Chapter 8 – Number and Proof

Solutions to Exercise 8A
1 a As m and n are even, m = 2p and is divisible by 21.
n = 2q where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore,
b If m is divisible by 3 and n is divis-
m + n = 2p + 2q
ible by 7, then m = 3p and n = 7q
= 2(p + q), where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore,

s
is an even number.
m2 n = (3p)2 (7q)

f
b As m and n are even, m = 2p and

oo
= 9p2 (7q)
n = 2q where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore,
= 63p2 q
mn = (2p)(2q)
= 4pq is divisible by 63.

pr
= 2(2pq),
is an even number. 5 If m and n are perfect squares then
m = a2 and n = b2 for some a, b ∈ Z.
ed
Therefore,
2 As m and n are odd, m = 2p + 1 and
n = 2q + 1 where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore, mn = (a2 )(b2 ) = (ab)2 ,
m + n = (2p + 1) + (2q + 1)
ct
is also a perfect square.
= 2p + 2q + 2
= 2(p + q + 1),
re

6 Expanding both brackets gives,

is an even number.
(m + n)2 − (m − n)2
or

3 As m is even and n is odd, m = 2p and =m2 + 2mn + n2 − (m2 − 2mn + n2 )

n = 2q + 1 where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore, =m2 + 2mn + n2 − m2 + 2mn − n2
c

mn = 2p(2q + 1) =4mn,
un

= 2(2pq + p),
which is divisible by 4.
is an even number.

7 (Method 1) If n is even then n2 is even

4 a If m is divisible by 3 and n is divis- and 6n is even. Therefore the expression
ible by 7, then m = 3p and n = 7q is of the form
where p, q ∈ Z. Therefore,
mn = (3p)(7q) even − even + odd = odd.

= 21pq, (Method 2) If n is even then n = 2k

293
 where k ∈ Z. Then Therefore,

n2 − 6n + 5 = (2k)2 − 6(2k) + 5
x4 − y4
= 4k2 − 12k + 5
=(x2 − y2 )(x2 + y2 )
= 4k2 − 12k + 4 + 1
=(x − y)(x + y)(x2 + y2 )
= 2(2k2 − 6k + 2) + 1, =
positive positive positive
z }| { z }| { z }| {
is odd. = (x − y) (x + y) (x2 + y2 )

s
>0.

f
2

oo
8 (Method 1) If n is odd then n is odd and
8n is even. Therefore the expression is
of the form Therefore, x4 > y4 .

pr
odd + even + odd = even.
11 We have,
(Method 2) If n is odd then n = 2k + 1
where k ∈ Z. Then x2 + y2 − 2xy
ed
n2 + 8n + 5 = (2k + 1)2 + 8(2k + 1) + 3 =x2 − 2xy + y2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1 + 16k + 8 + 3 =(x − y)2
ct
= 4k2 + 20k + 12 ≥2xy.
= 2(2k2 + 10k + 6),
re

Therefore, x2 + y2 ≥ 2xy.
is even.

12 a We prove that Alice is a knave, and

or

9 First suppose n is even. Then 5n2 and 3n

Bob is a knight.
are both even. Therefore the expression Suppose Alice is a knight
is of the form ⇒ Alice is telling the truth
c

⇒ Alice and Bob are both knaves

even + even + odd = odd.
un

⇒ Alice is a knight and a knave

Now suppose n is odd. Then 5n2 and 3n This is impossible.
are both odd. Therefore the expression ⇒ Alice is a knave
is of the form ⇒ Alice is not telling the truth
⇒ Alice and Bob are not both knaves
odd + odd + odd = odd. ⇒ Bob is a knight
⇒ Alice is a knave, and Bob is a knight

10 Firstly, if x > y then x − y > 0. Secondly, b We prove that Alice is a knave, and
since x and y are positive, x + y > 0. Bob is a knight.

294
 Suppose Alice is a knight
⇒ Alice is telling the truth
⇒ They are both of the same kind
⇒ Bob is a knight
⇒ Bob is lying
⇒ Bob is a knave
⇒ Bob is a knight and a knave.
This is impossible.
b Every odd number is of the form

s
⇒ Alice is a knave
2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z. Moreover,
⇒ Alice is not telling the truth

f
⇒ Alice and Bob are of a different kind (k + 1)2 − k2 = k2 + 2k + 1 − k2

oo
⇒ Bob is a knight = 2k + 1,
⇒ Alice is a knave, and Bob is a knight so that every odd number can be
written as the difference of two
c We will prove that Alice

pr
squares.
is a knight, and Bob is a knave.
Suppose Alice is a knave
c Since 101 = 2 × 50 + 1, we have,
⇒ Alice is not telling the truth
512 − 502 = 101.
⇒ Bob is a knight
ed
⇒ Bob is telling the truth
⇒ Neither of them are knaves 14 a Since
⇒ Both of them are knights 9 99 10 100
= and = ,
ct
⇒ Alice is a knight and a knave 10 110 11 110
This is impossible. it is clear that
10 9
⇒ Alice is a knight > .
re

11 10
⇒ Alice is telling the truth
⇒ Bob is a knave b We have,
n n−1
or

⇒ Bob is lying −
⇒ At least one of them is a knave n+1 n
2
n n(n − 1)
⇒ Bob is a knave = −
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)
c

⇒ Alice is a knight, and Bob is a knave.

n2 − n(n − 1)
=
un

n(n + 1)
13 a In the diagram below, there are 11
n − n2 + n
2
yellow tiles. We can also count =
the yellow tiles by subtracting the n(n + 1)
number of red tiles, 52 , from the 1
=
total number of tiles, 62 . Therefore n(n + 1)
11 = 62 − 52 . >0
since n(n + 1) > 0. Therefore,
n n−1
> .
n+1 n

295
 15 a We have, 17 a Expanding gives,
1 1
−
10 11
(x − y)(x2 + xy + y2 )
11 10
= − =x3 + x2 y + xy2 − x2 y − xy2 − y3
110 110
=
1 =x3 − y3 ,
110
1
< ,

s
100 which is the difference of two cubes.

f
since 110 > 100.
b Completing the square by treating y

oo
b We have, as a constant gives,

1 1 n+1 n
− = −
n n + 1 n(n + 1) n(n + 1) x2 + yx + y2

pr
n+1−n
= y2 y2
n(n + 1) =x2 + yx + − + y2
4 4
1 2
= , 3y2
!
y
n(n + 1) = x2 + yx + +
ed
4 4
1
= 2 ,  y 2 3y2
n +n = x+ +
1 2 4
< 2,
ct
n ≥0

since n2 + n > n2 . c Firstly, if x ≥ y then x − y ≥ 0.

re

Therefore,
16 We have,
or

!2
a2 + b2 a+b
− x3 − y3
2 2
a2 + b2 (a + b)2 ≥0 ≥0
c

= − z }| { z }| {
2 4 = (x − y) (x2 + xy + y2 )
un

2a + 2b
2 2
a2 + 2ab + b2 ≥0.
= −
4 4
2a + 2b − a − 2ab − b2
2 2 2
=
4 Therefore, x3 > y3 .
a − 2ab + b2
2
=
4
18 a Let D be the distance to and from
(a − b)2
= work. The time taken to get to work
4
is D/12 and the time taken to get
≥0. home from work is D/24. The total

296
 distance is 2D and the total time is The average speed will then be
D D
+ distance ÷ time
12 24
2D D (a + b)D
= + =2D ÷
24 24 ab
3D ab
= =2D ×
24 (a + b)D
D 2ab
= = km/hour.
8 a+b

s
The average speed will then be
c We first note that a + b > 0. Secondly,

f
distance ÷ time
a+b

oo
D 2ab
=2D ÷ −
8 2 a+b
8 (a + b) 2
4ab
=2D × = −
D 2(a + b) 2(a + b)

pr
=16 km/hour. (a + b)2 − 4ab
=
2(a + b)
b Let D be the distance to and from a2 + 2ab + b2 − 4ab
work. The time taken to get to work =
ed
2(a + b)
is D/a and the time taken to get home
a2 − 2ab + b2
from work is D/b. The total distance =
2(a + b)
is 2D and the total time is
(a − b)2
ct
D D =
+ 2(a + b)
a b
bD aD ≥0
= +
re

ab ab
aD + bD since (a − b) ≥ 0 and a + b > 0.
= Therefore,
ab
or

(a + b)D a+b 2ab

= ≥ .
ab 2 a+b
c
un

297
 Solutions to Exercise 8B
1 a P : 1 > 0 (true) Suppose Alice is a knight
not P : 1 ≤ 0 (false) ⇒ Alice is telling the truth
⇒ Alice is a knave
b P : 4 is divisible by 8 (false) ⇒ Alice is a knight and a knave
not P : 4 is not divisible by 8 (true) This is impossible.
⇒ Alice is a knave
c P : Each pair of primes has an even
⇒ Alice is not telling the truth

s
sum (false)
⇒ Alice is a knight OR Bob is a knave

f
not P : Some pair of primes does not
⇒ Bob is a knave, as Alice is not a knight

oo
have an even sum (true)
⇒ Alice and Bob are both knaves.
d P : Some rectangle has 4 sides of
equal length (true) 4 a If there are no clouds in the sky, then

pr
not P : No rectangle has 4 sides of it is not raining.
equal length (false)
b If you are not happy, then you are not
smiling.
ed
2 a P : 14 is divisible by 7 and 2 (true)
not P : 14 is not divisible by 7 or 14 c If 2x , 2, then x , 1.
is not divisible by 2 (false)
d If x5 ≤ y5 , then x ≤ y.
ct
b P : 12 is divisible by 3 or 4 (true)
not P : 12 is not divisible by 4 and 12 e Option 1: If n is not odd, then n2 is
is not divisible by 3 (false) not odd.
re

Option 2: If n is even, then n2 is even.

c P : 15 is divisible by 3 and 6 (false)
not P : 15 is not divisible by 3 or 15 f Option 1: If mn is not odd, then n is
or

is not divisible by 6 (true) not odd or m is not odd.

