating powers of functions:
dy
If y = xn then = nxn−1
dx

dy
For example, if y = x3 then = 3x2 .
dx

12 HELM (2008):
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Example 2
dy
Use Table 1 to find when y is given by (a) 7x (b) 14 (c) 5x2 (d) 4x7
dx

Solution
dy
(a) We note that 7x is of the form kx where k = 7. Using Table 1 we then have = 7.
dx
dy
(b) Noting that 14 is a constant we see that = 0.
dx
(c) We see that 5x2 is of the form kxn , with k = 5 and n = 2. The derivative, knxn−1 , is then
dy
10x1 , or more simply, 10x. So if y = 5x2 , then = 10x.
dx
dy
(d) We see that 4x7 is of the form kxn , with k = 4 and n = 7. Hence the derivative, , is
dx
6
given by 28x .

Task
dy √ 5
Use Table 1 to find when y is (a) x (b)
dx x3

√ 1 1
(a) Write x as x 2 , and use the result for differentiating xn with n = .
2
Your solution

Answer
dy 1 1 1 1 1
= nxn−1 = x 2 −1 = x− 2 . This may be written as √ .
dx 2 2 2 x

5
(b) Write as 5x−3 and use the result for differentiating kxn with k = 5 and n = −3.
x3
Your solution

Answer
5(−3)x−3−1 = −15x−4

Although Table 1 is written using x as the independent variable, the Table can be used for any
variable.

HELM (2008): 13
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
 Task
Use Table 1 to find
dz dp dz
(a) given z = et (b) given p = e8t (c) given z = e−3y
dt dt dy

(a)

Your solution
dz
=
dt

Answer
dy dz
From Table 1, if y = ex , then = ex . Hence if z = et then = et .
dx dt

(b)
Your solution
dp
=
dt

Answer
8e8t

(c)
Your solution
dz
=
dy

Answer
−3e−3y

Task
dy x
Find the derivative, , when y is (a) sin 2x (b) cos (c) tan 5x
dx 2

(a) Use the result for sin kx in Table 1, taking k = 2:

Your solution
dy
=
dx

Answer
2 cos 2x

14 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
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x 1
(b) Note that cos is the same as cos x. Use the result for cos kx in Table 1:
2 2
Your solution
dy
=
dx

Answer
1 x
− sin
2 2

(c) Use the result for tan kx in Table 1:

Your solution
dy
=
dx

Answer
5 sec2 5x

Exercises
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions with respect to x:
(a) 9x2 (b) 5 (c) 6x3 (d) −13x4
dz
2. Find when z is given by:
dt
5 √ 3 3
(a) 3 (b) t3 (c) 5t−2 (d) − t 2 (e) ln 5t
t 2
3. Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to the appropriate variable:
1
(a) sin 5x (b) cos 4t (c) tan 3r (d) e2v (e)
e3t
4. Find the derivatives of the following with respect to x:
2x x
(a) cos (b) sin(−2x) (c) tan πx (d) e 2 (e) ln 32 x
3

Answers

1. (a) 18x (b) 0 (c) 18x2 (d) −52x3

3 1 9 1 1
2. (a) −15t−4 (b) t2 (c) −10t−3 (d) − t 2 (e)
2 4 t
3. (a) 5 cos 5x (b) −4 sin 4t (c) 3 sec2 3r (d) 2e2v (e) −3e−3t
2 2x 1 x 1
4. (a) − sin (b) −2 cos(−2x) (c) π sec2 πx (d) e2 (e)
3 3 2 x

HELM (2008): 15
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
 Engineering Example 1

Electrostatic potential

Introduction
The electrostatic potential due to a point charge Q coulombs at a position r (m) from the charge is
given by
Q
V =
4π0 r
where 0 , the permittivity of free space, ≈ 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1 and π ≈ 3.14.
dV
The field strength at position r is given by E = − .
dr
Problem in words
Find the electric field strength at a distance of 5 m from a source with a charge of 1 coulomb.

Mathematical statement of the problem

Q
V =
4π0 r
Substitute for 0 and π and use Q = 1, so that
1 9 × 109
V = ≈ = 9 × 109 r−1
4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10−12 r r
dV
We need to differentiate V in order to find the electric field strength from the relationship E = −
dr
Mathematical analysis
dV
E=− = −9 × 109 (−r−2 ) = 9 × 109 r−2
dr
When r = 5,
9 × 109
E= = 3.6 × 108 (V m−1 .)
25
Interpretation
The electric field strength is 3.6 × 108 V m−1 at r = 5 m.
Note that the field potential varies with the reciprocal of distance (i.e. inverse linear law with distance)
whereas the field strength obeys an inverse square law with distance.

16 HELM (2008):
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 ®

2. Extending the table of derivatives

We now quote simple rules which enable us to extend the range of functions which we can differentiate.
The first two rules are for differentiating sums or differences of functions. The reader should note
that all of the rules quoted below can be obtained from first principles using the approach outlined
in Section 11.1.

Key Point 5
df dg
Rule 1: The derivative of f (x) + g(x) is +
dx dx
df dg
Rule 2: The derivative of f (x) − g(x) is −
dx dx

These rules say that to find the derivative of the sum (or difference) of two functions, we simply
calculate the sum (or difference) of the derivatives of each function.

Example 3
Find the derivative of y = x6 + x4 .

Solution
We simply calculate the sum of the derivatives of each separate function:
dy
= 6x5 + 4x3
dx

The third rule tells us how to differentiate a multiple of a function. We have already met and applied
particular cases of this rule which appear in Table 1.

Key Point 6
df
Rule 3: If k is a constant, the derivative of kf (x) is k
dx

HELM (2008): 17
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
This rule tells us that if a function is multiplied by a constant, k, then the derivative is also multiplied
by the same constant, k.

