2023

WORKSHOP
TECHNOLOGY
& TUTORIAL

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SUFAIRUZ BINTI SAAD

 WORKSHOP
TECHNOLOGY
& TUTORIAL
2023
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SUFAIRUZ BINTI SAAD

Workshop Technology
First publish 2023
©Sufairuz binti Saad
Publish by Politeknik Tuanku Sultanah Bahiyah
e-ISBN: 978-967-2740-51-3

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering Department
Politeknik Tuanku Sultanah Bahiyah

© All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduces, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronics, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the
writer and publisher. This book is only available in an e-book format.

Mechanical Engineering Department

Politeknik Tuanku Sultanah Bahiyah
Kulim Hi Tech Park
09090 Kulim, Kedah Darul Aman
Tel: 04-4033333
Fax: 04-4033033
Website: https://ptsb.mypolycc.edu.my
 INTRODUCTION 1

WORKSHOP SAFETY 2-6

CONTENTS
HAND TOOLS 7-34

DRILLING 35-70

LATHE 71-99

MILLING 100-132
TABLE OF

GEAR 133-161

CNC 162-217

WELDING 218-277

REFERENCES 278-282
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Being an engineering student makes

related book equally important in
helping students have good grasp of
basic mechanical engineering. For the
author, this book act as a compilation
of sample question related to topic
discussed throughout the syllabus and
aims to motivate the author to write
more. The goal is to provide a
comprehensive yet simple book and is
intended to encourage student to
develop sufficient knowledge in
workshop practices.

The authors wish to thanks all the

lecturers, husband, family, friends,
colleagues and most importantly PTSB
in making this possible. Alhamdulillah,
truly grateful in every assistance the
author gets throughout the process.

Thank you again.

 INTRODUCTION
WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY provides
exposure and knowledge in using
hand tools, machine operation such
as drilling, lathe, milling and
computer numerical control. It also
covers on gear measurement and
inspection welding process in Oxy
Acetylene (OAW), Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding (GTAW) and Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW).

1
WORKSHOP
SAFETY
 WORKSHOP SAFETY
BASIC INFORMATION AND PRECAUTIONS

Safety in the workshop may be divided into the following:

i.Workshop grooming
ii.Safe work practices
iii.Housekeeping

WORKSHOP GROOMING
- Always wear proper garments when entering
workshop. Never wear loose clothing to avoid
getting caught in rotating parts.
- Always wear safety glasses/ goggles in any area of
machine shops.
- Keep all jewellery such as watches, rings and
bracelets when attending machines.
- Long hair must be properly secured.
- Wear apron when necessary.
- Safety shoes must be worn at all times in the
machine shop.

3
 WORKSHOP SAFETY
BASIC INFORMATION AND PRECAUTIONS

Safety in the workshop may be divided into the following:

i.Workshop grooming
ii.Safe work practices
iii.Housekeeping

SAFE WORK PRACTICES

- Do a safety checklist before operating a machine.
Make it a habit.
- Never leave a machine unattended.
- Use a brush to remove chips from the machine.
- Gloves must not be worn around a moving machine.
Keep your hands from moving parts. Always stop a
machine before measuring, cleaning or making
adjustments.
- If your workshop has noise level more than 115 dB,
ear protection must be worn.
- No horse playing or scuffling in the workshop.

4
 WORKSHOP SAFETY
BASIC INFORMATION AND PRECAUTIONS

Safety in the workshop may be divided into the following:

i.Workshop grooming
ii.Safe work practices
iii.Housekeeping

SAFE WORK PRACTICES

- Always implement buddy system when lifting heavy
parts. Heavy stock, even if it is short, should be carried
by two people.
- Using a compressed air to clear chips from machine or
your cloth is not a good practice as chips and particles
will fling at high velocity and resulting in injury.
- Knows where to look for the first aid box in the
workshop.
- Always inform the supervisor if injuries happen.
- Know the location of all fire extinguishers.

5
 WORKSHOP SAFETY
BASIC INFORMATION AND PRECAUTIONS

Safety in the workshop may be divided into the following:

i.Workshop grooming
ii.Safe work practices
iii.Housekeeping

HOUSEKEEPING
-Always stop the machine before attempting cleaning.
-Keep the floor clear of stock and unwanted tools.
-Clean up spillage (oil/ grease/ water/ detergent) to
avoid tripping.
-Sweep the metal chips frequently as they are embedded
to the shoes.
-Never place any tools on the machine work table.
-Return every tool to its storage rack/ box.
-Return stock to the storage rack after cutting off the
required length.
-Always keep the machine and hand tools clean.

6
HAND TOOLS
 INTRODUCTION
HAND TOOLS

1. Hand tools are needed in workmanship

activity. Although machine helps get
things in shape, the importance of hand
tool operations should not be
overlooked. A good machinist should be
able to use all hand tools skillfully.

2. Some of the works involve are holding,

striking, assembling, cutting, thread
cutting, finishing, taking measurement,
OBJECTIVES
marking, layout and inspection.
Apply the knowledge of

3. As for basic measurement, it can be

taken by use of a rule or any other non-
basic mechanical
components and
precision measuring tool (inch/ metric equipment, hand tools
standard system). One of the important
and measuring
reason of taking measurement is when
equipment in workshop
one needed to transfer measurement for
work.
technology.

8
 Marking/ Layout
Accuracy is needed as it represents how close a measurement
come to its true value. Whereas, precision is how close
measurements of the same item are to each other. The accuracy
of a layout entails the proper and careful use of all layout tools.

Layout Tables & Granite surface Plate

Surface Plates
A work may be performed on a layout
table or a surface plate for stability &
accuracy. There are different types of
table which is made from granite or
cast iron. Both come with its own Cast Iron surface Plate
advantages.
Along with the table, there are other
hand tool used, such as, scriber,
dividers, squares, steel rules, surface
gage, prick punch, center punch & Caution !!!
Never hammer or punch any
layout accessories which come in handy layout on a surface plate & always
in layout (angle plate, parallels, v-blocks keep the working surface clean &
cover it when not in use.
& keyseat rules).

All the above mentioned hand tool equipment are

common to be found in machine shop and the figures
can be seen in the next page.