Option 2: If If mn is even, then n is
d P : 10 is divisible by 2 or 5 (true) even or m is even.
c

not P : 10 is not divisible by 2 or 10

is not divisible by 5 (false) g Option 1: If n and n are not both even
un

or both odd, then m + n is not even.

Option 2: If n and n are not both even
3 We will prove that Alice is or both odd, then m + n is odd.
a knave, and Bob is a knave.

5 a Contrapositive: If n is even then

3n + 5 is odd.
Proof: Suppose n is even. Then

298
 n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, e Contrapositive: If n is even, then
n3 + 1 is odd.
3n + 5 = 3(2k) + 5
Proof: Suppose n is even. Then
= 6k + 5 n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z. Therefore,
= 6k + 4 + 1 n3 + 1 = (2k)3 + 1
= 2(3k + 2) + 1 = 8k3 + 1
is odd. = 2(4k3 ) + 1

s
b Contrapositive: If n is even, then n2 is is odd.

f
even.
f Contrapositive: If m or n are divisible

oo
Proof: Suppose n is even. Then
by 3, then mn is divisible by 3.
n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z. Therefore,
Proof: If m or n is divisible by 3 then
n2 = (2k)2 we can assume that m is divisible

pr
= 4k2 by 3. Then, m = 3k, for some k ∈ Z.
Therefore,
= 2(2k2 )
mn = (3k)n
is even.
= 3(kn)
ed
c Contrapositive: If n is even, then is divisible by 3.
n2 − 8n + 3 is odd.
Proof: Suppose n is even. Then g Contrapositive: If m = n, then m + n
ct
n = 2k, for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, is even.
Proof: Suppose that m = n. Then
n2 − 8n + 3 = (2k)2 − 8(2k) + 3
re

m+n=n+n
= 4k2 − 16k + 3
= 2n
= 4k2 − 16k + 2 + 1
or

is even.
= 2(2k2 − 8k + 1) + 1
is odd. 6 a Contrapositive: If x ≥ 0, then
c

x2 + 3x ≥ 0.
d Contrapositive: If n is divisible by 3,
un

Proof: Suppose that x ≥ 0. Then,

then n2 is divisible by 3.
Proof: Suppose n is divisible by x2 + 3x = x(x + 3) ≥ 0,
3. Then n = 3k, for some k ∈ Z. since x ≥ 0 and x + 3 ≥ 0.
Therefore,
b Contrapositive: If x ≤ −1, then
n2 = (3k)2
x3 − x ≤ 0.
= 9k2 Proof: Suppose that x ≤ −1. Then,
= 3(3k2 ) x3 − x = x2 (x − 1) ≤ 0,
is divisible by 3. since x2 ≥ 0 and x − 1 ≥ 0.

299
 c Contrapositive: If x < 1 and y < 1, give,
then x + y < 2. x−y
√ √
Proof: If x < 1 and y < 1 then, x+ y
√ √
x + y < 1 + 1 = 2, x−y x− y
=√ √ √ √
as required. x+ y x− y
√ √ 
(x − y) x − y
d Contrapositive: If x < 3 and y < 2, = √ √ √ √ 
then 2x + 3y < 12. x+ y x− y

s
√
Proof: If x < 3 and y < 2 then, (x − y) x − y
√ 

f
2x + 3y < 2 × 3 + 3 × 2 = 6 + 6 = 12, =
(x − y)

oo
√ √
as required. = x − y.

b If x > y then x − y > 0. Then, using

7 a Contrapositive: If m is odd or n is

pr
the above equality, we see that,
odd, then mn is odd or m + n is odd. √ √ x−y
x− y= √ √ > 0,
b Proof: x+ y
(Case 1) Suppose m is odd and n is since the numerator and denomi-
ed
odd. Then clearly mn is odd. nator are both positive. Therefore,
√ √
(Case 2) Suppose m is odd and n is x > y.
even. Then clearly m + n will be odd. √ √
c Contrapositive: If x ≤ y, then
ct
It is likewise, if m is even and n is
x ≤ y.
odd. √ √
Proof: If x ≤ y then, since both
re

sides are positive, we can square both

8 a We rationalise the right hand side to sides to give x ≤ y.
c or
un

300
 Solutions to Exercise 8C
1 If all three angles are less than 60◦ , This gives a contradiction, so x is not
then the sum of interior angles of the rational.
triangle would be less than 180◦ . This
is a contradiction as the sum of interior
5 Suppose that log2 5 is rational so that
angles is exactly 180◦ . p
log2 5 = where p, q ∈ Z. Then,
q

s
p
2 Suppose there is some least positive 2 q =5
p

f
rational number . Then since, p
q ⇒ 2q =5

oo
p p p !q
< , ⇒ 2q = 5q
2q q
there is some lesser positive rational ⇒ 2 p = 5q

pr
number, which is a contradiction.
Therefore, there is no least positive The left hand side of this equation is
rational number. odd, and the right hand side is even.
This gives a contradiction, so x is not
ed
√ rational.
3 Suppose that p is an integer. Then
√
p = n, √
6 Suppose the contrary, so that x is
ct
for some n ∈ Z. Squaring both sides rational. Then
gives √ p
x= ,
p = n2 . q
re

Since n , 1, this means that p has where p, q ∈ Z. Then, squaring both

three factors: 1, n and n2 . This is a sides of the equation gives,
or

contradiction since every prime number p2

x= ,
has exactly two factors. q2
where p2 , q2 ∈ Z. Therefore, x is
c

p
4 Suppose that x is rational so that x = rational, which is a contradiction.
q
un

where p, q ∈ Z. Then,
3x = 2 7 Suppose, on the contrary that a + b is
p rational. Then
⇒ 3 q =2
p !q rational rational
⇒ 3q = 2q z }| { z}|{
b = (a + b) − b.
⇒ 3 p = 2q
Therefore, b is the difference of two
The left hand side of this equation is rational numbers, which is rational. This
odd, and the right hand side is even. is a contradiction.

301
 8 Suppose b and c are both natural This implies that 1 is divisible by 7,
numbers. Then which is a contradiction since the
c2 − b2 = 4 only factor of 1 is 1.

(c − b)(c + b) = 4. b Suppose that

The only factors of 4 are 1, 2 and 4. And
since c + b > c − b, 15a + 21b = 2.
c − b = 1 and c + b = 4. Then

s
Adding these two equations gives 2c = 5
2 3(5a + 7b) = 2.

f
so that c = , which is not a whole
5

oo
number. This implies that 2 is divisible by 3,
which is a contradiction since the
only factors of 2 are 1 and 2.
9 Suppose that there are two different

pr
solutions, x1 and x2 . Then,
ax1 + b = c and ax2 + b = c. 12 a Contrapositive: If n is not divisible by
3, then n2 is not divisible by 3.
Equating these two equations gives,
Proof: If n is not divisible by 3 then
ed
ax1 + b = ax2 + b either n = 3k + 1 or n = 3k + 2.
ax1 = ax2 (Case 1) If n = 3k + 1 then,
x1 = x2 , (since a , 0)
n2 = (3k + 1)2
ct
which is a contradiction since the two
= 9k2 + 6k + 1
solutions were assumed to be different.
= 3(3k2 + 2k) + 1
re

10 a Every prime p > 2 is odd since if it is not divisible by 3.

were even then p would be divisible (Case 2) If n = 3k + 2 then,
or

by 2.
n2 = (3k + 2)2
b Suppose there are two primes p and p
= 9k2 + 12k + 4
c

such that p + q = 1001. Then since

= 9k2 + 12k + 3 + 1
un

the sum of two odd numbers is even,

one of the primes must be 2. Assume = 3(3k2 + 4k + 1) + 1
p = 2 so that q = 999. Since 999 is
not prime, this gives a contradiction. is not divisible by 3.

b This will be a proof

√ by contradic-
11 a Suppose that tion. Suppose 3 is rational so
√ p
42a + 7b = 1. that 3 = where p, q ∈ Z. We
q
Then can assume that p and q have no
7(6a + b) = 1. common factors (or else they could

302
 be cancelled). Then, be cancelled). Then,
p3 = 2q3 (1)

p2 = 3q2 (1) ⇒ p3 is divisible by 2

⇒ p2 is divisible by 3 ⇒ p is divisible by 2

⇒ p is divisible by 3 ⇒ p = 2k for some k ∈ N

⇒ p = 3k for some k ∈ N ⇒ (2k)3 = 2q3 (substitituting into (1))

⇒ 2q3 = 8k3

s
⇒ (3k)2 = 3q2 (substitituting into (1))
⇒ q3 = 4k3

f
⇒ 3q2 = 9k2

oo
⇒ q2 = 3k2 ⇒ q3 is divisible by 2

⇒ q2 is divisible by 3 ⇒ q is divisible by 2.