Example 4
Find the derivative of y = 8e2x

Solution
Here we are interested in differentiating a multiple of the function e2x . We differentiate e2x , giving
2e2x , and multiply the result by 8. Thus
dy
= 8 × 2e2x = 16e2x
dx

Example 5
Find the derivative of y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2 − 5e3x

Solution
We differentiate each part of the function in turn.

y = 6 sin 2x + 3x2 − 5e3x

dy
= 6(2 cos 2x) + 3(2x) − 5(3e3x )
dx
= 12 cos 2x + 6x − 15e3x

Task
dy
Find where y = 7x5 − 3e5x .
dx

First find the derivative of 7x5 :

Your solution

Answer
7(5x4 ) = 35x4

18 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
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Next find the derivative of 3e5x :

Your solution

Answer
3(5e5x ) = 15e5x

Combine your results to find the derivative of 7x5 − 3e5x :

Your solution
dy
=
dx

Answer
35x4 − 15e5x

Task
dy x
Find where y = 4 cos + 17 − 9x3 .
dx 2

x
First find the derivative of 4 cos :
2
Your solution

Answer
1 x x
4(− sin ) = −2 sin
2 2 2

Next find the derivative of 17:

Your solution

Answer
0
Then find the derivative of −9x3 :

Your solution

Answer
3(−9x2 ) = −27x2

HELM (2008): 19
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
 x
Finally state the derivative of y = 4 cos + 17 − 9x3 :
2
Your solution
dy
=
dx

Answer
x
−2 sin − 27x2
2

Exercises
dy
1. Find when y is given by:
dx
9 14 3 + 2x
(a) 3x7 + 8x3 (b) −3x4 + 2x1.5 (c) 2
+ − 3x (d) (e) (2 + 3x)2
x x 4
2. Find the derivative of each of the following functions:
(a) z(t) = 5 sin t + sin 5t (b) h(v) = 3 cos 2v − 6 sin v2
2 n2 e3t
(c) m(n) = 4e2n + + (d) H(t) = 2
+ 2 tan 2t (e) S(r) = (r2 + 1)2 − 4e−2r
e2n 2
3. Differentiate the following functions.
1
(a) A(t) = (3 + et )2 (b) B(s) = πe2s + + 2 sin πs
s
1 θ
(c) V (r) = (1 + )2 + (r + 1)2 (d) M (θ) = 6 sin 2θ − 2 cos + 2θ2
r 4
(e) H(t) = 4 tan 3t + 3 sin 2t − 2 cos 4t
Answers
18 14 1
1. (a) 21x6 + 24x2 (b) −12x3 + 3x0.5 (c) − 3
− 2 − 3 (d) (e) 12 + 18x
x x 2
v
2. (a) z 0 = 5 cos t + 5 cos 5t (b) h0 = −6 sin 2v − 3 cos (c) m0 = 8e2n − 4e−2n + n
2
3e3t
0
(d) H = + 4 sec2 2t (e) S 0 = 4r3 + 4r + 8e−2r
2
1
3. (a) A0 = 6et + 2e2t (b) B 0 = 2πe2s − + 2π cos(πs)
s2
2 2 1 θ
(c) V 0 = − 2 − 3 + 2r + 2 (d) M 0 = 12 cos 2θ + sin + 4θ
r r 2 4
(e) H 0 = 12 sec2 3t + 6 cos 2t + 8 sin 4t

20 HELM (2008):
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3. Evaluating a derivative
The need to find the rate of change of a function at a particular point occurs often. We do this by
finding the derivative of the function, and then evaluating the derivative at that point. When taking
derivatives of trigonometric functions, any angles must be measured in radians. Consider a function,
dy
y(x). We use the notation (a) or y 0 (a) to denote the derivative of y evaluated at x = a. So
dx
y 0 (0.5) means the value of the derivative of y when x = 0.5.

Example 6
Find the value of the derivative of y = x3 where x = 2. Interpret your result.

Solution
dy
We have y = x3 and so = 3x2 .
dx
dy dy
When x = 2, = 3(2)2 = 12, that is, (2) = 12 (Equivalently, y 0 (2) = 12).
dx dx
The derivative is positive when x = 2 and so y is increasing at this point. When x = 2, y is
increasing at a rate of 12 vertical units per horizontal unit.

Engineering Example 2

Electromotive force

Introduction
Potential difference in an electrical circuit is produced by electromotive force (e.m.f.) which is
measured in volts and describes the force that maintains current flow around a closed path. Every
source of continuous electrical energy, including batteries, generators and thermocouples, consist
essentially of an energy converter that produces an e.m.f. An electric current always produces a
magnetic field. So the current i which flows round any closed path produces a magnetic flux φ which
passes through that path. Conversely, if another closed path, i.e. another coil, is placed within the
first path, then the magnetic field due to the first circuit can induce an e.m.f. and hence a current
in the second coil. The simplest closed path is a single loop. More commonly, helical coils, known
as search coils, with known area and number of turns, are used. The induced e.m.f. depends upon
the number of turns in the coil. The search coil is used with a fluxmeter to measure the change of
flux linkage.
Problem in words
A current i is travelling through a single turn loop of radius 1 m. A 4-turn search coil of effective
area 0.03 m2 is placed inside the loop. The magnetic flux in weber (Wb) linking the search coil is
given by:

HELM (2008): 21
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
 iA
φ = µ0
2r
where r (m) is the radius of the current carrying loop, A (m2 ) is the area of the search coil and µ0
is the permeability of free space, 4 × 10−7 H m−1 .
 
dφ
Find the e.m.f. (in volts) induced in the search coil, given by ε = −N where N is the number
dt
of turns in the search coil, and the current is given by

i = 20 sin(20πt) + 50 sin(30πt)

Mathematical statement of the problem

 
iA dφ
Substitute i = 20 sin(20πt) + 50 sin(30πt) into φ = µ0 and find ε = −N when r = 1 m,
2r dt
A = 0.03 m2 , µ0 = 4 × 10−7 H m−1 and N = 4.

Mathematical analysis

iA µ0 A
φ = µ0 = (20 sin(20πt) + 50 sin(30πt))
2r 2r

dφ µ0 A
So = (20π × 20 cos(20πt) + 30π × 50 cos(30πt))
dt 2r
µ0 A
= (400π cos(20πt) + 1500π cos(30πt))
2r

dφ µ0 A
so ε = −N = −4 (400π cos(20πt) + 1500π cos(30πt))
dt 2r
Now, µ0 = 4π × 10−7 , A = 0.03 and r = 1

−4 × 4π × 10−7 × 0.03
So ε = (400π cos(20πt) + 1500π cos(30πt))
2×1

= −7.5398 × 10−8 (1256.64 cos(20πt) + 4712.39 cos(30πt))

= −9.475 × 10−5 cos(20πt) + 3.553 × 10−4 cos(30πt)

Interpretation

The induced e.m.f. is −9.475 × 10−5 cos(20πt) + 3.553 × 10−4 cos(30πt).

