Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 4
Environmental Pollution and Water Chemistry
Environmental Pollution: Air pollutants: Sources, effects and control of primary air pollutants:
Carbon monoxide, Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, hydrocarbons, Particulate matter, Carbon
monoxide, Mercury and Lead. Secondary air pollutant: Ozone, Ozone depletion.
Waste Management: Solid waste, e-waste & biomedical waste: Sources, characteristics &
disposal methods (Scientific land filling, composting, recycling and reuse).
Water Chemistry: Introduction, sources and impurities of water; boiler feed water, boiler
troubles with disadvantages -scale and sludge formation, boiler corrosion (due to dissolved O2,
CO2 and MgCl2). Sources of water pollution, Sewage, Definitions of Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), determination of COD, numerical problems on
COD. Chemical analysis of water: Sulphates (gravimetry) and Fluorides (colorimetry). Sewage
treatment: Primary, secondary (activated sludge) and tertiary methods. Softening of water by ion
exchange process. Desalination of sea water by reverse osmosis.
(RBT Levels: L3)
Course outcome: Environmental pollution, waste management and water chemistry.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Air pollution
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of harmful gases, dust, smoke which enters into the
atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes
dirty. The main pollutants in the atmosphere are SO2 (sulphur dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide),
oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter, mercury, lead etc.,
Primary air pollutant: Pollutants that are emitted directly from either natural events or
from human activities are called primary air pollutant.
1.Carbon monoxide
Sources:
• Oxidation of methane: Methane is formed during decay of vegetable matter. Oxidation
of methane releases carbon monoxide into the atmosphere.
• Automobile exhaust- carbon monoxide is formed during the combustion of fuel such as
petrol and is released into the atmosphere through the exhaust
• Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels: coal when undergoes incomplete oxidation, forms
carbon monoxide and pollutes the atmosphere.
2C + O2 → 2CO

• Industries: carbon monoxide is released by industries such as iron and steel and
petroleum .
CO2 + C → 2CO

2CO2 → 2CO + O2

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Ill effects:
• Haemoglobin in blood can form a complex with oxygen and hence functions as carrier of
oxygen.
• When the atmosphere is polluted with carbon monoxide, on inhalation, CO combines
with the hemoglobin to form carboxy haemoglobin and hence oxygen carrying capacity
of the blood decreases.
• This causes, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness.
• When inhaled for a long duration it may cause even death.

Control:
• Using catalytic converter in automobiles.
2CO + O2 → CO2

2. Oxides of nitrogen
Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are the three main oxides of
nitrogen found in the atmosphere
Sources:
The sources for the oxides of nitrogen are:
• Bacterial decomposition of nitrogenous compounds – bacteria in the soil act on the
ammonium compounds present in the soil, convert them to ammonia and finally
release oxides of nitrogen into the atmosphere.
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

• Combustion during lightning – during lightning, oxygen and nitrogen in the

atmosphere combine to give oxides of nitrogen.
N2 + O2 → 2NO
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
• Industries and automobile exhaust - Air is sucked into the IC engines. At high
temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to form nitric
oxide.
N2 + O2 → 2NO
Nitric oxide escapes through the exhaust. It gets cooled rapidly and combines
with oxygen in the air to give nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
Ill effects:
Pollution due to oxides of nitrogen affects human and plant life:
The oxides of nitrogen combine with moisture in the atmosphere to form nitrous and nitric
acid. This leads to increase in the acidity of rain water
F ormation of photochemical smog: oxides of nitrogen combine with hydrocarbons present
in the atmosphere forming peroxyacyl nitrate.
Peoxyacyl nitrate causes injury to plants and in human beings it causes fatigue and infection
of the lungs
Peroxyacyl nitrate formation leads to smog ( fog + smoke). Smog reduces visibility.
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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Fading of dyes is caused in textiles .