⇒ q is divisible by 3. So p and q are both divisible by 2,

pr
which contradicts the fact that they
have no factors in common.
So p and q are both divisible by 3,
which contradicts the fact that they
ed
14 This will be a proof by contradiction, so
have no factors in common.
we suppose there is some a, b ∈ Z such
that
13 a Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n3 is a2 − 4b − 2 = 0
ct
odd.
⇒ a2 = 4b + 2
Proof: If n is odd then n = 2k + 1 for
⇒ a2 = 2(2b + 1) (1)
re

some k ∈ Z. Therefore,
which means that a2 is even. However,
this implies that a is even, so that
n3 = (2k + 1)3 a = 2k, for some k ∈ Z. Substituting this
or

= 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1 into equation (1) gives,

= 2(4k3 + 6k2 + 3k) + 1 (2k)2 = 2(2b + 1)
c

4k2 = 2(2b + 1)
un

is odd. Otherwise, we can simply 2k2 = 2b + 1

quote the fact that the product of 3 2k2 − 2b = 1
odd numbers will be odd. 2(k2 − b) = 1.
b This will be a proof by contradic- This implies that 1 is divisible by 2,
√3
tion. Suppose 2 is rational so which is a contradiction since the only
√3 p factor of 1 is 1.
that 2 = where p, q ∈ Z. We
q
can assume that p and q have no
√
common factors (or else they could 15 a Suppose on the contrary, that a > n

303
 √
and b > n. Then (r = 3) We have,
√ √
ab > n n = n,
m2 = (4n + 3)2
which is a contradiction since ab = n. = 16n2 + 24n + 9
b If 97 were not prime then we could = 16n2 + 24n + 8 + 1
write 97 = ab where 1 < a < b < n. = 4(4n2 + 6n + 2) + 1
By the previous question, we know

s
that has a remainder of 1.
√ √

f
a ≤ 97 < 100 = 10. Therefore, the square of every integer

oo
is divisible by 4 or leaves a remainder
Therefore a is one of
of 1.
{2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
b Suppose the contrary, so that both

pr
However 97 is not divisible by a and b are odd. Then a = 2k + 1
any of these numbers, which is a and b = 2m + 1 for some k, m ∈ Z.
contradiction. Therefore, 97 is a Therefore,
prime number.
ed
c2 = a2 + b2
16 a Let m = 4n + r where r = 0, 1, 2, 3. = (2k + 1)2 + (2m + 1)2
(r = 0) We have,
= 4k2 + 4k + 1 + 4m2 = 4m + 1
ct
m2 = (4n)2 = 4(k2 + m2 + k + m) + 2.
= 16n2
re

This means that c2 leaves a remainder

= 4(4n2 )
of 2 when divided by 4, which is a
is divisible by 4. contradiction.
or

(r = 1) We have,

m2 = (4n + 1)2 17 a Suppose by way of contradiction

c

= 16n2 + 8n + 1 either a , c or b , d. Then clearly

both a , c and b , d. Therefore,
un

= 4(4n2 + 2n) + 1
√ √
has a remainder of 1. a+b 2=c+d 2
(r = 2) We have, √
(b − d) 2 = c − a
m2 = (4n + 2)2 √ c−a
2=
b−d
= 16n2 + 16n + 4
= 4(4n2 + 4n + 1) c−a
Since ∈ Q, this contradicts the
b−d √
is divisible by 4. irrationality of 2.

304
 b Squaring both sides gives, Equation (1) then becomes
√ √ 2
ax2 + bx + c = 0

3+2 2= c+d 2
√ √ !2 !
3 + 2 2 = c2 + 2cd 2 + 2d2 p p
a +b +c=0
√ √ q q
3 + 2 2 = c2 + 2d2 + 2cd 2
ap2 + bpq + cq2 = 0 (2)
Therefore
Since p and q cannot both be even, we
c2 + 2d2 = 3 (1) need only consider three cases.

s
cd = 1 (2) (Case 1) If p is odd and q is odd then

f
equation (2) is of the form
Since c and d are integers, this

oo
implies that c = d = 1. odd + odd + odd = odd = 0.
This is not possible since 0 is even.
18 There are many ways to prove this (Case 2) If p is odd and q is even then

pr
result. We will take the most elementary equation (2) is of the form
approach (but not the most elegant). odd + even + even = odd = 0.
Suppose that This is not possible since 0 is even.
ax + bx + c = 0
2
ed
(1) (Case 3) If p is even and q is odd then
p equation (2) is of the form
has a rational solution, x = . We can
q
assume that p and q have no factors even + even + odd = odd = 0.
ct
in common (or else we could cancel). This is not possible since 0 is even.
re
c or
un

305
 Solutions to Exercise 8D
1 a Converse: If x = 1, then 2x + 3 = 5. b This statement is not true. For
Proof: If x = 1 then instance, 4 × 1 is a multiple of 4, and
2x + 3 = 2 × 1 + 3 = 5. yet 1 is clearly not even.

b Converse: If n − 3 is even, then n is

3 a These statements are not equivalent.
odd.
(P ⇒ Q) If Vivian is in China then
Proof: If n − 3 is even then n − 3 = 2k

s
she is in Asia, since Asia is a country
for some k ∈ Z. Therefore,

f
in China.
n = 2k + 3 = 2k + 2 + 1 = 2(k + 1) + 1

oo
(Q ; P) If Vivian is in Asia, she
is odd. is not necessarily in China. For
example, she could be in Japan.
c Converse: If m is odd, then

pr
m2 + 2m + 1 is even. b These statements are equivalent.
Proof 1: If m is odd then the (P ⇒ Q) If 2x = 4, then dividing both
expression m2 + 2m + 1 is of the form, sides by 2 gives x = 2.
(Q ⇒ P) If x = 2, then multiplying
odd + even + odd = even.
ed
both sides by 2 gives 2x = 4.
Proof 2: If m is odd then m = 2k + 1
for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, c These statements are not equivalent.
m2 + 2m + 1 (P ⇒ Q) If x > 0 and y > 0 then
ct
xy > 0 since the product of two
= (2k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1) + 1 positive numbers is positive.
= 4k2 + 4k + 1 + 2k + 2 + 1 (Q ; P) If xy > 0, then it may not
re

= 4k2 + 6k + 3 be true that x > 0 and y > 0. For

example, (−1) × (−1) > 0, however
= 4k2 + 6k + 2 + 1
or

−1 < 0.
= 2(2k2 + 3k + 1) + 1,
d These statements are equivalent.
is clearly odd.
c

(P ⇒ Q) If m or n are even then mn

d Converse: If n is divisible by 5, then will be even.
un

n2 is divisible by 5. (Q ⇒ P) If mn is even then either

Proof: If n is divisible by 5 then m or n are even since otherwise the
n = 5k for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, product of two odds numbers would
give an odd number.
n2 = (5k)2 = 25k2 = 5(5k2 ),
which is divisible by 5.
4 (⇒) If n + 1 is odd then, n + 1 = 2k + 1,
where k ∈ Z. Therefore,
2 a Converse: If mn is a multiple of 4,
then m and n are even.

306
 (⇐) If n is even then n = 2k. Therefore,

n + 2 = 2k + 2 n3 = (2k)3
= 2(k + 1), = 8k3
so that n + 2 is even. = 2(4k3 )
(⇐) If n + 2 is even then, n + 2 = 2k,
where k ∈ Z. Therefore, is even.

s
7 (⇒) Suppose that n is odd. Then

f
n + 1 = 2k − 1
n = 2m + 1, for some m ∈ Z. Now either

oo
= 2k − 2 + 1 m is even or m is odd. If m is even, then
= 2(k − 1) + 1 m = 2k so that

pr
so that n + 1 is odd. n = 2m + 1
= 2(2k) + 1
5 (⇒) Suppose that n2 − 4 is prime. Since = 4k + 1.
ed
as required. If m is odd then m = 2q + 1
n2 − 4 = (n − 2)(n + 2)
so that
ct
n = 2m + 1
expresses n2 − 4 as the product of two
numbers, either n − 2 = 1 or n + 2 = 1. = 2(2q + 1) + 1
re

Therefore, n = 3 or n = −1. However, n = 4q + 3

must be positive, so n = 3. = 4q + 4 − 1
(⇐) If n = 3 then
or

= 4(q + 1) − 1
n −4=3 −4=5
2 2
= 4k − 1, where k = q + 1,
is prime.
c

as required.
(⇐) If n = 4k ± 1 then either n = 4k + 1
un

6 (⇒) We prove this statement in the or n = 4k − 1. If n = 4k + 1, then

contrapositive. Suppose n is not even.
Then n = 2k + 1 where k ∈ Z. Therefore, n = 4k + 1

n3 = (2k + 1)3 = 2(2k) + 1

= 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1 = 2m + 1, where m = 2k,

= 2(4k4 + 6k2 + 3k) + 1

is odd. is odd, as required. Likewise, if

307
 n = 4k − 1, then b (⇐) We will prove this in the
n = 4k − 1 contrapositive. Suppose that m − n
were odd. Then either m is odd and n
= 4k − 2 + 1
is even or visa versa.
= 2(2k − 1) + 1 Case 1 - If m is odd and n is even
= 2m + 1, where m = 2k − 1, The expression m2 + mn + n2 is of the
form,
odd + even + even = odd.

s
is odd, as required.
Case 2 - m is even and n is odd

f
The expression m2 + mn + n2 is of the

oo
8 (⇒) Suppose that,
form,
(x + y)2 = x2 + y2
even + even + odd = odd.
x2 + 2xy + y2 = x2 + y2
In both instances, the expression

pr
2xy = 0
m2 + mn + n2 is odd. Therefore,
xy = 0
m3 − n3 = (m − n)(m2 + mn + n2 )
Therefore, x = 0 or y = 0.
ed is the product of two odd numbers,
(⇐) Suppose that x = 0 or y = 0. We
can assume that x = 0. Then and will therefore be odd.