The graphs in Figure 8 show the initial current in the single loop and the e.m.f. induced in the search
coil.

22 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

100

50

0
i(t)

−50

−100 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0

6

emf(t) × 104 0

−2

−4

−6

Figure 8
Note that the induced e.m.f. does not start at zero, which the initial current does, and has a different
pattern of variation with time.

Exercises
1. Calculate the derivative of y = x2 + sin x when x = 0.2 radians.

2. Calculate the rate of change of i(t) = 4 sin 2t + 3t when

π
(a) t = (b) t = 0.6 radians
3
3. Calculate the rate of change of F (t) = 5 sin t − 3 cos 2t when
(a) t = 0 radians (b) t = 1.3 radians

Answers
1. 1.380
2. (a) −1 (b) 5.8989
3. (a) 5 (b) 4.4305

HELM (2008): 23
Section 11.2: Using a Table of Derivatives
  

Higher Derivatives 11.3

 

Introduction
dy
The derivative, , is more expressly called the first derivative of y. By differentiating the first
dx
derivative, we obtain the second derivative; by differentiating the second derivative we obtain
the third derivative and so on. These second and subsequent derivatives are known as higher
derivatives. Second derivatives in particular occur frequently in engineering contexts.

 

Prerequisites • be able to differentiate standard functions

Before starting this Section you should . . .

 


Learning Outcomes • obtain higher derivatives

On completion you should be able to . . .
 

24 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

1. The derivative of a derivative

You have already learnt how to calculate the derivative of a function using a table of derivatives and
dy
applying some basic rules. By differentiating the function, y(x), we obtain the derivative, . By
dx
repeating the process we can obtain higher derivatives.

Example 7
Calculate the first, second and third derivatives of y = x4 + 6x2 .

Solution
dy
The first derivative is :
dx
first derivative = 4x3 + 12x
To obtain the second derivative we differentiate the first derivative.
second derivative = 12x2 + 12
The third derivative is found by differentiating the second derivative.
third derivative = 24x + 0 = 24x

2. Notation for derivatives

Just as there is a notation for the first derivative so there is a similar notation for higher derivatives.
dy d
Consider the function, y(x). We know that the first derivative is or (y) which is the instruction
dx dx
to differentiate the function y(x). The second derivative is calculated by differentiating the first
derivative, that is
 
d dy
second derivative =
dx dx
So, using a fairly obvious adaptation of our derivative notation, the second derivative is denoted by
d2 y
and is read as ‘dee two y by dee x squared’. This is often written more concisely as y 00 .
dx2
d3 y
In similar manner, the third derivative is denoted by 3 or y 000 and so on. So, referring to Example
dx
6 we could have written

dy
first derivative = = 4x3 + 12x
dx
d2 y
second derivative = 2 = 12x2 + 12
dx
d3 y
third derivative = 3 = 24x
dx

HELM (2008): 25
Section 11.3: Higher Derivatives
 Key Point 7
If y = y(x) then its first, second and third derivatives are denoted by:

dy d2 y d3 y
dx dx2 dx3
or y0 y 00 y 000

In most examples we use x to denote the independent variable and y the dependent variable. However,
in many applications, time t is the independent variable. In this case a special notation is used for
dy
derivatives. Derivatives with respect to t are often indicated using a dot notation, so can be
dt
written as ẏ, pronounced ‘y dot’. Similarly, a second derivative with respect to t can be written as
ÿ, pronounced ‘y double dot’.

Key Point 8
If y = y(t) then

dy d2 y
ẏ stands for , ÿ stands for etc
dt dt2

Task
d2 y d3 y
Calculate and given y = e2t + cos t.
dt2 dt3

dy
First find :
dx
Your solution

Answer
dy
= 2e2t − sin t
dt

26 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Now obtain the second derivative:

Your solution
d2 y
=
dt2

Answer
4e2t − cos t

Finally, obtain the third derivative:

Your solution 
d3 y d d2 y

= =
dt3 dt dt2

Answer
8e2t + sin t

Note that in the last Task we could have used the dot notation and written ẏ = 2e2t − sin t,
ÿ = 4e2t − cos t and ÿ˙ = 8e2t + sin t
We may need to evaluate higher derivatives at specific points. We use an obvious notation.
d2 y
The second derivative of y(x), evaluated at say, x = 2, is written as (2), or more simply as y 00 (2).
dx2
d3 y
The third derivative evaluated at x = −1 is written as (−1) or y 000 (−1).
dx3

Task
Given y(x) = 2 sin x + 3x2 find (a) y 0 (1) (b) y 00 (−1) (c) y 000 (0)

First find y 0 (x), y 00 (x) and y 000 (x):

Your solution
y 0 (x) = y 00 (x) = y 000 =

Answer
y 0 (x) = 2 cos x + 6x y 00 (x) = −2 sin x + 6 y 000 (x) = −2 cos x

Now substitute x = 1 in y 0 (x) to obtain y 0 (1):

Your solution
(a) y 0 (1) =

Answer
y 0 (1) = 2 cos 1 + 6(1) = 7.0806. Remember, in cos 1 the ‘1’ is 1 radian.

HELM (2008): 27
Section 11.3: Higher Derivatives
Now find y 00 (−1):

Your solution
(b) y 00 (−1) =

Answer
y 00 (−1) = −2 sin(−1) + 6 = 7.6829

Finally, find y 000 (0):

Your solution
(c) y 000 (0) =

Answer
y 000 (0) = −2 cos 0 = −2.

Exercises
d2 y
1. Find where y(x) is defined by:
dx2
√
(a) 3x2 − e2x (b) sin 3x + cos x (c) x (d) ex + e−x (e) 1 + x + x2 + ln x
d3 y
2. Find where y is given in Exercise 1.
dx3
3. Calculate ÿ(1) where y(t) is given by:
1 t
(a) t(t2 + 1) (b) sin(−2t) (c) 2et + e2t (d) (e) cos
t 2
...
4. Calculate y (−1) for the functions given in Exercise 3.