Control:
Using catalytic converter in automobiles. Catalytic converters use Pt/ Rh catalyst.
in the presence of the catalysts, the oxides of nitrogen are converted to nitrogen and oxygen .
2NOx → N2 + x O2

3. Oxides of sulphur
Sources:
• Combustion of fossil fuels – coal and crude oil contain up to 3% sulphur.
• roasting of ores – sulphide ores on roasting, are converted to sulphur trioxide. This, when
let into the atmosphere, combines with the moisture in the atmosphere to form sulphuric
acid.
for example, roasting of galena , the sulphide ore of lead
2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2

2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

H2O + SO3 → H2SO4

• oxidation of l H2S – Hydrogen sulphide is formed during the decay of plants.

This, on oxidation releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.
2H2S + 3O2 → 2H2O + 2 SO2

• Volcanic eruptions also emit sulphur dioxide.

Ill effects of SO2:

• Sulphur dioxide pollution in the atmosphere affects causes the following damages :
• In humans : it causes eye irritation, cough, lung diseases including lung cancer and
asthma
• In plants: it causes damage of leaves, bleaching of chlorophyll which turns leaves
brown, damage to crops and to growth of plants.
• Others: Yellowing of paper and wearing away of leather are other ill effects.

Control:
• The gases evolved during combustion of fossil fuels are passed through calcium
carbonate when SO2 is converted to calcium sulphite.
CaCO3 + SO2 → CaSO3 + CO2
• lime is added to coal and roasted at high temperature so that CaO formed combines with
SO2 to form calcium sulphate.
CaO + SO2 + ½ O2 → CaSO4

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
4. Particulate matter
Particulate matters are solid or liquid suspensions in air. They are also called aerosols. These
comprise of dust particles, ash, smoke, fumes and mist.
Sources:
• Volcanic eruptions.
• Soil erosion: wind blows away soil and the dust particles are introduced into the
atmosphere.
• Industrial operations such as crushing of solid materials- solid materials are crushed,
ground and powdered in industries. During these operations dust is released into the
atmosphere.
• Burning of coal: The noncombustible matter in coal is left behind as ash during the
combustion of coal.
• Incomplete combustion of compounds containing carbon, processing of coal, cement
asbestos: These operations also release dust into the atmosphere.
• Mist – condensation of vapours, sprays etc lead to dispersion of liquids in the
atmosphere thus forming mist.

Ill effects
• Presence of particulate matter in the atmosphere has the following effects:
• Decrease in visibility: Particulate matter interfere inn the transmission of light and
hence affect visibility.
• Particulate matters enter the lungs causing wheezing, bronchitis, and asthma in
human beings.
• In plants the particulate matter settle on the leaves blocking the stomata
thereby affecting the plant growth.
Control:
Reduce vehicle emissions and increase fuel efficiency:

• Diesel vehicles, including trucks, are a key source of fine particles. Reduce diesel
emissions by replacing older engines with newer and cleaner engines
• Walk, cycle, take public transit and carpool whenever possible

Reduce the amount of particulate matter produced through smoke:

• Stop smoking; if you do smoke, do not smoke indoors

• Mulch garden refuse instead of burning it
• Limit the use of fireplaces and wood stoves. When using these appliances, make sure that
wood is burned properly. Use wood that is well seasoned instead of wet or green. Stoves
should also meet CSA (Canadian Standards Association) or EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) emission standards

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
• Switch to cleaner burning appliances. For example, pellet stoves produce less particulate
matter than traditional wood stoves
• Take action to reduce wildfires. Practice safe backyard burning and careful use of
campfire

5. Mercury pollutant
Sources:
Mercury occurs naturally in the earth's crust, but human activities, such as mining and fossil
fuel combustion, have led to widespread global mercury pollution. Mercury emitted into the
air eventually settles into water or onto land where it can be washed into water.
Effects:
• Health effects: Deteriorates nervous system, imparts hearing, speech and vision, causes
involuntary muscle movements and corrodes skin and membrane.
• Environment effects: Animals that eat fish contaminated with mercury are affected the
same way as humans. When pH values are between 5 and 7 the mercury concentration of
mercury in the water will increase due to mobilization of mercury in the ground. Once
mercury has reached surface water or soils micro organisms can convert it to methyl
mercury, a substance that can be absorbed quickly by most organisms and known to cause
nerve damage.
• Control:

6. Lead pollutant
Sources:
• The exhaust from automobiles which use lead tetraethyl as antiknocking agent-
• when TEL is used as antiknocking agent, lead is converted to halide and released into
the atmosphere. This leads to increase in the concentration of lead in the atmosphere.
• Paint pigments : Litharge and red lead ( oxides of lead ) and lead chromate are used as
pigments. These cause lead pollution
• Plumbing systems- lead pipes are used for plumbing and these may cause lead
pollution

Ill effects:
• Lead competes with calcium and enters the blood and bone marrow.
• The lead interferes in the manufacture of red blood corpuscles and abnormal
multiplication of blood cells and thus leads to anaemia and blood cancer in
human beings.
• Lead enters the blood and various organs of the body including the brain and the
Kidneys leading to dysfunction of the kidney and damage to the brain.
Control:
Lead smelting plants should their storage piles in such a way that the movements of lead
materials are minimized to lessen exposure to wind and air.
Fixed conveyors rail cars and rail dampers in all transfer points should be enclosed using dry
type dust collecting materials and design.

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Secondary pollutant: A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms
when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
Ozone: Ozone is a gas found in the atmosphere consisting of three oxygen atoms: O3. Ozone is
formed in the atmosphere when energetic ultraviolet (UV) radiation dissociates molecules of
oxygen, O2, into separate oxygen atoms. Free oxygen atoms can recombine to form oxygen
molecules but if a free oxygen atom collides with an oxygen molecule forms ozone. Ozone
molecules can also be decomposed by ultraviolet radiation into a free atom and an oxygen
molecule. Ozone is thus continuously created and destroyed in the atmosphere by UV radiation
coming from the sun. This highly energetic UV radiation is called UVC (wavelength 280 nm)
and is very harmful for human health.

O2 + UV => O + O

2 O + 2 O2 => 2 O3

Ozone depletion
Formation of ozone in the atmosphere: Ozone absorbs uv radiations and is broken into
atomic and molecular oxygen.
uv - C
O2  → 2O
O3 → O + O2
The products formed combine again to form ozone and hence a dynamic equilibrium is set up
due to which the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere remains constant.
O + O2 → O3
The ozone layer protects the earth from the harmful uv radiations. If the concentration of ozone
is reduced (ozone depletion), the concentration of uv radiations reaching the earth increases. This
leads to irritation of the eyes, skin cancer and damage to immune system in human beings. In
agriculture it causes decrease in productivity.

Causes of ozone depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used as refrigerants, aerosols and as industrial solvents. CFCs
are noncombustible and volatile. They reach the atmosphere and are broken down into chlorine
free radicals by uv radiations.
uv - C
CF2 Cl2 → ∗ CF2 Cl + ∗ C l
The chlorine free radical brings about the degradation of ozone
∗ ∗
Cl + O 3 → ClO + O 2
∗ ∗
ClO + O → Cl + O 2

Thus CFCs reduce the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere causing ozone hole.
Ill effects
• Due to ozone hole, the uv radiation increases causing eye infections, skin cancer in
human beings and decrease in photosynthesis in plants.
• The temperature on the earth’s surface is raised and this leads to global warming.

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Control of ozone depletion:
Ozone depletion can be controlled by using alkanes that immobilize the chlorine atoms of CFC’s
by forming halo alkanes with them.
Using hydrogen containing CFC’s which are destroyed in the troposphere itself and not taken to
stratosphere for ozone depletion.