(x + y)2 = (0 + y)2
ct
10 We first note that any integer n can be
= y2
written in the form n = 100x + y where
= 02 + y2 x, y ∈ Z and y is the number formed
re

= x2 + y2 , by the last two digits. For example,

as required. 1234 = 100 × 12 + 34. Then
n is divisible by 4
or

9 a Expanding gives ⇔n = 100x + y = 4k, for some k ∈ Z

(m − n)(m2 + mn + n2 ) ⇔y = 4k − 100x
c

=m3 + m2 n + mn2 − m2 n − mn2 − n3 ⇔y = 4(k − 25x)

un

=m3 − n3 . ⇔y is divisible by 4.

308
 Solutions to Exercise 8E
1 a If we let n = 31 it is clear that and since each factor is greater than
2n2 − 4n + 31 = 2 × 312 − 4 × 31 + 31 1, the number 9n2 + 5n + 6 is not a
prime number.
is divisible by 31 and so cannot be
prime. c Negation: For all x ∈ R, we have
2 + x2 , 1 − x2
b Let x = 1 and y = −1 so that
Proof: Suppose that 2 + x2 = 1 − x2 .

s
(x + y)2 = (1 + (−1))2 = 0, Rearranging the equation gives,

f
while, 2 + x2 = 1 − x2

oo
x2 + y2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2, 2x2 = −1
1 1
c If x = , then, x2 = − ,
2 2

pr
1 1 which is impossible since x2 ≥ 0.
x2 = < = x.
4 2
√ √
d If n = 3 then, 3 a Let a = 2 and b = 2. Then
ed
n3 − n = 27 − 3 = 24 clearly each of a and b are irrational,
although ab = 2 is not.
is even, although 3 is not.
√ √
b Let a = 2 and b = − 2. Then
e If m = n = 1 then m + n = 2 while
ct
clearly each of a and b are irrational,
mn = 1.
although a + b = 0 is not.
f Since 6 divides 2 × 3 = 6 but 6 does
re

√ √
c Let a = 2 and b = 2. Then
not divide 2 or 3, the statement is
clearly each of a and b are irrational,
false. a
although = 1 is not.
or

b
2 a Negation: For all n ∈ N, the number
9n2 − 1 is not a prime number. 4 a If a is divisible by 4 then a = 4k for
c

Proof: Since some k ∈ Z. Therefore,

un

9n2 − 1 = (3n − 1)(3n + 1), a2 = (4k)2 = 16k2 = 4(4k2 )

and since each factor is greater than is divisible by 4.

1, the number 9n2 − 1 is not a prime
b Converse: If a2 is divisible by 4 then
number.
a is divisible by 4.
b Negation: For all n ∈ N, the number This is clearly not true, since 22 = 4
n2 + 5n + 6 is not a prime number. is divisible by 4, although 2 is not.
Since
n2 + 5n + 6 = (n + 2)(n + 3), 5 a If a − b is divisible by 3 then

309
 a − b = 3k for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, 16 + 9 = 25, 15 + 10 = 25
14 + 11 = 25, 13 + 12 = 25
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b) = 3k(a + b)
1 + 8 = 9, 2 + 7 = 9,
is divisible by 3. 4 + 5 = 9, 3 + 6 = 9.

b Converse: If a2 − b2 is divisible by 3 b We now list each number, in descend-

then a − b is divisible by 3. ing order, with each of its potential
The converse is not true, since pairs.
22 − 12 = 3 is divisible by 3, although 12 4

s
2 − 1 = 1 is not. 11 5

f
10 6

oo
9 7
6 a This statement is not true since for all 8 1
a, b ∈ R, 7 2, 9
6 3, 10

pr
a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2 ≥ 0 > −1.
5 4
b This statement is not true since for all 4 5
x ∈ R, we have, 3 1, 6
ed 2 7
x2 − 4x + 5 1 3, 8
=x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 5 Notice that the numbers 2 and 9
must be paired with 7. Therefore,
=(x − 2)2 + 1
ct
one cannot pair all numbers in the
≥1 required fashion.
3
re

> .
4
8 If we let x = c, then
f (c) = ac2 + bc + c = c(ac + b + 1)
or

7 a The numbers can be paired as

follows: is divisible by c ≥ 2.
c
un

310
 Solutions to Exercise 8F
1 a P(n) If n = 1 then
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = LHS = 1 + x
2
P(1) and
If n = 1 then (1 − x2 ) (1 − x)(1 + x)
RHS = = = 1 + x.
LHS = 1 1−x 1−x

s
Therefore P(1) is true.
and

f
1(1 + 1) P(k)
RHS = = 1.

oo
2 Assume that P(k) is true so that
Therefore P(1) is true.
1 − xk+1
P(k) 1 + x + x2 + · · · + xk = . (1)
1−x

pr
Assume that P(k) is true so that
P(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + k = . (1)
2 LHS of P(k + 1)
P(k + 1) =1 + x + x2 + · · · + xk + xk+1
ed
LHS of P(k + 1) 1 − xk+1
= + xk+1 (by (1))
=1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) 1−x
1 − xk+1 xk+1 (1 − x)
k(k + 1) = +
ct
= + (k + 1) (by (1)) 1−x 1−x
2
k(k + 1) 2(k + 1) 1 − x + x (1 − x)
k+1 k+1
= + =
re

2 2 1−x
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1) 1 − x + xk+1 − xk+2
k+1
= =
2 1−x
(k + 1)(k + 2)
or

k+2
1−x
= =
2 1−x
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1) 1 − x(k+1)+1
= =
c

2 1−x
=RHS of P(k + 1) =RHS of P(k + 1)
un

Therefore P(k + 1) is true. Therefore P(k + 1) is true.

Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
by the principle of mathematical by the principle of mathematical
induction. induction.

b P(n) c P(n)
1 − xn+1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
1−x 6
P(1) P(1)

311
 If n = 1 then If n = 1 then
LHS = 12 − 1 LHS = 1 × 2 = 2
and and
1(1 + 1)(2 + 1) 1×2×3
RHS = = 1. RHS = = 2.
6 3
Therefore P(1) is true. Therefore P(1) is true.

P(k) P(k)

Assume that P(k) is true so that Assume that P(k) is true so that

s
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) 1 · 2 + · · · + k · (k + 1) = . (1)
12 + 22 + · · · + k2 = .

f
(1) 3
6
P(k + 1)

oo
P(k + 1)
LHS of P(k + 1)
LHS of P(k + 1)
=1 · 2 + · · · + k · (k + 1) + (k + 1) · (k + 2)
=12 + 22 + · · · + k2 + (k + 1)2

pr
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) = + (k + 1)(k + 2) (by (1))
= + (k + 1)2 (by (1)) 3
6
k(k + 1)(k + 2) 3(k + 1)(k + 2)
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) 6(k + 1)2 = +
= + 3 3
ed
6 6 k(k + 1)(k + 2) + 3(k + 1)(k + 2)
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2 =
= 3
6 (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
(k + 1)(k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)) =
ct
= 3
6 (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)((k + 1) + 2)
(k + 1)(2k + k + 6k + 6)
2 =
= 3
re

6 =RHS of P(k + 1)
(k + 1)(2k + 7k + 6)
2
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
=
6
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
or

(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
= by the principle of mathematical
6
induction.
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
=
c

6 e P(n)
=RHS of P(k + 1)
un

1 1
Therefore P(k + 1) is true. + ··· + =
1·3 (2n − 1)(2n + 1)
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N n
by the principle of mathematical 2n + 1
induction. P(1)
If n = 1 then
d P(n) 1 1
LHS = =
n(n + 1)(n + 2) 1×3 3
1 · 2 + · · · + n · (n + 1) = and
3 1 1
P(1) RHS = = .
2×1+1 3

312
 Therefore P(1) is true. and
2+1 3
P(k) RHS = = .
2×2 4
Assume that P(k) is true so that Therefore P(2) is true.
1 1 k P(k)
+· · ·+ = . (1)
1·3 (2k − 1)(2k + 1) 2k + 1 Assume that P(k) is true so that
k+1
! !
P(k + 1) 1 1
1 − 2 ··· 1 − 2 =
2 k 2k
LHS of P(k + 1)

s
P(k + 1)
1 1

f
= + + ··· LHS of P(k + 1)
1·3 3·5

oo
1 1 1
!
1
!
1
!
+ + = 1 − 2 ··· 1 − 2 1 −
(2k − 1)(2k + 1) (2k + 1)(2k + 3) 2 k (k + 1)2
k 1 k+1
!
= + (by (1)) =
1
2k + 1 (2k + 1)(2k + 3)

pr
1− (by (1))
2k (k + 1)2
k(2k + 3) 1
= + k + 1 (k + 1)2
!
1
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) (2k + 1)(2k + 3) = −
2k (k + 1)2 (k + 1)2
k(2k + 3) + 1
= k + 1 (k + 1)2 − 1
ed !
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) =
2k (k + 1)2
2k2 + 3k + 1
= (k + 1)(k2 + 2k)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) =
(2k + 1)(k + 1) 2k(k + 1)2
ct
= k(k + 1)(k + 2)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) =
k+1 2k(k + 1)2
=
re

(2k + 3) (k + 2)
=
k+1 2(k + 1)
= (k + 1) + 1
(2(k + 1) + 1) =
or

2(k + 1)
=RHS of P(k + 1)
Therefore P(k + 1) is true. =RHS of P(k + 1)
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
c

Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N

by the principle of mathematical Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
un

induction. by the principle of mathematical

induction.
f P(n)
n+1
! !
1 1
1 − 2 ··· 1 − 2 = 2 a P(n)
2 n 2n
11n − 1 is divisible by 10
P(2)
P(1)
If n = 2 then
If n = 1 then
1 3
LHS = 1 − 2 = 111 − 1 = 11 − 1 = 10
2 4