Answers
1 1
1. (a) 6 − 4e2x (b) −9 sin 3x − cos x (c) − x−3/2 (d) ex + e−x (e) 2 −
4 x2
3 −5/2 2
2. (a) −8e2x (b) −27 cos 3x + sin x (c) x (d) ex − e−x (e) 3
8 x
3. (a) 6 (b) 3.6372 (c) 34.9927 (d) 2 (e) −0.2194

4. (a) 6 (b) −3.3292 (c) 1.8184 (d) −6 (e) −0.0599

28 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Differentiating  

ProductsandQuotients 11.4 

Introduction
We have seen, in the first three Sections, how standard functions like xn , eax , sin ax, cos ax, ln ax
may be differentiated.
In this Section we see how more complicated functions may be differentiated. We concentrate, for
eax ln x
the moment, on products and quotients of standard functions like xn eax , .
sin x
We will see that two simple rules may be consistently employed to obtain the derivatives of such
functions.

#
• be able to differentiate the standard
functions: logarithms, polynomials,
Prerequisites exponentials, and trigonometric functions
Before starting this Section you should . . .
• be able to manipulate algebraic expressions
"
 !

• differentiate products and quotients of the
Learning Outcomes standard functions
On completion you should be able to . . . • differentiate a quotient using the product rule
 

HELM (2008): 29
Section 11.4: Differentiating Products and Quotients
1. Differentiating a product
In previous Sections we have examined the process of differentiating functions. We found how to
obtain the derivative of many commonly occurring functions. These are recorded in the following
table (remember, arguments of trigonometric functions are assumed to be in radians).

Table 2

dy
y
dx

xn nxn−1
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax −a sin ax
tan ax a sec2 ax
sec ax a sec x tan x
1
ln ax
x
eax aeax
cosh ax a sinh ax
sinh ax a cosh ax

In this Section we consider how to differentiate non-standard functions - in particular those which can
be written as the product of standard functions. Being able to differentiate such functions depends
upon the following Key Point.

Key Point 9
Product Rule
dy df dg
If y = f (x)g(x) then = g(x) + f (x) (or y 0 = f 0 g + f g 0 )
dx dx dx

dy dv du
If y = u.v then =u +v (or y 0 = uv 0 + vu0 )
dx dx dx

These versions are equivalent, and called the product rule.

We shall not prove this result, instead we shall concentrate on its use.

30 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Example 8
Differentiate (a) y = x2 sin x (b) y = x ln x

Solution

df dg
(a) Here f (x) = x2 , g(x) = sin x ∴ = 2x , = cos x
dx dx
dy
and so = 2x(sin x) + x2 (cos x) = x(2 sin x + x cos x)
dx
df dg 1
(b) Here f (x) = x, g(x) = ln x ∴ =1, =
dx dx x
 
dy 1
and so = 1.(ln x) + x. = ln x + 1
dx x

Task
e2x
Determine the derivatives of the following functions (a) y = ex ln x, (b) y =
x2

(a) Use the product rule:

Your solution
df dg
f (x) = = g(x) = =
dx dx
dy
∴ =
dx
Answer
dy ex
= ex ln x +
dx x

(b) Write y = (x−2 )e2x and then differentiate:

Your solution
df dg
f (x) = = g(x) = =
dx dx
dy
∴ =
dx
Answer
dy 2e2x
= (−2x−3 )e2x + x−2 (2e2x ) = 3 (−1 + x)
dx x

HELM (2008): 31
Section 11.4: Differentiating Products and Quotients
The rule for differentiating a product can be extended to any number of products. If, for example,
y = f (x)g(x)h(x) then

dy df d
= [g(x)h(x)] + f (x) [g(x)h(x)]
dx dx dx 
df dg dh
= g(x)h(x) + f (x) h(x) + g(x)
dx dx dx
df dg dh
= g(x)h(x) + f (x) h(x) + f (x)g(x)
dx dx dx
That is, each function in the product is differentiated in turn and the three results added together.

Example 9
dy
If y = xe2x sin x then find .
dx

Solution
Here f (x) = x, g(x) = e2x , h(x) = sin x
df dg dh
= 1, = 2e2x , = cos x
dx dx dx

dy
∴ = 1(e2x sin x) + x(2e2x ) sin x + xe2x (cos x)
dx
= e2x (sin x + 2x sin x + x cos x)

Task
Obtain the first derivative of y = x2 (ln x) sinh x.

Firstly identify the three functions:

Your solution

f (x) = g(x) = h(x) =

Answer
f (x) = x2 , g(x) = ln x, h(x) = sinh x

Now find the derivative of each of these functions:

32 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Your solution
df dg dh
= = =
dx dx dx

Answer
df dg 1 dh
= 2x, = , = cosh x
dx dx x dx

dy
Finally obtain :
dx
Your solution

Answer
 
dy 2 1
= 2x(ln x) sinh x + x sinh x + x2 ln x(cosh x)
dx x
= 2x ln x sinh x + x sinh x + x2 ln x cosh x

Task
Find the second derivative of y = x2 (ln x) sinh x by differentiating each of the
dy
three terms making up found in the previous Task (2x ln x sinh x, x sinh x,
dx
2
x ln x cosh x), and finally, simplify your answer by collecting like terms together:

Your solution

d
(2x ln x sinh x) =
dx
d
(x sinh x) =
dx
d 2
(x ln x cosh x) =
dx
d2 y
=
dx2

Answer
d2 y
= (2 + x2 ) ln x sinh x + 3 sinh x + 2x cosh x + 4x ln x cosh x
dx2

HELM (2008): 33
Section 11.4: Differentiating Products and Quotients
 Exercises
1. In each case find the derivative of the function

(a) y = x tan x
(b) y = x4 ln(2x)
(c) y = sin2 x
(d) y = e2x cos 3x

2. Find the derivatives of:

x
(a) y =
cos x
(b) y = ex sin x
(c) Obtain the derivative of y = xex tan x using the results of parts (a) and (b).

Answers
dy
1. (a) = tan x + x sec2 x
dx
dy x4
(b) = 4x3 ln(2x) + = x3 (4 ln(2x) + 1)
dx x
(c) y = sin x. sin x
dy
∴ = cos x sin x + sin x cos x = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
dx
dy
(d) = (2e2x ) cos 3x + e2x (−3 sin 3x) = e2x (2 cos 3x − 3 sin 3x)
dx
dy
2. (a) y = x sec x ∴ = sec x + x sec x tan x
dx
dy
(b) = ex sin x + ex cos x = ex (sin x + cos x)
dx
(c) The derivative of y = xex tan x = (x sec x)(ex sin x) is found by applying the product
rule to the results of (a) and (b):

dy d d
= (x sec x).ex sin x + (x sec x) (ex sin x)
dx dx dx
= (sec x + x sec x tan x)e sin x + x sec x(ex )(sin x + cos x)
x

= ex (x + tan x + x tan x + x tan2 x)

34 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

2. Differentiating a quotient
f (x)
In this Section we consider functions of the form y = . To find the derivative of such a function
g(x)
we make use of the following Key Point:

Key Point 10
Quotient Rule
df dg
f (x) dy g(x) − f (x) gf 0 − g 0 f
If y = then = dx dx (or y 0 = )
g(x) dx [g(x)]2 g2

du dv
u dy v− u vu0 − v 0 u
If y = then = dx 2 dx (or y 0 = )
v dx v v2
These are two equivalent versions of the quotient rule.