9
 Hand Tools & Accessories
Angle Plate Surface Gauge
Pocket & Double End Scriber
To scribe layout lines on a
workpiece

Keyseat Rule with

clamp

Scriber when combine with To hold the Keyseat Rule is used

rule, square is used to draw workpiece so to scribe lines
straight lines that lines are parallel to the axis
accurately of a cylinder
positioned
Prick Punches & Center Parallels
Punches

Steel Rule

Parallels keep the bottom

Punches are used in layout work
surface of the workpiece parallel
such as permanent mark
Steel rule is usually used to with the surface plate
(dented)
take measurements, surface
level checks & help to make
straight lines
L-Square
Dividers & Trammels

Dividers are used for scribing

arcs and circles on a layout & for
transferring measuremenst
L Square is used for
inspection purposes
Trammel consists of a beam on
which two sliding/ adjustable
heads with scriber points are
mounted. 10
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies. Caution !!!
1. Never use a hammer
with a greasy handle.
Hammer 2. Be sure to use a solid
handle not cracked
The most common used hammer is called one.
ball-peen hammer. It is made in variety of 3. Never strike two
sizes (Ranges: 55-1400 g). hammer faces together
as it may chip off and
The smaller sizes are used for layout work
causes injury.
while the larger ones for general work.
4. Make sure the head is
Always grasp the hammer at the end of not loose.
the handle to provide better balance & a
greater striking force.

Ball Peen Hammer

Some of the uses of ball-

peen hammer

Hammers are classified as either soft or hard. Hammers are specified

based on its head weight. It is used as a striking tool in the workshop
Ball-peen hammers have a sharp impact but are accurate.
Soft-faced hammers are less hard, but may be light or heavy.

11
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies.
In general, a coarser blade will cut faster.
The y can be used for heavy cuts or for
Hacksaw softer metal.
Hacksaw is considered on of the cutting However, there is a limit for coarseness
tool. It is divided into few main parts; the both safety and for tool life.
frame, handle & blade.
The frame can either be adjustable/ solid. Correct Use of a Hacksaw:
The solid is more rigid & will accommodate 1.Mount the blade so that the teeth
blades of only one specific length. While, face away from the handle
the adjustable frame is commonly used 2.Do not force the cut
and has a wide range of blade length 3.Apply pressure on the forward stroke
(250-300 mm). 4.For hard material, slow your stroke
A wing nut helps in adjusting the blade rate
tensioning.

12
 Hacksaw
Too coarse teeth can be stripped. Select blade pitch
such that three or more teeth are in contact with the
work.

A hacksaw is correctly mounted when the teeth cut on the

forward stroke.

The kerf is a term of which a small groove

created through a saw cuts. It provides
clearance for the rest of the blade to stop it
binding.
The width of kerf has to allowed for when
cutting materials of length and width. It means
that we need to cut on a waste side of a line.

Blade set creates a kerf wider than the blade

to prevent rubbing and allow curved cuts.

Correct tooth must be chosed based on the

sawing method, its material hardness & cut
sizes. Choose coarser blades for longer cut
surfaces or softer metals.

Caution !!!
If a saw blade breaks or become dull in a partly finished cut, replace the
blade and rotate the work one-half turn so that the old cut is at the bottom.
This is done to avoid new blade quickly ruin.
13
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies.

Caution !!!
Files 1. Never use a file
without its handle.
Files are too considered as cutting tools. They
Serious hand injury
are often used to put the finishing touches on a
may result, should the
machined workpiece, remove burrs or sharp file slip.
edges or as a final fitting operations. 2. Apply pressure only on
A file is made of high carbon steel, having a the forward stroke.
series of teeth cut on its body by parallel chisel Pressure on the return
stroke will dull the the
cuts. It comes with a variety of of types and
file.
shapes and function.
3. Never use a file as a
They are: Single Cut & Double Cut files pry or a hammer. It
Single cut files have a single row of parallel can easily snap and
teeth running diagonally across the face. it causing small pieces
is used for making smooth finish or when fly and end up injuring
the eye.
hard materials are to be finished.
4. Store file separately.
Double cut files have two intersecting teeth.
5. Always use a file card
The first row is usually coarser, called or brush to clean the
overcut. The other row is called the upcut. face.
This file is used for fast metal removal &
easy chips clearing.

Parts of a file

14
 Files

Types of files

Cross sectional views of files

15
 Files

Proper filing position Draw filing

Cleaning a file using file card/ brush

16
 Files

File classification - Degrees of coarseness

17
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies.

Chisels
Chisels are used in the workshop along with hammer. It is used:
Cut flat, round or angle iron and metal sheet.
To remove unwanted metal from the work surface known as chipping.

Chisels are used both on hot and cold metals.

a) Hot Chisel - Used for cutting hot metals in blacksmith’s workshop. There
is a hole in a chisel in which a wooden handle is fixed. Their cutting edge is
made at an angle of 30°. While using this part, it is frequently dipped into
water for making it cold so that its edges remain intact.
b) Cold Chisel - usually used in sheet metal work and done in cold
condition. It is available in 4 sides, 6 sides or 8 sides. They are made of
high carbon steel, which contains 0.75% to 1.00% of carbon. Generally,
chisel, of 150 mm length is used. Practically, chisels measurement is
known from the width of chisels cutting edge.

Types of chisel

18
 Chisels

Chisels Care

The angle at which a cutting edge of chisel is grinded is known as its cutting angle.
For cutting hard metal, the cutting angle is more and for cutting soft metals the
cutting angle is less. While grinding chisels for cutting various kinds of metals their
angles should be as under:
Mild steel – 55 °
Cast iron – 60 °
Tool steel – 65 ° to 70 °
Copper – 45 °
Aluminum – 30 °
Brass – 50 °

19
 Chisels

Caution !!!
At the time of chipping, we must always use safety goggles.
Keep your face towards the wall, while chipping.
If someone is working in your front, you should fix chipping guard
at the rear of the vice so that chips do not hit him.
The mushroom head chisel should never be used for chipping.
There should not be any greasy substance on the chisel head and
face of the hammer being used for chipping.
An extraordinarily long chisel should not be used for chipping.
While chipping we should keep on applying grease on the edge of
the chisel.

20
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies.

Tap and Dies

Taps

Taps are cutting tools used to cut internal

threads in holes.
They are made of high quality tool steel,
hardened and ground.
Another characteristics of taps is the amount
of chamfer at the cutting end of the tap. It has
three sets of tap:
Taper
Plug
Bottoming
Using a tap

Taper - Used at starting a tapped thread

square with the part.
Plug - The most commonly used tap, both in
hand and machine tapping
Bottoming - Used to produce threads that
extend almost to the bottom of a blind hole. A
blind hole is one that is not drilled entirely
through a part.
A tap wrench is used to provide driving
torque while hand tapping.
Tap wrench

21
 Other Hand Tools
Some of other hand tools to be discussed are; Hacksaw, files,
hammer, chisel, tap & dies.

Caution !!!
Threading Dies 1. When cutting a long
thread, keep the arms
A die is used to manually cut external threads
and hands clear of the
on the surface of a bolt or rod.
sharp threads coming
Dies are used to cut external threads on around through the die.
materials. 2. Always stand aside
The most common threading dies are: when cleaning out
The solid holes with compressed
air. Wear goggles.
The adjustable split
3. Apply cutting fluid
The adjustable screw plate die
when threading.
4. To break packed
Solid - Used for chasing or re-cutting damaged chips, reverse the
threads & may be driven by a suitable wrench. wrench a revolution.
It is fixed.
Adjustable split - It has an adjusting screw that
permits an adjustment over or under the
standard thread depth. It fits into the die stock.
Adjustable screw plate die - More efficient die
as it provides greater adjustment than the split
die.