313
 is divisible by 10. Therefore P(1) is 32(k+1) + 7 = 32k+2 + 7
true. = 32k × 32 + 7
P(k)
= (8m − 7) × 9 + 7 (by (1))
Assume that P(k) is true so that
= 72m − 63 + 7

11k − 1 = 10m (1) = 72m − 56

= 8(9m − 7)
is divisible by 8. Therefore P(k + 1)

s
for some k ∈ Z.
is true.
P(k + 1)

f
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N

oo
11k+1 − 1 = 11 × 11k − 1
by the principle of mathematical
= 11 × (10m + 1) − 1 (by (1)) induction.
= 110m + 11 − 1
c P(n)

pr
= 110m + 10
7 − 3n is divisible by 4
n

= 10(11m + 1) P(1)
is divisible by 10. Therefore P(k + 1)
If n = 1 then
ed
is true.
71 − 31 = 7 − 3 = 4
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
by the principle of mathematical is divisible by 4. Therefore P(1) is
induction. true.
ct
P(k)
b P(n) Assume that P(k) is true so that
re

3 + 7 is divisible by 8
2n
7k − 3k = 4m (1)
P(1)
for some m ∈ Z.
If n = 1 then
or

P(k + 1)
7k+1 − 3k+1
32×1 + 7 = 9 + 7 = 16 = 2 × 8
=7 × 7k − 3k+1
c

is divisible by 8. Therefore P(1) is =7 × (4m + 3k ) − 3 × 3k (by (1))

un

true. =28m + 7 × 3k − 3 × 3k
P(k) =28m + 4 × 3k
Assume that P(k) is true so that
=4(7m + 3k )
is divisible by 4. Therefore P(k + 1)
32k + 7 = 8m (1) is true.
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
for some k ∈ Z. by the principle of mathematical
P(k + 1) induction.

314
 d P(n) We have to show that
5n + 6 × 7n + 1 is divisible by 4 4k+1 > 10 × 2k+1 .
P(1) LHS of P(k + 1) = 4k+1
If n = 1 then = 4 × 4k
51 + 6 × 71 + 1 = 48 = 4 × 12 > 4 × 10 × 2k (by (1))
is divisible by 4. Therefore P(1) is = 40 × 2k (as 10 > 2)
true.
= 20 × 2k+1

s
P(k)
> 10 × 2k+1

f
Assume that P(k) is true so that

oo
5k + 6 × 7k + 1 = 4m (1) = RHS of P(k + 1)
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
for some k ∈ Z.
Since P(5) is true and P(k + 1) is true
P(k + 1)
whenever P(k) is true, P(n) is true for

pr
5k+1 + 6 × 7k+1 + 1 all integers n ≥ 4 by the principle of
=5 × 5k + 6 × 7 × 7k + 1 mathematical induction.
=5 × (4m − 6 × 7k − 1) + 42 × 7k+1 b P(n)
ed
=20m − 30 × 7 − 5 + 42 × 7 + 1
k k
3n > 5 × 2n where n ≥ 5
=20m + 12 × 7k − 4 P(5)
=4(5m + 3 × 7k − 1) If n = 5 then
ct
is divisible by 4. Therefore P(k + 1) LHS = 35 = 243 and RHS = 5 × 25 = 160.
is true. Since LHS > RHS, P(5) is true.
re

Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N P(k)

by the principle of mathematical
Assume that P(k) is true so that
induction.
or

3k > 5 × 2k where k ≥ 5. (1)

P(k + 1)
3 a P(n)
c

We have to show that

4n > 10 × 2n where n ≥ 4
3k+1 > 5 × 2k+1 .
un

P(4)
LHS of P(k + 1) = 3k+1
If n = 4 then
LHS = 44 = 256 and RHS = 10 × 24 = 160. = 3 × 3k

Since LHS > RHS, P(4) is true. > 3 × 5 × 2k (by (1))

P(k) = 15 × 2k (as 10 > 2)
Assume that P(k) is true so that > 10 × 2k
4k > 10 × 2k where k ≥ 4. (1) = 5 × 2k+1
P(k + 1) = RHS of P(k + 1)

315
 Therefore P(k + 1) is true. If n = 4 then
Since P(5) is true and P(k + 1) is true LHS = 4! = 24 and RHS = 24 = 16.
whenever P(k) is true, P(n) is true for
all integers n ≥ 5 by the principle of Since LHS > RHS, P(4) is true.
mathematical induction. P(k)
Assume that P(k) is true so that
c P(n)
k! > 2k where k ≥ 4. (1)
2n > 2n where n ≥ 3

s
P(3) P(k + 1)

f
If n = 3 then We have to show that

oo
LHS = 23 = 8 and RHS = 2 × 3 = 6. (k + 1)! > 2k+1 .

Since LHS > RHS, P(3) is true. LHS of P(k + 1) = (k + 1)!

= (k + 1)k!

pr
P(k)
Assume that P(k) is true so that > (k + 1) × 2k (by (1))

2k > 2k where k ≥ 3. (1) > 2 × 2k (as k + 1 > 2)

= 2k+1
ed
P(k + 1)
= RHS of P(k + 1)
We have to show that
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
2k+1 > 2(k + 1).
ct
Therefore P(n) is true for all
LHS of P(k + 1) = 2k+1 integers n ≥ 4 by the principle of
mathematical induction.
= 2 × 2k
re

> 2 × 2k (by (1))

4 a P(n)
= 4k
or

an = 2n + 1
= 2k + 2k
P(1)
≥ 2k + 2 (as 2k ≥ 2) If n = 1 then
c

= 2(k + 1) LHS = a1 = 3 and RHS = 21 + 1 = 3.

un

= RHS of P(k + 1)
Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true.
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
P(k)
Therefore P(n) is true for all
Assume that P(k) is true so that
integers n ≥ 3 by the principle of
mathematical induction. ak = 2k + 1. (1)

d P(n) P(k + 1)
n! > 2n where n ≥ 4 We have to show that
P(4) ak+1 = 2k+1 + 1.

316
 LHS of P(k + 1) = ak+1 an = 2n + n
= 2ak − 1 (by definition) P(1)
= 2(2k + 1) − 1 (by (1)) If n = 1 then

= 2k+1 + 2 − 1 LHS = a1 = 3 and RHS = 21 + 1 = 3.

= 2k+1 + 1 Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true.

= RHS of P(k + 1) P(k)

Therefore P(k + 1) is true. Assume that P(k) is true so that

s
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N ak = 2k + k. (1)

f
by the principle of mathematical P(k + 1)

oo
induction.
We have to show that
b P(n) ak+1 = 2k+1 + k + 1.
an = 5n − 1

pr
LHS of P(k + 1) = ak+1
P(1) = 2ak − k + 1 (by definition)
If n = 1 then
= 2(2k + k) − k + 1 (by (1))
LHS = a1 = 4 and RHS = 5 − 1 = 4.
1
ed
= 2k+1 + 2k − k + 1
Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true.
= 2k+1 + k + 1
P(k)
= RHS of P(k + 1)
ct
Assume that P(k) is true so that
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
ak = 5k − 4. (1)
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
P(k + 1)
re

by the principle of mathematical

We have to show that induction.
ak+1 = 5k+1 − 4.
or

LHS = ak+1 5 P(n)

= 5ak + 4 (by definition) n
3 is odd where n ∈ N
c

= 5(5k − 1) + 4 (by (1)) P(1)

If n = 1 then clearly
un

= 5k+1 − 5 + 4
= 5k+1 − 1 31 = 3

= RHS is odd. Therefore, P(1) is true.

Therefore P(k + 1) is true. P(k)
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N Assume that P(k) is true so that
by the principle of mathematical 3k = 2m + 1 (1)
induction.
for some m ∈ Z.
c P(n) P(k + 1)

317
 3k+1 = 3 × 3k As this is the product of two consec-
= 3 × (2m + 1) (by (1)) utive numbers, one of them must be
even, so that the product will also be
= 6m + 3 even.
= 6m + 2 + 1
= 2(3m + 1) + 1 7 a P(n)
is odd, so that P(k + 1) is true. n3 − n is divisible by 3, where n ∈ N.
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by

s
P(1)
the principle of mathematical induction.
If n = 1 then

f
oo
13 − 1 = 0
6 a P(n)
is divisible by 3. Therefore, P(1) is
n2 − n is even, where n ∈ N. true.
P(1)

pr
P(k)
If n = 1 then Assume that P(k) is true so that k3 − k
12 − ×1 = 0 is divisible by 3. Therefore,
is even. Therefore, P(1) is true. k3 − k = 3m (1)
ed
P(k) for some m ∈ Z.
Assume that P(k) is true so that k2 − k P(k + 1)
is even. Therefore, We have to show that (k + 1)3 − (k + 1)
ct
k2 − k = 2m (1) is divisible by 3.
(k + 1)3 − (k + 1)
for some m ∈ Z.
re

=k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
P(k + 1)
=k3 − k + 3k2 + 3k
(k + 1)2 − (k + 1)
or

=(k3 − k) + 3k2 + 3k
=k2 + 2k + 1 − k − 1
=3m + 3k2 + 3k (by (1))
=k2 + k
=3(m + k2 + k)
c

=(k2 − k) + 2k
Since this is divisible by 3, P(k + 1) is
un

=2m + 2k (by (1)) true.