Example 10
ln x
Find the derivative of y =
x

Solution
Here f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x
df 1 dg
∴ = and =1
dx  x dx
1
x − 1(ln x)
dy x 1 − ln x
Hence = 2
=
dx [x] x2

HELM (2008): 35
Section 11.4: Differentiating Products and Quotients
 Task
sin x
Obtain the derivative of y = (a) using the formula for differentiating a
x2
product and (b) using the formula for differentiating a quotient.

dy
(a) Write y = x−2 sin x then use the product rule to find :
dx
Your solution

Answer
dy dy −2 sin x + x cos x
y = x−2 sin x ∴ = (−2x−3 ) sin x + x−2 cos x ∴ =
dx dx x3

dy
(b) Now use the quotient rule instead to find :
dx
Your solution

Answer
sin x dy x2 (cos x) − (2x) sin x x cos x − 2 sin x
y= 2 ∴ = 2 2
=
x dx (x ]) x3

36 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Exercise
Find the derivatives of the following:

(a) (2x3 − 4x2 )(3x5 + x2 )

2x3 + 4
(b)
x2 − 4x + 1
x2 + 2x + 1
(c)
x2 − 2x + 1
(d) (x2 + 3)(2x − 5)(3x + 2)
(2x + 1)(3x − 1)
(e)
x+5
(f) (ln x) sin x
(g) (ln x)/ sin x
(h) ex /x2
ex sin x
(i)
cos 2x

Answer

(a) 48x7 − 84x6 + 10x4 − 16x3

2x4 − 16x3 + 6x2 − 8x + 16
(b)
(x2 − 4x + 1)2
4(x + 1)
(c) −
(x − 1)3
(d) 24x3 − 33x2 + 16x − 33
6(x2 + 10x + 1)
(e)
(x + 5)2
1
(f) sin x + (ln x) cos x
x
 
1
sin x − (ln x) cos x
x 1
(g) 2 = cosecx( − cot x ln x)
sin x x
2 x x
x e − 2xe
(h) = (x−2 − 2x−3 )ex
x4
cos 2x(ex sin x + ex cos x) + 2 sin 2xex sin x
(i)
cos2 2x
= ex [(sin x + cos x) sec 2x + 2 sin x sin 2x sec2 2x]

HELM (2008): 37
Section 11.4: Differentiating Products and Quotients
  

The Chain Rule 11.5 

Introduction
In this Section we will see how to obtain the derivative of a composite function (often referred to as
a ‘function of a function’). To do this we use the chain rule. This rule can be used to obtain the
2
derivatives of functions such as ex +3x (the exponential
√ function of a polynomial); sin(ln x) (the sine
3
function of the natural logarithm function); x + 4 (the square root function of a polynomial).

 
• be able to differentiate standard functions
Prerequisites
• be able to use the product and quotient rule
Before starting this Section you should . . . for finding derivatives

 

• differentiate a function of a function
Learning Outcomes using the chain rule
On completion you should be able to . . . • differentiate a power function
 

38 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

1. The meaning of a function of a function

√
When we use a function like sin 2x or eln x or x2 + 1 we are in fact dealing with a composite
function or function of a function.
sin 2x is the sine function of 2x. This is, in fact, how we ‘read’ it:
sin 2x is read ‘sine of 2x’
Similarly eln x is the exponential function of the logarithm of x:
eln x is read ‘e to the power of ln x’
√
Finally x2 + 1 is also a composite function. It is the square root function of the polynomial x2 + 1:
√
x2 + 1 is read as the ‘square root of (x2 + 1)’
When we talk about a function of a function in a general setting we will use the notation f (g(x))
where both f and g are functions.

Example 11
Specify the functions f, g for the composite functions
√
(a) sin 2x (b) x2 + 1 (c) eln x

Solution

(a) Here f is the sine function and g is the polynomial 2x. We often write:

f (g) = sin g and g(x) = 2x

√
(b) Here f (g) = g and g(x) = x2 + 1

(c) Here f (g) = eg and g(x) = ln x

In each case the original function of x is obtained when g(x) is substituted into f (g).

HELM (2008): 39
Section 11.5: The Chain Rule
 Task
Specify the functions f, g for the composite functions
(a) cos(3x2 − 1) (b) sinh(ex ) (c) (x2 + 3x − 1)1/3

Your solution
(a)

Answer
f (g) = cos g g(x) = 3x2 − 1

Your solution
(b)

Answer
f (g) = sinh g g(x) = ex

Your solution
(c)

Answer
f (g) = g 1/3 g(x) = x2 + 3x − 1

2. The derivative of a function of a function

To differentiate a function of a function we use the following Key Point:

Key Point 11
The Chain Rule
If y = f (g(x)), that is, a function of a function, then

dy df dg
= ×
dx dg dx
This is called the chain rule.

40 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Example 12
Find the derivatives of the following composite functions using the chain rule and
check the result using other methods
(a) (2x2 − 1)2 (b) ln ex

Solution
(a) Here y = f (g(x)) where f (g) = g 2 and g(x) = 2x2 − 1. Thus
df dg dy
= 2g and = 4x ∴ = 2g.(4x) = 2(2x2 − 1)(4x) = 8x(2x2 − 1)
dg dx dx
This result is easily checked by using the rule for differentiating products:
dy
y = (2x2 −1)(2x2 −1) so = 4x(2x2 −1)+(2x2 −1)(4x) = 8x(2x2 −1) as obtained above.
dx
(b) Here y = f (g(x)) where f (g) = ln g and g(x) = ex . Thus
df 1 dg dy 1 1
= and = ex ∴ = · ex = x · ex = 1
dg g dx dx g e
This is easily checked since, of course,
dy
y = ln ex = x and so, obviously = 1 as obtained above.
dx

Task
Obtain the derivatives of the following functions
 3
2 9 2x + 1
(a) (2x − 5x + 3) (b) sin(cos x) (c)
2x − 1

(a) Specify f and g for the first function:

Your solution
f (g) = g(x) =

Answer
f (g) = g 9 g(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3

Now obtain the derivative using the chain rule:

Your solution

Answer
9(2x2 − 5x + 3)8 (4x − 5). Can you see how to obtain the derivative without going through the
intermediate stage of specifying f, g?