Die & Stock

22
Using Threading Die

Start the die with one hand

Use both hands to turn the threading die

23
 Measuring Devices
Vernier Caliper

What Can Vernier Caliper Measure?

24
 Measuring Devices
Micrometer

Learn More About Vernier

Caliper & Micrometer

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FegTOsMVieM

25
Using Micrometer

26
MAINTENANCE & CARE FOR
HAND TOOLS

27
TRAINING & SAFETY
CONSIDERATION

28
TUTORIAL
1.State TWO (2) functions of a hacksaw.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Describe the most common hammer used in the workshop.

……………………………………………………………………………

3. Give THREE (3) reasons for broken taps.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Explain the basic principles of the Vernier caliper.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Choose between double-cut files and single-cut files, which one is
suitable when a smooth finish is desired or when hard materials are to
be finished?
……………………………………………………………………………

30
 Figure 1: Claw type hammer
6. Label FIVE (5) parts of claw type hammer accordingly.
No. Name of Parts

7. Draw and label SIX (6) main parts of a standard micrometer.

31
8. Identify the function of hand tools.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Thread cutting taps are supplied in sets of three. Write the name of
each taps.
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

10. Match SEVEN (7) tools according to their category or activity.

Surface gauge Striking

Vernier caliper Fixing

Files Threading

Surface plate Measuring

Dies Testing/ Checking

Hammer Marking out

Screw drivers Cutting

32
11. State a solution for correcting a tap that has not started squarely.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12. Name ONE (1) reason why should a handle be used on a file?
……………………………………………………………………………

13. What is a die?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. Complete the label of the micrometer in Figure 2 using the hints
given.
Hint:
Ratchet stop Lock Anvil Frame Thimble

33
34
DRILLING
 INTRODUCTION
DRILLING

1. A drilling machine tool, called a drill

press, is used to produce holes into or
through workpiece material. Drill is held
in the drilling machine by a chuck or
Morse taper and is rotated and fed into
the workpiece at variable speeds.

2. It can perform various machining

operations: Drilling, boring, core drilling,
step drilling, counter sinking, boring,
counter boring, spot facing, reaming OBJECTIVES
and tapping. Apply the knowledge of

3. Drilling Machine is the

moderate, and most accurate machine
simplest,
basic mechanical
components and
tool used in almost all the production equipment, hand tools
shops and tool rooms. Drilling is and measuring
basically a single-purpose machine tool equipment in workshop
as its main purpose is to make holes in technology.
the workpiece. Drilling operations can
also be performed on lathe machines.

36
37
38
Drilling Important Parts

39
Drilling Important Parts

40
Drilling Driving Mechanisms

41
42
Drilling Machine has based upon the principle that the rotating
edge of the tool exerts a large force on the workpiece and holes
are being created in the workpiece. The material is removed from
the workpiece by the shearing and extrusion process.

Coolant System

Like the other machines, the drilling machine also needs a cooling
system to cool the cutting area. Normally all drilling machines will have
a cooling system consisting of a coolant tank, coolant pump, connecting
hose, and a filter to separate the chips. In small machines that do not
have a cooling system, you need to spray a cooling oil manually to the
cutting area.

Easier chip removal Help dissipate heat Wash away the chips

Permit greater cutting Providing for maximum

Improve surface finsh
speeds tool life
43
 Tool Bit

Straight Shank Twist Drill

44
 Terminologies
Body: The primary and central cylindrical portion of the drill bit that
extends from the shank to the drilling end. It provides structural
integrity and stability to the overall design of the drill bit, ensuring
precise and controlled drilling.

Shank: The non-cutting end of the drill bit, usually a cylindrical

section with a specific diameter, that is inserted into the drill chuck.
It acts as a secure connection point between the drill bit and the
drilling machine, allowing for efficient power transmission during
drilling operations.

Point: The sharpened and tapering tip of the drill bit that initiates the drilling
action by piercing the material being drilled. It features a carefully crafted
geometry to facilitate easy penetration and reduce the amount of force required
for drilling.

Lips: The precise and keen cutting edges formed by the intersection of the two
flutes at the drilling end of the drill bit. These edges exhibit exceptional sharpness
and hardness to effectively shear and remove material during the drilling process.

Body Clearance: The strategically relieved area situated behind the cutting edges or
lips. It offers ample space for efficient chip removal, preventing chip congestion
and ensuring the drill bit operates smoothly, reducing heat buildup and prolonging
the bit’s lifespan.

Chisel Edge: The straight and refined edge formed at the center of the drill bit
where the two lips meet. It aids in the initial guidance and stability of the drill bit
during the early stages of drilling, facilitating precise hole placement.

45
 Terminologies
Chisel Edge Corner: The sharply defined corner formed at the intersection of the
chisel edges at the center of the drill bit. It assists in accurate positioning and
centering of the drill bit, enhancing drilling precision and minimising the risk of
wandering.

Face: The flat and meticulously machined surface located behind the lips, extending
from the dead center to the chisel edge. It provides consistent support to the lips and
plays a crucial role in facilitating efficient chip evacuation and maintaining cutting
performance.

Flank: The smoothly contoured and structurally integral surface of the drill
bit that connects the face to the body. It ensures stability and strength
during drilling operations, minimizing vibration and deflection for
enhanced drilling accuracy.

Flutes: The precisely formed and carefully spaced spiral or helical grooves
that extend along the length of the drill bit. These flutes act as pathways
for the swift and effective removal of chips and debris, preventing clogging
and promoting efficient chip evacuation.

Heel: The terminating end of the drill bit situated behind the cutting edges and flutes. It
contributes to the overall robustness and stability of the drill bit, maintaining alignment and
preventing unnecessary deflection during drilling.

Neck: The skill-fully tapered or reduced diameter section connecting the body to the shank. It
serves as a transition zone, smoothly blending the larger body to the narrower shank, optimizing
strength and reducing the risk of breakage during demanding drilling tasks.

Tang: A specifically designed flat or tapered section located on the shank of certain drill bits. The
tang provides a reliable means of securely gripping the drill bit in compatible drill chucks,
ensuring firm attachment and minimizsng any potential slippage during drilling operations.