Photochemical Smog:
Photochemical smog is when photons of sunlight hit molecules of different kinds of pollutants
in the atmosphere. It is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities. It tends to
occur more often in summer, because that is when we have the most sunlight.
Mechanism of Photochemical smog:
1. Troposphere Ozone:

NO2 + hν NO + O

O + O2 O3
Sources: Exhaust gases From Motor vehicles and Unburnt Hydrocarbons
2. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
Carbon-based molecules such as Aldehydes, Ketones and Hydrocarbons
RCH3 + 2O2 + 2NO RCHO + 2NO2 + H2O
Sources:Paint thinners, solvents and petroleum constituents, Trees: emits isoprene and terpenes
And methane from termites, cows and cultivation
3. Peroxy acetyl Nitrates (PAN): Are secondary pollutants formed from peroxyacid radicals and
NO2
CH3CHO + OH• CH3C•O + H2O
CH3C•O + O2 CH3C(O)OO• (acetylperoxy)
• •
CH3C(O)OO + NO2 CH3C(O)OONO2 (PAN)

Effects on human health:

 Headaches, Eyes, nose, chest and throat irritations, Birth defects and low weight birth,
impaired lung function, Coughing and wheezing, Limits visibility, Decreases UV
radiation, Yellow/black color over cities, Causes respiratory problems and bronchial
related deaths.
 Smog inhibits the growth of plants and can lead to extensive damage to crops, trees and
vegetation. When crops and vegetables are exposed to smog, it interferes with the ability
to fight infections, thus increasing susceptibility to diseases.
Note:
Ozone - Cause acute respiratory problems, Aggravate asthma, Cause temporary decreases
in lung function in healthy adults, Lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits,
Impair the body's immune system
Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PANs)
– Respiratory and eye irritants, Mutagenic- causing skin cancer
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
– Global warming- Methane, Carcinogenic- benzene, Form Ozone

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Control:
Minimize the usage of vehicles and frequently check engines smoke emission.
Prevent high usage of coals
Reduce pesticides use.

WATER CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION:
Water is one of the most basic and essential component of all life. It covers nearly 72% of the
earth’s surface. It is the second most important substance required to sustain human, animal, and
plant lives. Water is essential resource for living system, industrial processes, agricultural
production, and domestic use.
Pure water is a clear, colorless, and odorless liquid that is made up of one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms. The chemical formula of the water molecule, H20, was defined in 1860 by the
Italian scientist Stanislao Cannizzarro. Water is a very powerful substance that acts as a
medium for many reactions, which is why it is often referred to as the "universal solvent."
Although pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, impurities that occur naturally in water
transform it into a relatively good conductor. Water has unusually high boiling (100° C/212° F)
and freezing (0° C/32° F) points. It also shows unusual volume changes with temperature. As
water cools, it contracts to a maximum density of 1 grain per cubic centimeter at 4° C (39° F).
Further cooling actually causes it to expand, especially when it reaches the freezing point. The
fact that water is denser in the liquid form than the solid form explains why an ice cube floats in
a beverage, or why a body of water freezes from the top down. While the density property of
water is of little importance to the beverage example, it has a tremendous impact on the survival
of aquatic life inhabiting a body of water. Water exists in many forms in the nature. i.e. in the
form of clouds, rain, snow, ice and fog. The distribution of water on the earth is as follows.

Sources of water:
1. Surface water: It is available on the surface of the earth either still form or in flowing from.
Example: rain water, river water, lake water and sea water.
2. Under ground water: It is developed by any type of well or spring from beneath the surface of
the ground whether the water flows from the well or spring by natural force or is withdrawn by
pumping, other mechanical device, or artificial process. Example: Springs, well and tube wells.

Impurities in water:
1. Dissolved impurities: Dissolved gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide etc.,.
2. Suspended impurities: These are mostly insoluble minerals such as clay, sand etc. These cause
turbidity to water.
3. Microscopic matter: These consist of mainly bacterial and other micro organisms like algae
and fungi.
4. Dissolved impurities: Dissolved salts are mainly the carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and K. The presence of these salts imparts a sort of hardness in
water.
5.Organic matter: It includes vegetable and animal matter.
6. Colloidal impurities: It consist of proteins, amino acids, ferric hydroxide, clay etc.