=2(m + k) Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
Since this is even, P(k + 1) is true. by the principle of mathematical
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N induction.
by the principle of mathematical
induction. b Factorising the expression gives
n3 + n = n(n2 − 1) = n(n − 1)(n + 1).
b Factorising the expression gives As this is the product of three
n − n = n(n − 1).
2
consecutive numbers, one of them

318
 must be divisible by 3, so that the f1 + f2 + · · · + fn = fn+2 − 1
product will also be divisible by 3. P(1)
If n = 1 then
n 1 2 3 4 5 LHS = f1 = 1
8 a
an 9 99 999 9999 99999
and
b We claim that an = 10 − 1. n
RHS = f3 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1.
Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true.

s
c P(n)
an = 10n − 1 P(k)

f
Assume that P(k) is true so that

oo
P(1)
If n = 1, then f1 + f2 + · · · + fk = fk+2 − 1. (1)

LHS = a1 = 9 and RHS = 101 − 1 = 9. P(k + 1)

LHS of P(k + 1) = f1 + f2 + · · · + fk + fk+1

pr
Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true.
P(k) = fk+2 − 1 + fk+1 (by (1))
Assume that P(k) is true so that = fk+1 + fk+2 − 1
= fk+3 − 1
ed
ak = 10k − 1. (1) (by definition)
P(k + 1) = f(k+1)+2 − 1
We have to show that = RHS of P(k + 1)
ct
ak+1 = 10k+1 − 1. Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
LHS = ak+1
by the principle of mathematical
re

= 10ak + 9 (by definition) induction.

= 10(10k − 1) + 9 (by (1))
c f1 = 1
or

= 10k+1 − 10 + 9
f1 + f3 = 1 + 2 = 3
= 10k+1 − 1 f1 + f3 + f5 = 3 + 5 = 8
= RHS f1 + f3 + f5 + f7 = 8 + 13 = 21
c

Therefore P(k + 1) is true.

un

d From the pattern observed above, we

Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N claim that
by the principle of mathematical
f1 + f3 + ... + f2n−1 = f2n .
induction.
e P(n)
9 a f1 + f3 + · · · + f2n−1 = f2n
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P(1)
fn 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
If n = 1 then
b P(n) LHS = f1 = 1

319
 and f3(k+1) = f3k+3
= f3k+2 + f3k+1 (by definition)
RHS = f2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1.
= f3k+1 + f3k + f3k+1

Since LHS = RHS, P(1) is true. = 2 f3k+1 + f3k

P(k) = 2 f3k+1 + 2m (by (1))
Assume that P(k) is true so that = 2( f3k+1 + m)
Since this is even, P(k + 1) is true.

s
f1 + f3 + · · · + f2k−1 = f2k . (1) Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N

f
by the principle of mathematical

oo
P(k + 1) induction.
LHS = f1 + f3 + · · · + f2k−1 + f2k+1
= f2k + f2k+1 (by (1)) 10 P(n)

pr
= f2k+2 (by definition) Since we’re only interested in odd
numbers our proposition is:
= f2(k+1)
42n−1 + 52n−1 is divisible by 9, where
= RHS
ed
n ∈ N.
Therefore P(k + 1) is true. P(1)
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N If n = 1 then
by the principle of mathematical
ct
induction.
41 + 51 = 9
f P(n)
re

The Fibonacci number f3n is even. is divisible by 9. Therefore P(1) is true.

P(1) P(k)
or

If n = 1 then Assume that P(k) is true so that

f3 = 2
42k−1 + 52k−1 = 9m (1)
c
un

is even, therefore P(1) is true.

for some k ∈ Z.
P(k)
P(k + 1)
Assume that P(k) is true so that f3k is
even. That is, The next odd number will be 2k + 1.
Therefore, we have to prove that
f3k = 2m (1)
42k+1 + 52k+1
for some m ∈ Z.
P(k + 1) is divisible by 9.

320
 42k+1 + 52k+1 and n enemies (in any order) without
=42 × 42k−1 + 52 × 52k−1 going into debt.
P(1)
=16 × (9m − 52k−1 ) + 25 × 52k−1 (by (1))
If n = 1, there is one friend and one
=144m − 16 × 52k−1 + 25 × 52k−1
enemy on the circumference of a circle.
=144m + 9 × 52k−1 Start your journey at the friend, receive
=9(16 + 52k−1 ) $1, then walk around to the enemy and
Since this is divisible by 9, we’ve shown lose $1. At no point will you be in debt,

s
that P(k + 1) is true. so P(1) is true.

f
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by P(k)

oo
the principle of mathematical induction. Assume that P(k) is true. This means
that it is possible to walk around a circle
with k friends and k enemies (in any
11 P(n)

pr
order) without going into debt, provided
A set of numbers S with n numbers has you start at the correct point.
a largest element.
P(k + 1)
P(1)
Suppose there are k + 1 friends and k + 1
ed
If n = 1, then set S has just one element. enemies located on the circumference of
This single element is clearly the largest the circle, in any order. Select a friend
element in the set. whose next neighbour is an enemy
ct
P(k) (going clockwise), and remove these
Assume that P(k) is true. This means two people. As there are now k friends
that a set of numbers S with k numbers and k enemies, it is possible to walk
re

has a largest element. around the circle without going into

P(k + 1) debt, provided you start at the correct
point. Now reintroduce the two people,
Suppose set S has k + 1 numbers.
or

and start walking from the same point.

Remove one of the elements, say x, so
For every part of the journey you’ll have
that we now have a set with k numbers.
the same amount of money as before
c

The reduced set has a largest element,

except when you meet the added friend,
y. Put x back in set S , so that its largest
un

who gives you $1, which is immediately

element will be the larger of x and y.
lost to the added enemy.
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by
the principle of mathematical induction.
the principle of mathematical induction.

13 P(n)
12 P(n)
Every integer j such that 2 ≤ j ≤ n is
It is possible to walk around a circle
divisible by some prime.
whose circumference includes n friends

321
 P(2) P(k)
If n = 2, then j = 2 is clearly divisible Assume that P(k) is true. This means
by a prime, namely itself. Therefore that we can obtain a satisfactory
P(2) is true. colouring if there are k lines drawn.
P(k) P(k + 1)
Assume that P(k) is true. Therefore, Now suppose that there are k + 1 lines
every integer j such that 2 ≤ j ≤ k is drawn. Select one of the lines, and
divisible by some prime. remove it. There are now k lines, and

s
P(k + 1) the resulting regions have a satisfactory

f
We need to show that integer j such colouring since we assumed P(k) is true.

oo
that 2 ≤ j ≤ k + 1 is divisible by some Now add the removed line. This will
prime. By the induction assumption, we divide some regions into into two new
already know that every j with 2 ≤ j ≤ k regions with the same colour, so this is
is divisible by some prime. We need not a satisfactory colouring.

pr
only prove that k + 1 is divisible by a
prime. If k + 1 is a prime number, then
we are finished. Otherwise we can find
integers a and b such that k + 1 = ab
ed
and 2 ≤ a ≤ k and 2 ≤ b ≤ k. By the
induction assumption, the number a
will be divisible by some prime number.
ct
Therefore k + 1 is divisible by some
However, if we switch each colour
prime number.
on one side of the line we obtain a
re

Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by satisfactory colouring.

the principle of mathematical induction.
or

14 If such a colouring of the regions is

possible we will call it a satisfactory
colouring.
c

P(n)
un

If n lines are drawn then the resulting

regions have a satisfactory colouring. This is because inverting a satisfactory
P(1) colouring will always give a satisfactory
If n = 1, then there is just one line. colouring, and regions separated the new
We colour one side black and one side line will not have the same colour.
white. This is a satisfactory colouring. Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by
Therefore P(1) is true. the principle of mathematical induction.

322
 Solutions to Technology-free questions
√3 p
1 a Let the 3 consecutive integers be that 6= where p, q ∈ Z. We
q
n, n + 1 and n + 2. Then, can assume that p and q have no
n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 3n + 3 common factors (or else they could
= 3(n + 1) be cancelled). Then,
p3 = 6q3 (1)
⇒ p3 is divisible by 2

s
is divisible by 3.

f
⇒ p is divisible by 2
b This statement is not true. For

oo
example, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 is not ⇒ p = 2k for some k ∈ N
divisible by 4 ⇒ (2k)3 = 6q3 (substitituting into (1))
⇒ 8k3 = 6q3

pr
2 (Method 1) If n is even then n = 2k, for ⇒ 4k2 = 3q2
some k ∈ Z. Therefore,
⇒ q2 is divisible by 2
n − 3n + 1 = (2k) − 2(2k) + 1
2 2
⇒ q is divisible by 2.
= 4k2 − 4k + 1
ed
So p and q are both divisible by 2,
= 2(2k2 − 2k) + 1
which contradicts the fact that they
have no factors in common.
ct
is odd.
(Method 2) If n is even then n2 − 3n + 1
4 a Suppose n is the first of three
is of the form
re

consecutive numbers. If n is divisible

even − even + odd = odd. by 3 then there is nothing to prove.
Otherwise, it is of the form n = 3k + 1
or

3 a (Contrapositive) If n is not even, then or n = 3k + 2. In the first case,

n3 is not even. (Alternative) If n is n = 3k + 1
odd, then n3 is odd.
c

n + 1 = 3k + 2
b If n is odd then n = 2k + 1, for some n + 2 = 3k + 3 = 3(k + 1)
un

k ∈ Z. Therefore,
so that the third number is divisible
n3 = (2k + 1)3 by 3. In the second case,
= 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1 n = 3k + 2
= 2(4k + 6k + 3k) + 1
3 2
n + 1 = 3k + 3 = 3(k + 1)
is odd. n + 2 = 3k + 4
c This will be a proof
√3 by contradic- so that the second number is divisible
tion. Suppose 6 is rational so by 3.