HELM (2008): 41
Section 11.5: The Chain Rule
(b) Specify f and g for the second function:

Your solution

Answer
f (g) = sin g g(x) = cos x

Now use the chain rule to obtain the derivative:

Your solution

Answer
−[cos(cos x)] sin x

(c) Apply the chain rule to the third function:

Your solution

Answer
12(2x + 1)2
−
(2x − 1)4

3. Power functions
An example of a function of a function which often occurs is the so-called power function [g(x)]k
where k is any rational number. This is an example of a function of a function in which
f (g) = g k
dy df dg dg
Thus, using the chain rule: if y = [g(x)]k then = · = k g k−1 .
dx dg dx dx
dy 1
For example, if y = (sin x + cos x)1/3 then = (sin x + cos x)−2/3 (cos x − sin x).
dx 3

42 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Task
Find the derivatives of the following power functions
(a) y = sin3 x (b) y = (x2 + 1)1/2 (c) y = (e3x )7

(a) Note that sin3 x is the conventional way of writing (sin x)3 . Now find its derivative:

Your solution

Answer
dy
= 3(sin x)2 cos x which we would normally write as 3 sin2 x cos x
dx

(b) Use the function of a function approach again:

Your solution

Answer
dy 1 x
= (x2 + 1)−1/2 2x = √
dx 2 2
x +1

(c) Use the function of a function approach first, and then look for a quicker way in this case:

Your solution

Answer
dy
= 7(e3x )6 (3e3x ) = 21(e3x )7 = 21e21x
dx
dy
Note that (e3x )7 = e21x ∴ = 21e21x directly - a much quicker way.
dx

Exercise
Obtain the derivatives of the following functions:
 4
2x + 1
(a) (b) tan(3x2 + 2x) (c) sin2 (3x2 − 1)
3x − 1

Answer
20(2x + 1)3
(a) − (b) 2(3x + 1) sec2 (3x2 + 2x)
(3x − 1)5
(c) 6x sin(6x2 − 2) (remember sin 2x ≡ 2 sin x cos x)

HELM (2008): 43
Section 11.5: The Chain Rule
Parametric  

Differentiation 11.6 

Introduction
Sometimes the equation of a curve is not be given in Cartesian form y = f (x) but in parametric form:
dy
x = h(t), y = g(t). In this Section we see how to calculate the derivative from a knowledge of
dx
dx dy
the so-called parametric derivatives and . We then extend this to the determination of the
dt dt
d2 y
second derivative 2 .
dx
Parametric functions arise often in particle dynamics in which the parameter t represents the time
and (x(t), y(t)) then represents the position of a particle as it varies with time.

 
• be able to differentiate standard functions
Prerequisites
• be able to plot a curve given in parametric
Before starting this Section you should . . . form

 

• find first and second derivatives when the
Learning Outcomes equation of a curve is given in parametric
On completion you should be able to . . . form
 

44 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

1. Parametric differentiation
In this subsection we consider the parametric approach to describing a curve:
x = h(t) y = g(t) t ≤t≤t
| {z } |0 {z }1
/ \
parametric equations parametric range
As various values of t are chosen within the parameter range the corresponding values of x, y are
calculated from the parametric equations. When these points are plotted on an xy plane they trace
out a curve. The Cartesian equation of this curve is obtained by eliminating the parameter t from
the parametric equations. For example, consider the curve:
x = 2 cos t y = 2 sin t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
We can eliminate the t variable in an obvious way - square each parametric equation and then add:
x2 + y 2 = 4 cos2 t + 4 sin2 t = 4 ∴ x2 + y 2 = 4
which we recognise as the standard equation of a circle with centre at (0, 0) with radius 2.
In a similar fashion the parametric equations
x = 2t y = 4t2 −∞<t<∞
describes a parabola. This follows since, eliminating the parameter t:
 2
x x
t= ∴ y=4 so y = x2
2 4
which we recognise as the standard equation of a parabola.
dy
The question we wish to address in this Section is ‘how do we obtain the derivative if a curve is
dx
given in parametric form?’ To answer this we note the key result in this area:

Key Point 12
Parametric Differentiation
If x = h(t) and y = g(t) then

dy dy dx
= ÷
dx dt dt

dy
We note that this result allows the determination of without the need to find y as an explicit
dx
function of x.

HELM (2008): 45
Section 11.6: Parametric Differentiation
 Example 13
Determine the equation of the tangent line to the semicircle with parametric equa-
tions
x = cos t y = sin t 0≤t≤π
at t = π/4.

Solution
The semicircle is drawn in Figure 9. We have also drawn the tangent line at t = π/4 (or, equivalently,
π 1 π 1
at x = cos = √ , y = sin = √ .)
4 2 4 2
y

√ P
1/ 2

π/4
x
√
1/ 2

Figure 9

Now
dy dy dx cos t
= ÷ = = − cot t.
dx dt dt − sin t
π dy π 
Thus at t = we have = − cot = −1.
4 dx 4
The equation of the tangent line is
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line and c is a constant.
Clearly m = −1 (since, at the point P the line and the circle have the same gradient).
 
1 1
To find c we note that the line passes through the point P with coordinates √ , √ . Hence
2 2
1 1 2
√ = (−1) √ + c ∴ c= √
2 2 2
Finally,
2
y = −x + √
2
is the equation of the tangent line at the point in question.