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Boiler feed water

The boilers are used in industries to generate steam. This steam is used in power
production, sterilization etc. The water used to generate steam in boiler s called boiler feed water.

Boiler Troubles:
Water used to generate steam is contaminated; it brings problem to boiler and reduces its
efficiency. The major boiler troubles are
1. Scale and sludge formation
2. Boiler corrosion

1. Scale formation:
During the production of steam, water evaporates continuously leaving behind the
dissolved salts in the boiler. Concentration of the salt increases and reaches saturation level to get
precipitated. If the precipitate is hard and strongly adhering on the inner walls of the boiler is
known as scale.
Causes for scale formation:
The various dissolved salts of water are responsible for scale formation
1. Decomposition of bicarbonates: bicarbonates undergo decomposition and forms insoluble
carbonates. i.e.

2. Presence of silica: Impurities like calcium silicates, magnesium silicates are highly insoluble in
hot water, they precipitate and deposit as scale
3. Hydrolysis of salts of magnesium: Magnesium salts are precipitated as their hydroxides at high
temperature.i.e

Prevention of scale formation:

The scale formation in boilers can be controlled by two methods.
1. By feeding soft water (external treatment): Water used in boilers is purified by removing
suspended and hardness impurities. Suspended impurities are removed by sedimentation and
filtration process and hardness is removed by lime soda or ion exchange methods.
Prevention of sludge formation:
2. By internal treatment: Process of adding chemicals directly to water in boilers to remove the
scale forming impurities which were not removed during external treatment methods is known as
internal treatment. In this process, an ion is prohibited to exhibit its original character by
complexing or by converting into more soluble salt by adding appropriate reagent.
Example: colloidal conditioning, phosphate conditioning, carbonate conditioning.
Disadvantages of Scale:
1. Wastage of fuel: Scales have a poor conductor of heat, so the rate of heat transfer from boiler
to water is greatly reduced.
2. Reduces boiler efficiency: Decomposition of scales in the valves and condensers of the boiler,
choke them partially.
3. Increase in cleaning expenses: Scales must be removed regularly and this cleaning process is
very expensive.

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
4. Lowering of boiler safety: The overheating of the boiler tube makes the boiler material softer
and weaker.
5. Danger of explosion: The scale formation also leads to uneven expansion of boiler material.

Sludge formation:
During the production of steam, water evaporates continuously leaving behind the dissolved salts
in the boiler. Concentration of the salt increases and reaches saturation level to get precipitated.
If the precipitate is soft, loose and suspended in boiler feed water is called as sludge.
Causes for sludge formation:
The impurities of water which causes sludge formation are MgCO3, MgSO4, and MgCl2 etc. If
the sludge is not removed periodically, then it will form scale.
Prevention of sludge formation:
Sludge formation can be prevented by using softened water, more over sludge can be removed
by flowing off technique ie. by drawing off some of the concentrated water from the bottom of
the boiler through a tap.
Disadvantages of scale and sludge formation:
1. The sludge is bad conductor of heat. So it requires more heating of boiler to produce steam
which results in wastage of fuel.
2. Because of more and more heating of boiler, there is a chance of explosion of the boiler
3. It reduces the efficiency of boiler.
4. Sludge’s need to be removed regularly and this cleaning process is expensive.

2. Boiler corrosion
The decay of boiler material due to the presence of impurities in boiler feed water is
called boiler corrosion.
Causes for Boiler corrosion:
1. Corrosion due to dissolved Oxygen:
When water containing dissolved oxygen is heated in the boiler, the free gas is evolved under
high pressure of the boiler and attacks the boiler material and forms the rust.

2. Corrosion due to dissolved carbon dioxide:

The CO2 is obtained from the decomposition of bicarbonates. So formed CO2 is react with H2O
and produce carbonic acid. This carbonic acid is slightly acid and corrosive in nature.

3. Corrosion due to MgCl2 :

The salts like MgCl2 in boiler feed water forms hydroxides and acid. The acid so formed will
attack the boiler parts and causes corrosion.