46
Types of Twist Drill Bit

47
Drilling Angle

48
 Drilling Angle

Drilling Procedures

How to Drill a Hole?

Step 1: Measure and Mark. Measure the location of the

hole. Use a scriber to draw intersection line.
Step 2: Center Punch. A center punch makes a small dent
in the surface of the material that prevents the drill from
wandering when it first contacts the surface.
Step 3: Set Up the drilling machine. Use clamps to secure
the workpiece to the worktable.
Step 4: Drill the workpiece.
Step 5: Clean Up the Hole (De-burr)
Step 6: Clean Up the work area. 49
 DRILL BIT MATERIALS

High-Speed Steel (HSS): High-speed steel is a popular choice for drill bits due to its
excellent balance of hardness, toughness, and heat resistance. It is an alloy of steel with
elements like tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium. HSS drill bits are
versatile and can effectively drill in materials such as wood, metal, plastic, and
composites.

Cobalt Steel: Cobalt steel drill bits are made by alloying high-speed steel with cobalt. The
addition of cobalt enhances the hardness, heat resistance, and durability of the drill bit.
Cobalt drill bits are particularly well-suited for drilling in hard materials like stainless
steel, cast iron, and high-temperature alloys.

Carbide-Tipped: Carbide-tipped drill bits feature a cutting edge made of carbide, which is
a very hard and wear-resistant material. The carbide tip is brazed or welded onto a steel
body. Carbide-tipped bits are known for their ability to drill in tough materials, including
concrete, masonry, and ceramics.

Solid Carbide: Solid carbide drill bits are made entirely of carbide material. Carbide is
extremely hard and can withstand high temperatures, making these bits highly suitable
for drilling in hard and abrasive materials like hardened steel, cast iron, and composites.
Solid carbide bits are commonly used in machining and high-precision drilling
applications.

Diamond-Coated: Diamond-coated drill bits have a thin layer of diamond particles

deposited onto the cutting edge. Diamond is the hardest known material, making these
bits exceptionally effective for drilling in very hard materials like glass, ceramics, and
stone.

Titanium Nitride (TiN) Coated: TiN-coated drill bits have a thin layer of titanium nitride
applied to the surface. The coating enhances the hardness, lubricity, and wear resistance
of the drill bit. TiN-coated bits are commonly used in metalworking applications,
providing extended tool life and reduced friction during drilling.

50
 DRILL BIT MATERIALS
Black Oxide Coated: Black oxide-coated drill bits undergo a surface treatment that
provides corrosion resistance and improved lubricity. The black oxide coating helps
reduce friction and heat during drilling. These bits are commonly used for general-
purpose drilling in materials like wood, metal, and plastic.

The choice of drill bit material depends on factors such as the type of material being
drilled, the desired hole size and quality, and the specific requirements of the drilling
application. Selecting the appropriate drill bit material ensures optimal performance and
longevity of the tool.

Twist Drill Angle

51
Tool Holding Devices

52
 Tool Holding Devices

Drill Socket

Drill sockets and drill sleeves are such

adapters, used in order to add to or substract
from the Morse taper so that the drill bit fits
into the chuck spindle.

53
 Work Holding Devices
The work should be held firmly on the machine table before performing
any operation on it. As the drill exerts very high quantity of torque while
rotating, the work should not be held by hand. If the workpiece is not
held by a proper holding device, it will start rotating along with the tool
causing injuries to the operator and damage to the machine.

The devices used for holding the work in a drilling machine are:
Drill vise
‘T’ - bolts and clamps
Step block
V - block
Angle plate
Drill jigs

Drill Vise
Vise is one of the important devices used for holding workpiece on a drilling machine
table. The work is clamped in a vise between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw.

Parallel blocks are placed below the work so that the drill may completely pass
through the work without damaging the table. Different types of vises are used for
holding different types of work and for performing different operations.

The different types of vises are

Plain vise
Swivel vise
Tilting vise
Universal vise

54
 Drill Vise

T-Bolt

The workpieces can be held directly on the machine table by means

of ‘T’ - bolts and clamps. The top of the machine table has ‘T’ - slots
into which ‘T’ - bolts may be fitted. The bolts of diameter 15 to 20mm
are used.

The clamps are made of mild steel. ‘T’ - bolts pass through a central
hole on the clamp. The clamp is made to rest horizontally on the
work surface by placing a suitable step block at the other end of the
work.

55
 Step Block

The step blocks are used in combination with ‘T’ - bolts and
clamps for holding the work directly on the table. The step
block supports the other end of the clamp. Workpieces of
different heights are held by leveling the clamp on
different steps of the step
block

V Block
V- blocks are used for holding cylindrical workpieces. The work may be
supported on two or three ‘V’ - blocks according to the length of the work. The
work is held on the ‘V’ groove and is clamped by straps and bolts. They are made
of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined

56
 Angle Plate

Angle plates have two faces at

right angle to each other and are
made of cast iron. It resembles
the English alphabet ‘L’. All the
sides of a angle plate are
machined accurately. Slots and
holes are provided on both the
faces of the angle plate. Work is
clamped on one of its faces by
means of bolts and nuts.

Drill Jig

Drill jigs are used in mass production process. A jig is specially designed to hold the work
securely and to guide the tool at any desired position. Holes may be drilled at the same relative
positions on each of the identical workpieces.

The work is clamped and removed easily. The cost of making a drill jig is more but a low order
of skill is sufficient to work with a drill jig.

Different types of drill jigs are

1. Plate jig 4.Box jig
2. Channel jig 5.Indexing jig.
3. Diameter jig

57
Advantages &
Disadvantages

58
 Applications of Twist Drill
Metalworking: Twist drill bits are extensively used in metalworking
applications. They can drill holes in materials like steel, aluminum, brass,
and other metals. Whether it’s for general fabrication, construction,
automotive, or aerospace industries, twist drill bits are essential tools for
creating holes in metal components.

Woodworking: Twist drill bits are also commonly used in woodworking

applications. They can drill holes in wooden materials, including solid
wood, plywood, and MDF (Medium-Density Fiberboard). Woodworkers use
twist drill bits for tasks such as creating dowel holes, pilot holes for
screws, and general hole drilling in woodworking projects.

Plastic and Composite Materials: Twist drill bits are suitable for drilling
holes in various plastic materials, such as acrylic, PVC, and ABS. They are
also used for drilling holes in composite materials like fiberglass, carbon
fiber, and laminates.

DIY and Home Improvement: Twist drill bits are widely used in DIY projects
and home improvement tasks. Whether it’s drilling holes to install shelves,
hooks, or assembling furniture, twist drill bits are essential tools for many
household applications.