46 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

We should note, before proceeding, that a derivative with respect to the parameter t is often denoted
by a ‘dot’. Thus
dx dy d2 x
= ẋ, = ẏ, = ẍ etc.
dt dt dt2

Task
dy
Find the value of if x = 3t, y = t2 − 4t + 1.
dx
dy
Check your result by finding in the normal way.
dx

dx dy
First find , :
dt dt
Your solution

Answer
dx dy
= 3, = 2t − 4
dt dt
dy
Now obtain :
dx
Your solution

Answer
dy dy dx 2t − 4 2 4
= ÷ = = t− ,
dx dt dt 3 3 3
dy ẏ 2t − 4 2 4
or, using the ‘dot’ notation = = = t−
dx ẋ 3 3 3
dy
Now find y explicitly as a function of x by eliminating t, and so find directly:
dx
Your solution

Answer
x x2 4x dy 2x 4 2t 4
t= ∴ y= − + 1. Finally: = − = − .
3 9 3 dx 9 3 3 3

HELM (2008): 47
Section 11.6: Parametric Differentiation
 Task
dy
Find the value of at t = 2 if x = 3t − 4 sin πt, y = t2 + t cos πt, 0≤t≤4
dx

dx dy
First find , :
dt dt
Your solution

Answer
dx dy
= 3 − 4π cos πt = 2t + cos πt − πt sin πt
dt dt
dy
Now obtain :
dx
Your solution

Answer
dy dy dx 2t + cos πt − πt sin πt
= ÷ =
dx dt dt 3 − 4π cos πt
dy ẏ 2t + cos πt − πt sin πt
or, using the dot notation, = =
dx ẋ 3 − 4π cos πt
dy
Finally, substitute t = 2 to find at this value of t.
dx
Your solution

Answer
dy 4+1 5
= = = −0.523
dx t=2 3 − 4π 3 − 4π

48 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

2. Higher derivatives
dy
Having found the first derivative using parametric differentiation we now ask how we might
dx
d2 y
determine the second derivative 2 .
dx
By definition:
d2 y
 
d dy
=
dx2 dx dx
But
d2 y
 
dy ẏ d ẏ
= and so =
dx ẋ dx2 dx ẋ
ẏ
Now is a function of t so we can change the derivative with respect to x into a derivative with
ẋ
respect to t since
    
d dy d dy dt
=
dx dx dt dx dx
from the function of a function rule (Key Point 11 in Section 11.5).
But, differentiating the quotient ẏ/ẋ, we have
 
d ẏ ẋÿ − ẏẍ dt 1 1
= and =   =
dt ẋ ẋ2 dx dx ẋ
dt
so finally:
d2 y ẋÿ − ẏẍ
=
dx2 ẋ3

Key Point 13
If x = h(t), y = g(t) then the first and second derivatives of y with respect to x are:

dy ẏ d2 y ẋÿ − ẏẍ
= and =
dx ẋ dx2 ẋ3

HELM (2008): 49
Section 11.6: Parametric Differentiation
 Example 14
dy d2 y
If the equations of a curve are x = 2t, y = t2 − 3, determine and 2 .
dx dx

Solution
dy ẏ 2t
Here ẋ = 2, ẏ = 2t ∴ = = = t.
dx ẋ 2
d2 y 2(2) − 2t(0) 1
Also ẍ = 0, ÿ = 2 ∴ 2
= 3
= .
dx (2) 2
x x2
These results can easily be checked since t = and y = t2 − 3 which imply y = − 3. Therefore
2 4
dy 2x x d2 y 1
the derivatives can be obtained directly: = = and 2
= .
dx 4 2 dx 2

Exercises
dy d2 y
1. For the following sets of parametric equations find and 2
dx dx
(a) x = 3t2 y = 4t3 (b) x = 4 − t2 y = t2 + 4t (c) x = t2 et y=t

2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve

π
x = 1 + 3 sin t y = 2 − 5 cos t at t =
6
Answers
dy d2 y 1 dy 2 d2 y 1
1. (a) = 2t, 2
= . (b) = −1 − , 2
=− 3
dx dx 3t dx t dx t
dy e−t d2 y e−2t (t2 + 4t + 2)
(c) = , = −
dx 2t + t2 dx2 (t + 2)3 t3
2. ẋ = 3 cos t ẏ = +5 sin t
√
dy 5 dy 5 π 5 1 5 3
∴ = tan t ∴ = tan = √ =
dx 3 t=π/6dx 3 6 3 3 9
√
5 3
The equation of the tangent line is y = mx + c where m = .
9
√
π 3 3
The line passes through the point x = 1 + 3 sin = 1 + , y = 2 − 5 and so
6 2 2
√ √ √
3 5 3 3 35 3
2−5 = (1 + ) + c ∴ c=2−
2 9 2 9

50 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Implicit  

Differentiation 11.7 

Introduction
This Section introduces implicit differentiation which is used to differentiate functions expressed in
implicit form (where the variables are found together). Examples are x3 + xy + y 2 = 1, and
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1 which represents an ellipse.
a2 b

 

• be able to differentiate standard functions

Prerequisites
• be competent in using the chain rule
Before starting this Section you should . . .

 


Learning Outcomes • differentiate functions expressed implicitly

On completion you should be able to . . .
 

HELM (2008): 51
Section 11.7: Implicit Differentiation
1. Implicit and explicit functions
1
Equations such as y = x2 , y = , y = sin x are said to define y explicitly as a function of x because
x
the variable y appears alone on one side of the equation.
The equation
yx + y + 1 = x
is not of the form y = f (x) but can be put into this form by simple algebra.

Task
Write y as the subject of
yx + y + 1 = x

Your solution

Answer
We have y(x + 1) = x − 1 so
x−1
y=
x+1

We say that y is defined implicitly as a function of x by means of yx + y +1 = x, the actual function

being given explicitly as
x−1
y=
x+1
We note than an equation relating x and y can implicitly define more than one function of x.
For example, if we solve
x2 + y 2 = 1
√
we obtain y = ± 1 − x2 so x2 + y 2 = 1 defines implicitly two functions
√ √
f1 (x) = 1 − x2 f2 (x) = − 1 − x2

52 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Task √ √
Sketch the graphs of f1 (x) = 1 − x2 f2 (x) = − 1 − x2
(The equation x2 + y 2 = 1 should give you the clue.)