Prevention of boiler corrosion:

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Boiler corrosion can be controlled by reducing the quantities of O2, CO2 and any acid from the
feed water.
1. By removing oxygen: Dissolved oxygen can be removed by treating boiler feed water with
sodium sulphite or hydrazine.
2. By removing carbon dioxide: Lime stone easily removes carbondioxide or by adding
ammonium hydroxide.
3. Finally acidic impurities if there any can be removed by treating with alkaline agents like
ammonium hydroxide.

Sources of water pollution

There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories exist: direct and indirect
contaminant sources. Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, waste
treatment plants etc.. that emit fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies.
Water pollutants sources are of two types.
1. Point sources: point source pollution is defined as any single identifiable source of pollution
from which pollutants are discharged, these are discrete and identifiable and hence easy to
monitor and regulate.
Example: Industrial discharge, factory smoke, municipal sewage etc.,
2. Non point source pollution: When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified ie.
Sources are scattered or diffuse they are called as non point source of pollution.
Examples: Run off from farm lands, parking lots, agriculture logging, animal wastes, etc..,

Additional information:

Sewage And Waste Water: Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of households, agricultural
lands and factories are discharged into lakes and rivers. These wastes contain harmful chemicals
and toxins which make the water poisonous for aquatic animals and plants.

Dumping: Dumping of solid wastes and litters in water bodies causes huge problems. Litters
include glass, plastic, aluminum, Styrofoam etc. Different things take different amount of time to
degrade in water. They affect aquatic plants and animals.

Industrial Waste: Industrial waste contains pollutants like asbestos, lead, mercury and
petrochemicals which are extremely harmful to both people and environment. Industrial waste is
discharged into lakes and rivers by using fresh water making the water contaminated.

Oil Pollution: Sea water gets polluted due to oil spilled from ships and tankers while traveling.
The spilled oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge polluting the water.

Acid Rain: Acid rain is pollution of water caused by air pollution. When the acidic particles
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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
caused by air pollution in the atmosphere mix with water vapor, it results in acid rain.

Global Warming: Due to global warming, there is an increase in water temperature. This
increase in temperature results in death of aquatic plants and animals. This also results in
bleaching of coral reefs in water.

Eutrophication: Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients in water bodies. This results in

bloom of algae in water. It also depletes the oxygen in water, which negatively affects fish and
other aquatic animal population.

Definition of BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand is an important measure of water quality. BOD
is defined as “The amount of oxygen required by microorganism to oxidize the organic matter in
a water sample over a period of 5 days under aerobic condition at 20 0C”.

Definition of COD: It is defined as “The amount of oxygen required for the complete oxidation
of both organic & inorganic matter present in 1 litre of waste water using strong oxidizing
agent”.

DETERMINATION OF COD OF WASTE WATER:

Definition of COD: It is defined as “The amount of oxygen required for the complete oxidation
of both organic & inorganic matter present in 1 litre of waste water using strong oxidizing
agent”.
Characteristics of COD:
1) The unit of COD is mg/dm3 or ppm.
2) In general COD > BOD since both biodegradable and non biodegradable organic load are
completely oxidized.
Principle: In this method, the given samples of water containing organic and inorganic
impurities are oxidized by K2Cr2O7 in acidic media in the presence of catalyst Ag2SO4 and
HgSO4.(Added to prevent the interference the chloride and silver ions). The unreacted K2Cr2O7 is
titrated against FAS solution in the presence of a redox indicator, ferroin which shows its color
change in the oxidized (bluish green) and reduced states (reddish brown).
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3(O)

3(O) + 2CHO 2CO2 + H2O

Procedure: Preparation of standard solution: Standard FAS solution is prepared by adding

dilute H2SO4 (Added to prevent hydrolysis of FAS) to a known weight of FAS salt.
1. Pipette out known amount of the waste water into a clean conical flask.
2. Add 10 ml of K2Cr2O7 and 10 ml 1:1 H2SO4 into a conical flask.
3. Add 1 g of Ag2SO4 followed by 1 g of HgSO4 and warm if necessary.
4. Titrate with standard FAS using ferroin as indicator till color changes from bluish green
to reddish brown.
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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
5. Note down the volume of FAS consumed as ‘V1’ ml.
Perform the blank titration without waste water sample. Note down the volume as ‘V2’ ml.