Electrical and Plumbing: Electricians and plumbers often use twist drill bits
to create holes for running wires, cables, and pipes through walls, floors,
or ceilings. Twist drill bits allow them to efficiently and accurately drill
holes in different materials encountered in electrical and plumbing
installations.

Metal Fabrication: In metal fabrication processes such as machining,

drilling precise holes is a common requirement. Twist drill bits are used in
milling machines, lathes, and other machining equipment to create holes for
bolts, dowels, and other fasteners.
59
60
61
 Drilling Calculation
Revolution Per Minute (RPM)

Also known as (aka) spindle speed. The RPM setting for drilling
depends on the cutting speed of the material and the size of the drill
bit. The RPM setting will change with the size of the bit. As the drill bit
gets smaller, the RPM must increase to maintain the recommended
surface footage. Take the case of the wheel. Think of the drill bit as a
wheel and the cutting speed as a distance. A larger wheel (drill bit) will
need to turn less revolutions to cover the same distance in the same
amount of time than a smaller wheel (drill bit). Therefore, to maintain
the recommended cutting speed, larger drills must be run at slower
speeds than smaller drills.

Unit: rpm @ rev/min

62
 Drilling Calculation
Cutting Speed (CS)

CS is the rate at which the tool passes over the surface of the metal (or how
fast the cutting tool is spinning)

Cutting speed is the speed at the outside edge of the tool as it is cutting.
This is also known as surface speed. Surface speed, surface footage, and
surface area are all directly related. If two tools of different sizes are
turning at the same revolutions per minute (RPM), the larger tool has a
greater surface speed.

Unit: m/min

Feed (F)
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the work at each revolution of
the spindle. It is expressed in millimeters. The feed may also be expressed as feed
per minute. The feed per minute may be defined as the axial distance moved by the
drill into the work per minute. Feed depends upon factors like the material to be
drilled, the rigidity of the machine, power, depth of the hole and the type of finish
required.

Unit: mm

Depth of Cut (DoC)

The depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of the drill diameter. If ‘d’ is the
diameter of the drill, the depth of cut (t) t = d/2 mm.

63
 Drilling Calculation
1. If a 15 mm twist drill is to cut a medium carbon steel using cutting speed
of 21.4 m/min. Find the RPM.

2. Find the CS of a 10 mm diameter drill with a spindle of 178 rev/ min.

64
SAFETY & MAINTENANCE

65
TUTORIAL
1.Describe TWO (2) ways of checking a drill size.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Name TWO (2) methods of holding a drill bit.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Discuss the consequences of drilling with a drill bit that has not
been sharpened properly.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Write FOUR (4) types of work holding devices suitable for drilling
operation.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

67
5. Solve the problem of finding revolutions per minute (N) required to
drill the following holes using a high-speed drill:

i. A 5 mm hole in tool steel (Given: CS18 m/min)

Answer:

ii. A 20 mm hole in machine steel (Given: CS30 m/min)

Answer:

6. Illustrate a twist drill and label the common parts.

68
7. Calculate the revolutions per minute (N) required to drill the following
holes using a high-speed drill:

i. A 9 mm hole in a steel casting (Given: CS12 m/min)

Answer:

ii. A 20 mm hole in cast iron (Given: CS24 m/min)

Answer:

8. Name and draw TWO (2) work-holding devices on drilling machine.

69
9. State FOUR (4) coolant functions in drilling process.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

10. Explain the procedure for clamping a workpiece properly.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

11. Identify THREE (3) criteria of good cutting fluid.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

70
LATHE
 INTRODUCTION
LATHE

1. Lathe machining can be considered the

forerunner of all machine tools. The
work is held & rotated on its axis while
the cutting tool is fed along the lines of
a desired cut.

2. With the suitable attachments, lathe

can be used for turning, boring, drilling,
threading, reaming, grinding, facing,
tapering, polishing etc. Cutting
operations are performed using cutting OBJECTIVES
tool fed either at the right angles or Apply the knowledge of
parallel to the work axis. basic mechanical

3. In ordinary turning, metal is removed

using a single-point tool and the tool
components and
equipment, hand tools
itself must be harder than the and measuring
workpiece. Chips formed from the equipment in workshop
cutting process slide across the tool
technology.
face.

72
 notes

Lathe is a machining tool

used for shaping wood or
metal by rotating the CHUCKS
workpiece around a
stationary cutting tool.

Lathe is done by removing

the excess material (called
chips).

cutting During the process, the

workpiece is mounted on
process the chuck/ face plate
while the cutting tool is
placed on the tool post.

73
74
TYPES OF LATHE

75
76
lathe machine & parts

Lathe main
parts
1. Headstock
2. Tailstock
3. Carriage
4. Bed
5. Quick change gear box 77
 lathe parts

1 3&4
5

2 78
9 6

7&8

lathe parts

79
 lathe machine operations

80
Lathe Machine
Operations

81
 material used for
making tool bit

1. High Speed Steel (HSS)

2. Cobalt
3. Carbide
4. Tungsten
5. Molybdenum types of
6. Chromium tool for
7. Vanadium lathe
8. Carbon
9. Diamond

82
tool bit- seven angles

83
tool bit- seven angles

1. Rake angle - to control

direction of chips flow &
the strength of the tool
bit.
2. Side rake angle - to control
flow chip direction. Angle is
typically about 5 degree.

3. Cutting edge angle - this angle

affects chip formation , tool
strength & cutting force to various
degree. Angle is typically about 15
degree.

4. Relief angle - control

interference & rubbing at the
tool & workpiece. 84
DIFFERENTIATE 3 &
4 JAW CHUCKS

3 JAW CHUCK

4 JAW CHUCK

85
86
workholding devices

87
workholding devices

88
lathe tool holder

89
90
 Cutting speed, feed
& depth of cut

cutting speed feed

aka CS Defined as the
It is defined as the rate in distance for a tool
meters per minute at advances into the
which the surface of the work during one
job moves past the revolution of the
cutting tool. headstock spindle.

n also refer to RPM

depth of cut
Defined as the perpendicular distance measured
from the machined surface to the uncut surface of
the workpiece.

91
suggested cutting speed

92
Lathe applications

93
Lathe applications
Textile
Power generation
Medical
Aerospace
Automotive
Wood industry
Defense
Arts
Plastic
Automobile industry

94
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
WHILE USING LATHE
MACHINE

95
TUTORIAL
1. Describe the function of the below parts:
i. Bed
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Tailstock
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii. Base
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iv. Headstock
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Draw and labels SEVEN (7) parts of a lathe machine.

97
3. List SEVEN (7) operations that can be performed on a lathe.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Describe an insert in the lathe process.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….......................................................................