Your solution

Answer
Since x2 + y 2 = 1 is the well-known equation of the circle with centre at the origin and radius 1, it
follows that the graphs of f1 (x) and f2 (x) are the upper and lower halves of this circle.

y √ y
f1 (x) = + 1 − x2

−1 1
x x
−1 1
√
f2 (x) = − 1 − x2

Sometimes it is difficult or even impossible to solve an equation in x and y to obtain y explicitly in

terms of x.
Examples where explicit expressions for y cannot be obtained are
sin(xy) = y x2 + sin y = 2y

2. Differentiation of implicit functions

Fortunately it is not necessary to obtain y in terms of x in order to differentiate a function defined
implicitly.
Consider the simple equation
xy = 1
dy
Here it is clearly possible to obtain y as the subject of this equation and hence obtain .
dx

HELM (2008): 53
Section 11.7: Implicit Differentiation
 Task
dy
Express y explicitly in terms of x and find for the case xy = 1.
dx

Your solution

Answer
We have immediately
1 dy 1
y= so =− 2
x dx x

dy
We now show an alternative way of obtaining which does not involve writing y explicitly in terms
dx
of x at the outset. We simply treat y as an (unspecified) function of x.
Hence if xy = 1 we obtain
d d
(xy) = (1).
dx dx
The right-hand side differentiates to zero as 1 is a constant. On the left-hand side we must use the
product rule of differentiation:
d dy dx dy
(xy) = x + y =x +y
dx dx dx dx
Hence xy = 1 becomes, after differentiation,
dy dy y
x + y = 0 or =−
dx dx x
1
In this case we can of course substitute y = to obtain
x
1
y=−
x2
as before.
The method used here is called implicit differentiation and, apart from the final step, it can be
applied even if y cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of x. Indeed, on occasions, it is easier to
differentiate implicitly even if an explicit expression is possible.

54 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Example 15
dy
Obtain the derivative where
dx
x2 + y = 1 + y 3

Solution
We begin by differentiating the left-hand side of the equation with respect to x to get:
d 2 dy
(x + y) = 2x + .
dx dx
We now differentiate the right-hand side of with respect to x. Using the chain (or function of a
function) rule to deal with the y 3 term:
d d d dy
(1 + y 3 ) = (1) + (y 3 ) = 0 + 3y 2
dx dx dx dx
Now by equating the left-hand side and right-hand side derivatives, we have:
dy dy
2x + = 3y 2
dx dx
dy
We can make the subject of this equation:
dx
dy dy dy 2x
− 3y 2 = −2x which gives = 2
dx dx dx 3y − 1

dy
We note that has to be expressed in terms of both x and y. This is quite usual if y cannot be
dx
obtained explicitly in terms of x. Now try this Task requiring implicit differentiation.

Task
dy
Find if 2y = x2 + sin y
dx
Note that your answer will be in terms of both y and x.

Your solution

Answer
We have, on differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and using the chain rule
on the sin y term:
d d 2 d dy dy dy 2x
(2y) = (x ) + (sin y) i.e. 2 = 2x + cos y leading to = .
dx dx dx dx dx dx 2 − cos y

HELM (2008): 55
Section 11.7: Implicit Differentiation
 d2 y
We sometimes need to obtain the second derivative for a function defined implicitly.
dx2

Example 16
dy d2 y
Obtain and 2 at the point (4, 2) on the curve defined by the equation
dx dx
x − xy − y 2 − 2y = 0
2

Solution
dy
Firstly we obtain by differentiating the equation implicitly and then evaluate it at (4, 2).
dx
dy dy dy
We have 2x − x − y − 2y −2 =0 (1)
dx dx dx
dy 2x − y
from which = (2)
dx x + 2y + 2
dy 6 3
so at (4, 2) = = .
dx 10 5
d2 y
To obtain the second derivative it is easier to use (1) than (2) because the latter is a quotient.
dx2
We simplify (1) first:
dy
2x − y − (x + 2y + 2) =0 (3)
dx
We will have to use the product rule to differentiate the third term here.
Hence differentiating (3) with respect to x:
dy d2 y dy dy
2− − (x + 2y + 2) 2 − (1 + 2 ) =0
dx dx dx dx
or
2
d2 y

dy dy
2−2 −2 − (x + 2y + 2) 2 = 0 (4)
dx dx dx
 2
dy
Note carefully that the third term here, , is the square of the first derivative. It should not
dx
d2 y
be confused with the second derivative denoted by 2 .
dx
dy 3 3 9 d2 y
Finally, at (4, 2) where = we obtain from (4): 2 − 2( ) − 2( ) − (4 + 4 + 2) 2 = 0
dx 5 5 25 dx
d2 y 1
from which 2
= at (4, 2).
dx 125

56 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation
 ®

Task
This Task involves finding a formula for the curvature of a bent beam. When a
horizontal beam is acted on by forces which bend it, then each small segment of
the beam will be slightly curved and can be regarded as an arc of a circle. The
radius R of that circle is called the radius of curvature of the beam at the point
concerned. If the shape of the beam is described by an equation of the form
y = f (x) then there is a formula for the radius of curvature R which involves only
dy d2 y
the first and second derivatives and 2 .
dx dx
Find that equation as follows.
Start with the equation of a circle in the simple implicit form
x2 + y 2 = R 2
and perform implicit differentiation twice. Now use the result of the first implicit
differentiation to find a simple expression for the quantity 1 + (dy/dx)2 in terms of
R and y; this can then be used to simplify the result of the second differentiation,
1 dy d2 y
and will lead to a formula for (called the curvature) in terms of and 2 .
R dx dx

Your solution

HELM (2008): 57
Section 11.7: Implicit Differentiation
Answer
Differentiating: x2 + y 2 = R2 gives:
dy
2x + 2y =0 (1)
dx
2
d2 y

dy
Differentiating again: 2+2 + 2y =0 (2)
dx dx2
From (1)
 2  2
dy x dy x2 y 2 + x2 R
=− ∴ 1+ =1+ 2 = 2
= (3)
dx y dx y y y
 2   2
dy R
So 1 + = .
dx y
 2  2     3
R dy d2 y R2 1 R
Thus (2) becomes 2 + 2y 2
=0 ∴ 2
=− 3 =−
y dx dx y R y
3
d2 y
 
1 R
so = − (4)
dx2 R y
 
1 R
Rearranging (4) to make the subject and substituting for from (3) gives the result:
R y
d2 y
1 dx2
= −" 2 #3/2
R 
dy
1+
dx
The equation usually found in textbooks omits the minus sign but the sign indicates whether the
circle is above or below the curve, as you will see by sketching a few examples. When the gradient is
dy
small (as for a slightly deflected horizontal beam), i.e. is small, the denominator in the equation
dx
for (1/R) is close to 1, and so the second derivative alone is often used to estimate the radius of
curvature in the theory of bending beams.

58 HELM (2008):
Workbook 11: Differentiation