Chemical analysis of water:

Determination of Fluoride by Colorimetric method
Fluoride contents in water sample are determined by colorimetric method. Fluorides have duel
significance in water. High concentration causes dental fluorosis and low concentration causes
dental caries. Significant sources of fluoride are found in coke, glass and ceramic, electronics,
pesticides and fertilizer manufacturing, steel and aluminum processing and electroplating
industries.
Principle: Fluoride is estimated colorimetrically using SPANDS method. (SPANDS = Sodium
2-(P-Sulphophenyl Azo)-1, 8-dihydroxy-3, 6 Naphthalene Disulphonate trisodium salt). The
method utilizes the reaction between fluoride and a complex of Zirconium with SPANDS. The
fluoride reacts with the complex, dissociating a portion of it into a colorless anion [ZrF6]2- and
the reagent. As the amount of fluoride is increased the color produced by Zr- SPANDS complex
becomes progressively lighter. The decrease in intensity is related to the concentration of
fluoride ions.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a reference solution by adding 10 ml of SPANDS
in HCl and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water. Use this
solution to set zero in the colorimeter at 570 nm.
2. Prepare a series of standard solution of NaF in the
concentration range up to 2.0 mg/L in 100 ml standard
flask.
3. Add 50 ml of distilled water and 10 ml of Zr- SPANDS
reagent to each of the standard solution dilute up to the
mark, mix well and measure the absorbance at 570 nm.
4. Draw the calibration curve by plotting the concentration of
fluoride ion against absorbance.
5. Take the suitable aliquot of water sample to be analyzed
and repeat the steps 3 and 4.
6. Calculate the concentration of fluoride ion in the test sample using calibration curve.

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Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Determination of Sulphate by Gravimetric method

Sulphate ions (SO42-) in water are due to the dissolved salts such as sulphates of sodium,
potassium, magnesium etc.
Principle: In gravimetric method, sulphate ions (SO42-) are quantitatively precipitated as BaSO4
by treating with BaCl2 in the presence of HCl, separated by filtration, dried and weighed as
BaSO4.

SO42- + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2Cl-

The precipitate of BaSO4 is filtered through a quantitative filter paper and is washed with hot
water. The precipitate is ignited in silica crucible and weighed as BaSO4.
Procedure:
1. Take 1000 ml of water in large beaker, heat it on a hot plate and evaporate to reduce the
volume to 100 ml.
2. Add half test tube of dilute HCl and heat the solution nearly to boiling.
3. To the hot solution add 1 test tube of BaCl2 solution slowly with constant stirring. Digest
the solution on water bath for about 30 min.
4. Filter the solution using No.40 quantitative filter paper through a funnel & wash the
precipitate with hot water several times to remove chloride ions.
5. Heat the funnel in an aluminium cone till filter is dry. Transfer the filter paper into a
previously dried & weighed silica crucible and heat.
6. Transfer the hot silica crucible into desiccators and cool it. Weigh the crucible along with
the precipitate of BaSO4.
7. Repeat the process of heating, cooling and drying till a constant weight is obtained.
Calculation:

Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 14

Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SEWAGE: Water containing any one of the waste is called as effluent or sewage.
SEWAGE TREATMENT: The water containing heavy load of BOD, pathogenic bacteria,
colour and annoying smell can’t be directly discharged into the rivers as they mainly affect the
aquatic life and causes many water borne diseases. The domestic sewage therefore needs proper
treatment which is carried out in 3 stages
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment

Primary treatment: It involves

Screening: Removal of large suspended or floating matter in sewage using mesh screens.
Silt and Grit removal: Removal of heavy particles like sand, glass pieces etc. using grit
chambers.
Removal of oil and grease: is mainly done using skimming tanks by blowing air through the
sewage and oils are lifted to the surface as foams (soapy mixture)which is then skimmed off.
Sedimentation process: involves addition of coagulants like alum, ferrous salts etc. and there by
ppt. out the suspended particles by sedimentation process.
Secondary treatment:
It involves aerobic biological oxidation of sewage water. The sewage water after sedimentation
is subjected to aerobic oxidation during which the organic matter is converted into H2O and CO2
and N2 to NH3 and finally to nitrates and nitrites.

Activated Sludge Method (Biological treatment): Activated sludge is a thick greasy mud
containing aerobic bacteria.
This method involves extensive aeration of the sewage water after primary treatment is
mixed with activated sludge and allowed to enter in a large aeration tank for biological treatment.
Air is continuously passed into tank to maintain the aerobic condition. Under these condition
microorganisms present in activated sludge attack on organic matter of sewage and decomposes
them into CO2 and H2O. The effluent after this treatment is passed to sedimentation tank where
sludge will settle down. The clear effluent is sent to tertiary treatment. A part of sludge is used
for further treatment and rest is disposed off and used as manure.

Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 15

 Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Tertiary treatment: It involves

Removal of phosphate using lime

Removal of heavy metals by sulphides.

Degasification of NH3, H2S, and CO2 by stripping hot water.

Disinfection of microorganisms by chlorine. Acid kills microorganisms.

Softening of water by Ion exchange process:

In this method all the ions present in water are removed. In this insoluble ion exchange resins are
used. Resins means it is a long chain organic polymer with functional groups. Depending upon
the functional groups attached to resins they are classified into
1. Cation Exchange Resin:
These resins exchange its H+ ions with cations of water sample. Generally it is expressed as RH+
2. Anion Exchange Resin:
These resins exchange its OH- ions with anions of water sample. Generally it is expressed as
ROH-
Working:
The ion exchange resin contains two compartments. One is cation exchange resin and
another is anion exchange resin. For the regeneration of respective resins, acid and alkali
regeneration units are connected to compartments. The schematic diagram of ion exchange unit
as shown in fig.
The water sample containing high minerals are first allowed to pass through cation
exchange resins, which exchanges its H+ ions with Ca2+ ions of water .i.e

Now the water sample is free from cations.

The same water is further allowed to pass through anion exchange resin, which exchanges its
OH- ions with Cl- of water. i.e.

Now the water is totally free from all the ions.

Now H+ ions formed at cation exchange resin and OH- ions formed at anion exchange resin will
combine to form pure water.

Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 16

Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Advantages:
1. The ion exchange apparatus, once set up, is easy to operate and control.
2. Both acidic and alkaline water can be softened.
3. Water of very low hardness is produced.
4. Water produced by this method is used as boiler feed water.

Disadvantages:
1. Equipment and process is costly.
2. Turbid water needs to be filtered first before softening.

POTABLE WATER-Water that is fit for human consumption and free from pathogenic bacteria
and toxic chemicals is called potable water.

DESALINATION-The process of removal of dissolved salts from sea water to the extent that
water becomes usable is described as desalination. The important methods of desalination are a)
Reverse Osmosis. B) Electrodialysis.

REVERSE OSMOSIS:
Principle: - The principle of osmosis is that water flows from lower concentration to higher
concentration side through semi permeable membrane. If the pressure is applied on solution side,
the solvent will flow in the reverse direction. This is called reverse osmosis.
It is studied that sea water exerts an osmotic pressure of about 4500-5500 KPa. In reverse
osmosis, hydrostatic pressure which is greater than osmotic pressure is applied on the salt
solution side then water flows from salt solution to fresh water side. This water can be used for
human consumption.

Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 17

Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Application:
1. It is economical, simple and continuous.
2. The process needs extremely low energy.
3. It has long life and membrane is easily replaceable.

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Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 18