5. Differentiate by an illustration of three-jaw universal chuck and

four-jaw independent chuck.

6. Identify the part of the lathe that serves as housing for the driving
pulleys and back gears. Three jaw chuck and four jaw chuck are the
most commonly used for holding or clamping the workpiece for
cutting and attaching to it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

98
7. Define these terms:
i. Cutting speed
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Feed
………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii. Depth of cut

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Fill up the names of unlabeled angle parts for the lathe tool bit.

99
MILLING
 INTRODUCTION
MILLING

1. The milling machine works by feeding

the workpiece fixed on the bed of the
machine against a revolving milling
cutter that removes material from the
work to create flat, curved and or
complex 3D surfaces. Depending on the
type of machine, this is achieved by
either moving the bed, ram, or a
combination of the two. You can also
use a milling machine to drill holes,
OBJECTIVES
boring, reaming, thread cutting etc.
Apply the knowledge of
2. On a simple conventional machine the
ram is fixed and the movement of the Z-
basic mechanical
components and
axis is usually to give depth of cut.
During the actual milling process only equipment, hand tools
the X-axis and Y-axis moves. The and measuring
exception would be in a hole making equipment in workshop
process such as drilling or boring where technology.
the X and Y-axes movements are
paused and the Z-axis moves up and
down.
101
Advantages
of Milling
machine

102
Essential
part of a
milling
machine

Vertical Milling
Machine

103
Horizontal Milling
Machine

104
 Item Vertical Milling Horizontal Milling

Most common and versatile

Characteristic Versatile machine tool
machine tools

To machine horizontal, vertical and It is not only suitable for milling flat and
angular surfaces, grooves, slots and irregularly shaped surfaces but also for
Operation
keyways plus a wide variety of other gear and thread cutting, drilling, boring,
machining operations reaming & slotting operations.

End-mill/ shell mill/ T-slot cutter/ fly Milling cutters (formed/ side/ single
Types of
cutter, drill chucks, boring heads & angle/ double angle/ face mill/ plain mill,
Cutter
other tools etc. gear tooth, slitting saw/ keyseat cutter)

The cutter is mounted between arbor &

Machine The cutter is mounted in a collet
spacer bushing or arbor assembly,
Setup and attach to the spindle, vertically
horizontally

105
Column and Knee Type Milling Machine

106
Horizontal Milling Machine

Standard axis between vertical and horizontal milling machine

107
 Vertical Milling Machine

Vertical milling machine table slide Vertical & horizontal milling machine spindle axis

108
 Milling Operations
1. Face Milling

The most basic operation of all is a face cut. The cutter is lowered below the surface of the
work to the depth of cut (DoC), then set to engage the work at a given portion of its
diameter called radial engagement (RE).

End milling cutters are also used to face cut because they have cutting teeth both on their
end and sides. It can also plunge straight down into the work, similar to drilling. It can
produced a medium fine finish and when facing, remove metal at a relatively slow rate,
compared to face mill cutters.

Fly cutters are a single tooth, facing cutter, used more in tooling work than production due
to very slow cutting.

A face mill aims to clean up a surface, and sometimes, they have no vertical sides when
inserted.

During face milling operation, the edges of the cutter grind away at the surface of the
workpiece, resulting in material removal. It means that the cutting edges present on the
periphery of the cutter perform the cutting action.

Depending on the type of face milling operation, the cutting tool can remove the material
from the face or the edges of the stock, with the final result being a smooth and flat surface
workpiece. A significant advantage of face milling is its ability to machine large objects and
surfaces in minimal time, using a small-sized cutter.

Face milling flat surface

109
 Milling Operations
1. Face Milling

There are mainly six different types of face-milling operations.

How to Select Tool for Face Milling?

The finish type required on the stock is an important factor in selecting the appropriate face mill.

It can either be roughing or finishing, depending on your requirement.

Roughing is performed for quick and high material removal, whereas finishing is more time-
consuming and removes lesser material but produces a higher quality finish.

Generally, shell mills are used for roughing, whereas fly cutters are used for finishing operations.
110
End mills, on the other hand, are ideal for roughing and finishing operations.
 Milling Operations
2. Peripheral Milling

Also called profiling means cutting around the outside or inside of a part using the side
teeth of the cutter. Usually used cutter is the end mill.

111
 Milling Operations
2. Peripheral Milling

Peripheral milling

A peripheral milling operation also constitutes end milling. Before feeding the tool into and
around the workpiece, it should first be positioned at a predetermined depth at the Z-axis.

112
113
 Conventional/ Up Milling Climb/ Down Milling

As its name suggests, the conventional Climb milling or down milling is a

milling process is the traditional approach process where the cutting tool
where the cutting tool rotation is against rotates in the same direction as the
the movement of the workpiece. In this workpiece. The name comes from
case, the cut is in the upwards direction, the fact that the cutting tool’s teeth
that’s why this milling technique is also climb onto the workpiece surface
called up milling. and deposit the chips behind the
The conventional milling process is cutter, which eliminates the
entirely the opposite of climb milling. In chances of recutting. Some other
this case, the chip width starts from properties that make climb milling
virtually zero and gradually increases. different are the downward forces
Furthermore, the chips evacuate in the requiring lower holding
path of the cutter because of its rotation, requirements, chip width which
and the workpiece experiences an decreases during the process, and
uplifting force because of the cutting the shear plane specifications.
action.
114
Conventional/ Up Milling Climb/ Down Milling

Workpiece fed against cutter Workpiece fed in the same cutter

direction direction

Produce progressively thicker Produce progressively thinner

chips chips

Give poor surface finish, since Give good surface finish, since
chips gets accumulated at the chips are thrown away during
cutting zone cutting process

Suitable for machining harder Used for soft materials and

materials finishing operations

Strong clamping is required since Strong clamping is not reuired

the cutting force is directed since the cutting force is directed
upwards & tends to lift the downwards & keep the workpiece
workpiece pressed to the work table
115
 Milling Operations
3. Step & Pocket Milling Often a combination of face and
peripheral milling is required in one cut.
A pocket, is a depression or cavity
milled down into the metal.

Pocket milling

5. Drilling/ Reaming
4. Angle Cutting

On manual mills, angular cuts can be set up several

different ways, by either tilting the cutter or tilting
and rotating the parts.
Angles can also be cut using form ground cutters.