323
 b The expression can be readily b (⇒)
factorised so that √ √ √
[t] x + y = x + y
√
n3 + 3n2 + 2n = n(n2 + 3n + 2) ⇒ x+y= x+ y
√ 2

= n(n + 1)(n + 2) √
⇒ x + y = x + xy + y

is the product of 3 consecutive ⇒ 0 = sqrtxy

integers. As one of these integers ⇒ xy = 0

s
must be divisible by 3, the product
⇒ x = 0 or y = 0

f
must also be divisible by 3.

oo
(⇐) Suppose that x = 0 or y = 0. We
5 a if m and n are divisible by d then can assume that x = 0. Then
m = pd and n = qd for some p, q ∈ Z. √
x+y= y+0
p

pr
Therefore, √
= y
√ √
m − n = pd − qd = y+ 0
√ √
= d(p − q) = y + x,
ed
is divisible by d. as required.

b Take any two consecutive numbers

ct
7 (Case 1) If n is even then the expression
n and n + 1. If d divides n and n + 1
is of the form
then d must divide (n + 1) − n = 1.
re

As the only integer that divides 1 is 1, even + even + even = even.

the highest common factor must be 1,
as requried. (Case 1) If n is odd then the expression
or

is of the form
c We know that any factor of 1002 and
999 must also divide 1002 − 999 = 3. odd + odd + even = even.
c

As the only factors of 3 are 1 and 3,

the highest common factor must be 3.
8 a If a = b = c = d = 1 then the left
un

hand side equals

6 a If x = 9 and y = 16 then the left hand
1 1
side equals + =2
1 1
√ √
9 + 16 = 25 = 5 while the right hand side equals
1+1
= 1.
while the right hand side equals 1+1
√ √ c a
9+ 16 = 3 + 4 = 7. b first note that if > then bc > ad.
d b

324
 Therefore, is divisible by 10. Therefore P(k + 1)
a+c a is true.
−
b+d b Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N
b(a + c) a(b + d)
= − by the principle of mathematical
b(b + d) b(b + d)
induction.
b(a + c) − a(b + d)
=
b(b + d) b P(n)
ab + bc − ab − ad 12 + 32 + · · · + (2n − 1)2 =
=
b(b + d) n(2n − 1)(2n + 1)

s
bc − ad 3

f
=
b(b + d) P(1)

oo
>0 If n = 1 then LHS= 12 = 1and
1(2 × 1 − 1)(2 × 1 + 1)
since bc > ad. This implies that RHS = = 1.
3
a+c a Therefore P(1) is true.

pr
> .
b+d b P(k)
Similarly, we can show that
Assume that P(k) is true so that
a+c c
< . k(2k − 1)(2k + 1)
b+d d 12 + 32 + · · · + (2k − 1)2 = . (1)
ed
3
P(k + 1)
9 a P(n)
LHS of P(k + 1)
6n + 4 is divisible by 10
ct
=12 + 32 + · · · + (2k − 1)2 + (2k + 1)2
P(1)
k(2k − 1)(2k + 1)
If n = 1 then = + (2k + 1)2 (by (1))
re

3
61 + 4 = 10 k(2k − 1)(2k + 1) 3(2k + 1)2
= +
is divisible by 10. Therefore P(1) is 3 3
or

true. k(2k − 1)(2k + 1) + 3(2k + 1)2

=
P(k) 3
(2k + 1)(k(2k − 1) + 3(2k + 1))
Assume that P(k) is true so that =
c

3
6k + 4 = 10m (1) (2k + 1)(2k − k + 6k + 3)
2
un

=
for some m ∈ Z. 3
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)(k + 1)
P(k + 1) =
3
6k+1 + 4 = 6 × 6k + 4 (k + 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
=
= 6 × (10m − 4) + 4 (by (1)) 3
(k + 1)(2(k + 1) − 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
= 60m − 24 + 4 =
3
= 60m − 20 × 3k =RHS of P(k + 1)
= 10(6m − 2) Therefore P(k + 1) is true.

325
 Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N induction.
by the principle of mathematical

f s
oo
pr
ed
ct
re
or
c
un

326
 Solutions to multiple-choice questions
1 E The expression m − 3n is of the form This means that n is divisible by
even − odd = odd. n − 1, which is only possible if n = 2
or n = 0. If n = 0, then m = 0. If
2 E If m is divisible by 6 and n is n = 2, then m = 2. Therefore there
divisible by 15 then m = 6p and are only two solutions, (0, 0) and
n = 15q for p, q ∈ Z. Therefore, (2, 2).

s
m × n = 90pq
6 D The only statement that is true

f
m + n = 6p + 15q = 3(2p + 5q) for all real numbers a, b and

oo
From these two expressions, it c is D. Counterexamples can
should be clear that A,B,C and D be found for each of the other
are true, while E might be false. For expressions, as shown below.
1 1
example, if m = 6 and n = 15 then <

pr
A
3 2
m + n = 21 is not divisible by 15.
1 1
3 C We obtain the contrapositive by B >
2 −1
ed
switching P and Q and negating
both. Therefore, the contrapositive C 3 × −1 < 2 × −1
will be
not Q ⇒ not P E 12 < (−2)2
ct
. 7 D As n is the product of 3 consecutive
integers, one of which will be
re

4 B We obtain the converse by switching divisible by 3 and one of which

P and Q. Therefore, the converse will be divisible by 2. The product
will be will be then be divisible by 1, 2, 3
or

Q⇒P and 6. On the other hand, it won’t

. necessarily be divisible by 5 since
2 × 3 × 4 is not divisible by 5.
c

5 C If m + n = mn then
8 C Each of the statements is true except
un

n = mn − m
the third. In this instance, 1 + 3 is
n = m(n − 1) even, although 1 and 3 are not even.

327
 Solutions to extended-response questions
1 a The number of dots can be calculated two ways, either by addition,
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)
or by multiplication,
4 × 5.
Equating these two expressions gives,

s
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 4 × 5

f
2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 4 × 5

oo
4×5
1+2+3+4=
2
The argument obviously generalises to more dots, giving equation (1).

pr
b We have,
99 × 100
1 + 2 · · · + 99 =
2
= 99 × 50,
ed
which is divisible by 99.

c Suppose that m is the first number, so that the n connective numbers are
ct
m, m + 1, . . . , m + n − 1.
Then,
re

m + (m + 1) + (m + 2) + · · · + (m + n − 1)
= n × m + (1 + 2 + · · · (n − 1))
or

(n − 1)n
= nm +
2
!
n−1
=n m+
c

2
n−1
un

Since n is odd, n − 1 is even. This means that is an integer. Therefore, the term
2
in brackets is an integer, which means the expression is divisible by n.

d Since
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = ,
2
we need to prove the following statement:
P(n)
n2 (n + 1)2
13 + 23 + · · · + n3 =
4

328
 P(1)
If n = 1 then
LHS = 13 = 1
and
12 (1 + 1)2
RHS = = 1.
4
Therefore P(1) is true.
P(k)

s
Assume that P(k) is true so that

f
k2 (k + 1)2
13 + 23 + · · · + k3 = .

oo
(1)
4
P(k + 1)

pr
LHS of P(k + 1)
=13 + 23 + · · · + k3 + (k + 1)3
k2 (k + 1)2
= + (k + 1)3 (by (1))
ed
4
k2 (k + 1)2 4(k + 1)3
= +
4 4
k (k + 1) + 4(k + 1)3
ct
2 2
=
4
(k + 1) (k + 4(k + 1))
2 2
=
re

4
(k + 1) (k + 4k + 4)
2 2
=
4
or

(k + 1) (k + 2)2
2
=
4
(k + 1) ((k + 1) + 1)2
2
c

=
4
un

=RHS of P(k + 1)
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by the principle of mathematical induction.

2 a The first number is divisible by 2, the second by 3, the third by 4 and so on. As each
number has a factor greater than 1, each is a composite number. Therefore this is a
sequence of 9 consecutive composite numbers.

329
 b We consider the this sequence of 10 consecutive numbers,
11! + 2, 11! + 3, . . . , 11! + 11.
The first number is divisible by 2, the second by 3 and so on. Therefore as each
number has a factor greater than 1, each is a composite number.

3 a Since (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple, we know that a2 + b2 = c2 . Then (na, nb, nc) is
also a Pythagorean triple since,
(na)2 + (nb)2 = n2 a2 + n2 b2

s
= n2 (a2 + b2 )

f
oo
= n2 (c2 )
= (nc)2 ,
as required.

pr
b Suppose that (n, n + 1, n + 2) is a Pythagorean triple. Then
n2 + (n + 1)2 = (n + 2)2
n2 + n2 + 2n + 1 = n2 + 4n + 4
ed
n2 − 2n − 3 = 0
(n − 3)(n + 1) = 0
ct
n = 3, −1.
However, since n > 0, we obtain only one solution, n = 3, which corresponds to the
re

famous (3, 4, 5) triangle.

c Suppose some triple (a, b, c) contained the number 1. Then clearly, 1 will be the
smallest number. Therefore, we can suppose that
or

12 + b2 = c2
c2 − b2 = 1
c

(c − b)(c + b) = 1
un

Since the only divisor of 1 is 1, we must have

c+b=1
c−b=1
⇒ b = 0 and c = 1.
This is a contradiction, since b must be a positive integer. Now suppose some triple
(a, b, c) contained the number 2. Then 2 will be smallest number. Therefore, we can

330
 suppose that
22 + b2 = c2
c2 − b2 = 4
(c − b)(c + b) = 4
Since the only divisors of 4 are 1, 2 and 4, we must have
c+b=4
c−b=1

f s
3 5
⇒ b = ,c =

oo
2 2
or
c+b=2
c−b=2

pr
⇒ b = 0, c = 2
In both instances, we have a contradiction since b must be a positive integer.
ed
4 a (Case 1) If a = 3k + 1 then
a2 = (3k + 1)2
= 9k2 + 6k + 1
ct
= 3(3k2 + 2k) + 1
leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 3.
re

(Case 2) If a = 3k + 2 then
a2 = (3k + 2)2
or

= 9k2 + 12k + 4
= 9k2 + 12k + 3 + 1
= 3(3k2 + 4k + 1) + 1
c

also leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 3.

un

b Suppose by way of contradiction that neither a nor b are divisible by 3. Then using
the previous question, each of a2 and b2 leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 3.
Therefore a2 = 3k + 1 and b2 = 3m + 1, for some k, m ∈ Z. Therefore,
c2 = a2 + b2
= 3k + 1 + 3m + 1
= 3(k + m) + 2.
This means that c2 leaves a remainder of 2 when divided by 3, which is not possible.