116
 Other Milling Operations

7. Boring
6. Forming Cuts

117
 Other Milling Operations
9

10

11

118
 Other Milling Operations
12

13

119
 Other Milling Operations
14

Milling can be performed on workpieces in variety of

materials, including most metals and plastics.
Common materials that are used in milling include
the following:
When selecting a material, several factors must be
considered, including the cost, strength, resistance
Aluminum
to wear, and machinability. The machinability of a
Brass material is difficult to quantify, but can be said to
Magnesium posses the following characteristics:
Nickel
Steel Results in a good surface finish
Thermoset plastics Promotes long tool life
Titanium Requires low force and power to mill
Zinc Provides easy collection of chips
120
Types of Milling Cutter

121
 Methods of Holding Cutter

5. Sleeves

Collet
Arbor

Adapter

Sleeve
Screwed on cutters

122
Work Holding Device

123
Milling Parameters

124
 Milling Parameters

Feed can also be described as follows:

F = RPM x CPT x N

Machining Time

t = Length/ Feed

125
 Milling Calculation
Find the feed rate in mm/min for a six-tooth helical carbide milling
cutter with a diameter of 75 mm for machining a cast iron workpiece.
Using CS value of 60 m/min and Chip per tooth (CPT) of 0.25 mm/tooth.

F = RPM x CPT x N

126
Milling Safety

127
TUTORIAL
1. Describe the difference between up milling and down milling by
statement and sketches.

UP MILLING DOWN MILLING

Description: Description:

Sketches: Sketches:

2. State THREE (3) examples of work-holding equipment in the

milling machine.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

129
3. List SEVEN (7) safety procedures while using milling machine.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Express the feed in millimeters per minute for machining using a 50

mm- diameter of high-speed helical milling machine with 12 teeth
cutting at 0.08 mm per tooth (CPT) and a cutting speed of 33 meters
per minute.

Revolution per minute (N) Feed rate (F)

130
5. State FOUR (4) advantages of climb milling.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. Calculate the feed in mm/min for a 75 mm diameter, six-tooth

helical carbide milling cutter when machining a cast-iron workpiece.
Note that, CPT = 0.25 mm and CS = 60 m/min.

Revolution per minute (N) Feed rate (F)

7. Name SIX (6) operations that can be performed on a milling

machine.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

131
8. Draw and label the horizontal milling machine.

9. Show the features of the:

i. Plain vise

ii. Swivel
base vise

iii. Universal
vise

132
GEAR
 INTRODUCTION
GEAR

1. Gear making is the process of creating

mechanical devices that transmit power
and motion between rotating shafts.
Gears are typically made by cutting,
forming, or molding a variety of
materials, including metal, plastic, and
composites.

2. The most common method

producing gears is through gear cutting.
for

Gear cutting involves the removal of OBJECTIVES

material from a blank to create teeth on Apply standard practice
the gear. The process can be done using in operating mechanical
a variety of tools, including gear
tools and component
hobbing machines, gear shaping
machines, and gear grinding machines.
Each of these machines uses a different
method to create the gear teeth, and the
choice of machine depends on the
specific requirements of the gear.

134
3. Another method of producing
gears is through casting or 6. Regardless of the
method used, gear making is a
specific

molding. This involves pouring precise and complex process

molten metal or plastic into a that requires specialized
mold in the shape of the knowledge and equipment to
desired gear. Once the ensure the finished product is
material has solidified, the of high quality and functions
gear can be removed from the properly.

7.
mold and finished to the
desired specifications. Gear applies in lots of these
industries:

4. Gear making can also involve

assembly of individual gear 1. Automotive: Gears are
components. For example, a used in cars, trucks, and
planetary gear system other vehicles to transmit
consists of several individual power from the engine to
gears that are assembled the wheels. They are used
together to form a complex in the transmission,
gear system differential, and other parts

5.
of the drivetrain.
Basic function of gear:
2. Manufacturing: Gears are
To transmit power
used in manufacturing
To change speed
machines to transmit
To change direction
power and motion between
To change the plane
different components. They
direction
are also used in machines
To give positive drive
that cut, shape, and grind
materials.

135
3. Robotics: Gears are used in
robotics to transmit power and
motion between different parts
8. GEAR INSPECTION

Gear inspection is an essential part

of the robot. They are used in
of the manufacturing process, as it
robotic arms, grippers, and
ensures that the gears meet the
other mechanisms.
required specifications and are
4. Aerospace: Gears are used in
free of defects. Here are some
airplanes, helicopters, and other
reasons why gear inspection is
aircraft to transmit power
needed after manufacturing:
between different parts of the
Quality control: Gear
aircraft. They are also used in
inspection is necessary to
the landing gear and other
ensure that the gears meet the
mechanical systems.
required quality standards.
5. Watches and clocks: Gears
This includes checking the
are used in watches and clocks
dimensions, surface finish, and
to control the movement of the
material properties of the
hands and keep accurate time.
gears.
6. Medical equipment: Gears
Preventing defects: Gear
are used in medical equipment
inspection can help identify
such as MRI machines and X-
any defects or flaws in the
ray machines to control the
gears that could cause
movement of different parts of
problems in their operation.
the equipment.
This can include cracks, chips,
or other damage that may
have occurred during the
manufacturing process.

136
 Conformance to specifications: Gear inspection ensures that the
gears conform to the required specifications, such as tooth
profile, pitch, and runout. This is essential for ensuring that the
gears will work correctly in the intended application.
Improved reliability: By inspecting gears after manufacturing,
manufacturers can identify any potential issues before the gears
are put into service. This can help improve the reliability and
durability of the gears, reducing the risk of unexpected failures.
Cost savings: Gear inspection can help identify any defects or
issues early on in the manufacturing process, reducing the need
for rework or scrap. This can result in cost savings for
manufacturers, as they can avoid the costs associated with
remanufacturing or replacing defective gears.

In summary, gear inspection is critical to ensuring that gears meet the

required quality standards, conform to specifications, and are free of
defects. It can help improve the reliability of gears, reduce the risk of
unexpected failures, and result in cost savings for manufacturers.

137
Types of Gear

138
Types of Gear

139
 GEAR
TERMINOLOGIES

140
 GEAR
TERMINOLOGIES

141
 GEAR
TERMINOLOGIES

142
Gear Terminologies

143
Gear Terminologies

144
Gear Terminologies

145
Formula - Metric Gear

146
 Spur Gear Calculation
A spur gear has a Pitch Diameter (PD) of 60 mm and 20 teeth. Compute the
following:

1. Module
2. Circular Pitch
3. Addendum
4. Outside Diameter
5. Dedendum
6. Whole Depth
7. Cutter Number

147
 Spur Gear Calculation
Two identical gears in mesh have a centre-to-centre distance (CD) of 120 mm.
Each gear has 24 teeth. Find below terms:

i. Pitch Diameter
ii. Module
iii. Outside Diameter
iv. Whole Depth
v. Circular Pitch
vi. Chordal thickness

148
 Gear Inspection
The purpose of gear inspection is to:
•Assure required accuracy and quality,
•Lower overall cost of manufacture by
controlling rejects and scrap.
•Control machines and machining practices and
maintain produced accuracy as machines and
tools wear,
•Determine heat treat distortions to make
necessary corrections

149
Gear Tooth Measurements

Figure 1 - Gear tooth vernier caliper

Figure B - Gear tooth geometry

150
 Gear Tooth Measurements

Tooth thickness is measured by the gear tooth vernier. The vernier shown in Fig. A
consists of two vernier calipers set at 90º to each other. Since the gear tooth
thickness varies from the root to the tip, the vernier must be capable of measuring
the tooth thickness at a specified position on the tooth. The tooth thickness is
measured at the pitch circle as shown in Fig. B.