331
 5 a P(n)
n2 + n is divisible by 2, where n ∈ Z.
P(1)
If n = 1 then 12 + 1 = 2 is divisible by 2. Therefore P(1) is true.
P(k)
Assume that P(k) is true so that
k2 + k = 2m (1)

s
for some m ∈ Z.

f
P(k + 1)

oo
Letting n = k + 1 we have,
(k + 1)2 + (k + 1)
=k2 + 2k + 1 + k + 1

pr
=k2 + 3k + 2
=(k2 + k) + (2k + 2)
=2m + 2(k + 1) (by (1))
ed
=2(m + k + 1)
is divisible by 2. Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
ct
Therefore P(n) is true for all n ∈ N by the principle of mathematical induction.

b Since
re

n2 + n = n(n + 1)
is the product of two consecutive integers, one of them must be even. Therefore the
product will also be even.
or

c If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1. Therefore

n2 − 1 = (2k + 1)2 − 1
c

= 4k2 + 4k + 1 − 1
un

= 4k2 + 4k
= 4k(k + 1)
= 4 × 2k (since the product of consecutive integers is even)
= 8k
as required.

6 a If n is divisible by 8, then n = 8k for some k ∈ Z. Therefore

n2 = (8k)2 = 64k2 = 8(8k2 )

332
 is divisible by 8.

b (Converse) If n2 is divisible by 8, then n is divisible by 8.

c The converse is not true. For example, 42 = 16 is divisible by 8 however 4 is not

divisible by 8.

7 a There are many possibilities. For example 3 + 97 = 100 and 5 + 97 = 102.

s
b Suppose 101 could be written as the sum of two prime numbers. Then one of these
primes must be 2, since all other pairs of primes have an even sum. Therefore

f
101 = 2 + 99, however 99 is not prime.

oo
c There are many possibilities. For example, 7 + 11 + 83 = 101.

d Consider any odd integer n greater than 5. Then n − 3 will be an even number greater

pr
than 2. If the Goldbach Conjecture is true, then n − 3 is the sum of two primes, say p
and q. Then n = 3 + p + q, as required.

8 a We have,
ed
1 1 n n−1
− = −
n − 1 n n(n − 1) n(n − 1)
n − (n − 1)
=
ct
n(n − 1)
n−n+1
=
n(n − 1)
re

1
= .
n(n − 1)
or

b Using the identity developed in the previous question, we have,

1 1 1
+ + ··· +
2×1 3×2 n(n + 1)
c

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + − + ··· + − + −
un

1 2 2 3 3 4 n−2 n−1 n−1 n

1 1
= −
1 n
1
=1 −
n
as required.

333
 d Since k2 > k(k − 1) for all k ∈ N,
1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 ··· + 2
1 2 3 n
!
1 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 ··· + 2
1 2 3 n
!
1 1 1 1
< 2+ + ··· +
1 2×1 3×2 n(n − 1)
1 1
= 2 +1−

s
1 n

f
1
=2 −

oo
n
<2,
as required.

pr
9 a We have,
x+y √ a2 + b2 √ 2 2
− xy = − ab
2 2
a2 + b2
ed
= − ab
2
a2 + b2 2ab
= −
2 2
ct
a − 2ab + b2
2
=
2
(a − b)2
re

=
2
≥ 0.
or

It is also worth noting that we get equality if and only if x = y.

b i Using the above inequality, we obtain,

c

r
1 1
a+ ≥2 a·
un

a a
√
=2 1
= 2.
as required.

334
 ii Using the above inequality three times, we obtain,
√ √ √
(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ≥ 2 ab × 2 bc × 2 ca
√ √ √
= 8( a)2 ( b)2 ( c)2
= 8abc,
as required.

iii This inequality is a little trickier. We have,

s
a2 b2 b2 c2 a2 c2
! ! !
a +b +c =
2 2 2
+ + + + +

f
2 2 2 2 2 2

oo
a2 + b2 b2 + c2 a2 + c2
= + +
2 2 2
√ √ √
≥ a2 b2 + b2 c2 + a2 c2

pr
= ab + bc + ac,
as required.

c If a rectangle has length x and width y then its perimeter will be 2x + 2y. A square
ed
with the same perimeter will have side length,
2x + 2y x + y
= .
4 2
Therefore,
ct
 x + y 2
A(square) = ≥ xy = A(rectangle).
2
re

10 We show that it is only possible for Kaye to be the liar.

case 1
Suppose Jaye is lying
or

⇒ Kaye is not lying

⇒ Elle is lying
⇒ There are two liars
c

⇒ This is impossible.
un

case 2
Suppose Kaye is lying
⇒ Jaye is not lying and Elle is not lying
⇒ Kaye is the only liar
case 3
Suppose Elle is lying
⇒ Mina is not lying
⇒ Karl is lying
⇒ There are two liars
⇒ This is impossible.

335
 11 First note that the four sentences can be recast as:

 Exactly three of these statements are true.

 Exactly two of these statements are true.

 Exactly one of these statements are true.

 None of these statements are true.

s
At most one of these statements can be true, or else we obtain a contradiction. If none

f
of the statements is true, then the last statement is true. This means that at least one

oo
of the statements is true. This also gives a contradiction. Therefore, only one of the
statements is true, that is, the third statement.

12 a There is only one possibility,

pr
1, 2, 4, 8 3, 5, 6, 7

b We know that we can split the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 8,

ed
1, 2, 4, 8 3, 5, 6, 7
Deleting the largest number, 8, will give a splitting of 1, 2, . . . , 7.
1, 2, 4 3, 5, 6, 7
ct
Continuing this process, deleting the 7, will be a splitting of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 6,
and so on.
re

c We first note that if a set can be split then two numbers can’t appear in the same
group as their difference. To see this, if x and y and x − y all belong to the same
or

group then (x − y) + y = x. Let’s now try to split the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 9. Call the
two groups X and Y. We can assume that 1 ∈ X. We now consider four cases for the
groups containing elements 2 and 9.
c

(case 1) Suppose 2 ∈ X and 9 ∈ X

Reason X Y Reason
un

(assumed) 1
(assumed) 2
(assumed) 9
3 (1, 2 ∈ X)
7 (2, 9 ∈ X)
(3, 7 ∈ Y) 4
5 (1, 4 ∈ X)
6 (2, 4 ∈ X)
(5, 6 ∈ Y) 8

336
 This doesn’t work, since X is forced to contain the numbers 1, 8 and 9.
(case 2) Suppose 2 ∈ X and 9 ∈ Y
Reason X Y Reason
(assumed) 1
(assumed) 2
9 (assumed)
3 (1, 2 ∈ X)
(3, 9 ∈ Y) 6

s
4 (2, 6 ∈ X)
5 (1, 6 ∈ X)

f
This doesn’t work, since Y is forced to contain the numbers 4, 5 and 9.

oo
(case 3) Suppose 2 ∈ Y and 9 ∈ X
Reason X Y Reason
(assumed) 1

pr
2 (assumed)
(assumed) 9
8 (1, 9 ∈ X)
(2, 8 ∈ Y) 6
ed
3 (6, 8 ∈ X)
(2, 8 ∈ Y) 5 (3, 8 ∈ X)
This doesn’t work, since X is forced to contain the numbers 1, 5 and 6.
(case 4) Suppose 2 ∈ Y and 9 ∈ Y
ct
Reason X Y Reason
(assumed) 1
re

2 (assumed)
9 (assumed)
(2, 9 ∈ Y) 7
or

6 (1, 7 ∈ X)
(2, 8 ∈ Y) 4
3 (4, 7 ∈ X)
c

This doesn’t work, since Y is forced to contain the numbers 3, 6 and 9.

un

d If the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n could be split, where n ≥ 9, then we could successively

eliminate the largest term to obtain a splitting of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 9. However,
we already know that this is impossible.

13 a A suitable tiling is shown below. There are many other possibilities.

b Tile E must go into a corner. This is because there are only two other tiles (A and

337
 B) that it can go next to. Tile F must also go into a corner. This is because there are
only two other tiles (B and C) that it can go next to.
(Case 1) Tile E and tile F are in different rows
Since tile B must go next to both tiles E and F, this is impossible.
(Case 2) Tile E and tile F are in the same row
Assume tile F is in the top left position.
Then tile E goes in the top right position.

f s
oo
Therefore tile B must go between them.

pr
Tile C must then go beneath tile F and tile A must go beneath tile E. Consequently,
tile D must go beneath tile B. Therefore, there is only one valid orientation of tile D.
ed
ct
This fixes the orientation of tiles A and C.
re
or

Since tile F could have gone into any one of the four corners, there are only four
ways to tile the grid.
c
un

338