The thickness of the tooth at pitch line and the addendum is measured by an
adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by adjustable screws
on the graduated bars. The gear tooth vernier is set with its vertical scale at a
distance equal to chordal addendum so that the thin slit will be at a height ‘m’
from the tip of the jaw. Hence the gear tooth slit will sit on the top land and the tip
of the jaws will measure the chordal thickness, t. “t” is the chord ADB while tooth
thickness is the arc AEB. Therefore the tooth thickness thus measured is called
“Chordal tooth thickness”.

151
 Gear Tooth Measurements
Gear Measurements Using Pins or Balls

Measurement Over Pins (or Measurement Over Wires) is a method for

measuring and inspecting spur gears and helical gears, with both even and
odd tooth counts.

152
 Gear Tooth Measurements
Gear Measurements Using Pins or Balls

Over pin (ball) measurement is a type of gear tooth thickness

measurement method, along with chordal tooth thickness measurement
and span measurement of teeth.

For example, in the case of spur gears, the tooth thickness is determined
by inserting pins or balls into the tooth grooves facing each other when the
number of teeth is even, or 180/z(°) when the number of teeth is odd, and
measuring the outer dimension (or inner dimension in the case of internal
gears) using a measuring instrument such as a micrometer.

153
 Gear Tooth Measurements
Gear Measurements Using Micrometer

When a gear inspector takes a gage and uses its anvils or pins on
diametrically opposed tooth spaces, what he’s actually measuring is changes
in tooth thickness.

Pitch diameter is the diameter of a pitch circle. The standard (reference)

pitch circle is defined as: “The circle which intersects the involute at the
point where the pressure angle is equal to the profile angle of the basic rack.”

Therefore, the standard pitch diameter is actually a reference dimension

that doesn’t change as long as the number of teeth and the diametral pitch
or module don’t change. The standard pitch diameter shouldn’t have a
tolerance and isn’t measured.

When measuring thickness change, it’s common practice to measure the

gear over pins or anvils. This is often called a measurement over wires
(MOW). As the teeth get thinner, this measurement becomes smaller.

154
TUTORIAL
1. What is gear?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Define indexing in gear making process.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. State FIVE (5) functions of a gear.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Explain the gear terminologies stated below:

i. Addendum
………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Dedendum
………………………………………………………………………………
iii. Module
………………………………………………………………………………
iv. Clearance
………………………………………………………………………………
v. Pitch circle
………………………………………………………………………………

156
5. Name the gear shown below.

6. Give SIX (6) gear applications in the industry.

………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..

157
7. Match these gears to their category.

158
8. Write the formula for each term:
i. Chordal thickness ……………………………………….
ii. Addendum …………………………………………
iii. Module ………………………………………..
iv. Number of teeth ………………………………………..
v. Circular pitch ………………………………………..
vi. Outside diameter ………………………………………..

9. Share the procedure to inspect the gear tooth using gear tooth
vernier caliper.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Sketch a complete gear terminology.

159
11. Find the pitch diameter, module, outside diameter, and whole
depth chordal thickness of the gears if the identical gears have
center-to-center distance (CD) of 240 mm and 48 teeth.

160
12. For a 40-tooth spur gear with 240 mm PD, find:
i. Addendum

ii. Module

iii. CP

iv. Dedendum

v. OD

vi. Cutter Number

161
COMPUTER
NUMERICAL
CONTROL
 INTRODUCTION
CNC

CNC aka Computer Numerical Control is a

new method in controlling various machine
tools in product making. Every numerical
control machine consist of 3 components;
1) Machine control unit (MCU),
2) Machine tool and
3) Input media (program)

1. MCU - It is considered the heart of the

CNC machine as various functions are
OBJECTIVES
conducted after the commands have
Apply standard practice
been received. in operating mechanical
tools and component
2. Machine tool - This part resembles
those used in conventional machining
operations. The difference is the
machine operates with computer
software & normally constructed with
3-axes or even more.

163
3. Input Media Program - These devices
are responsible for inputting the part
program into the CNC machine. There
are three commonly used input
devices: punch tape reader, magnetic
tape reader, and computer via RS-
232-C communication.

4. The concept of NC was proposed in

the late 1940 s by John Parsons who
recommended a method of automatic
machine control that would guide a
milling cutter to produce a curvilinear
motion in order to generate smooth
profiles on the work -pieces .

5. 3 primary planes

Combining any two primary axis lines

Example of axis in CNC
defines a flat plane. There are 3
planes: X-Y, X-Z and Y-Z.
164
Traditional NC vs Modern CNC

Traditional NC System

CNC System

165
CNC Advantages

166
CNC Disadvantages

CNC Applications

167
 Types of CNC Control Units

How Do We Input Program?

168
Types of CNC Motion Control

169
Programming Systems

170
 Programming Systems

Most controls on machine tools capable of handling both by altering code

between G90 (absolute) and G91 (incremental) commands.

171
 Referenced to the Origin -
Program Reference Zero (PRZ)
All absolute coordinates refer to a singular starting place - the origin.

In CNC work, it is called the Program Reference Zero (PRZ).

The PRZ is the reference point on which the program & the setup are based.

Setting the PRZ on the Machine:

When the machine is setup, the PRZ must be located at the same position on the
physical part as it was selected for the program. This is a critical setup task on
both lathe and milling machine.

Coordinating the PRZ to the physical part requires setting

the axis registers to zero when the tool is at the PRZ position

172
Programming Systems

173
G90 Absolute Positioning

174
G91 Incremental Positioning

175
 CNC Classifications

Motion Type

176
 CNC Classifications

Motion Type

177
 CNC Classifications

Control Loops

178
 CNC Classifications

Control Loops

179
 CNC Classifications

Number of Axes

Rule of Thumb

180
 CNC Classifications

Number of Axes

Rule of Thumb

181
 CNC Classifications

Number of Axes

182
 CNC Classifications

Number of Axes

Power Supply

183
 CNC Coordinate System

CNC Language & Structure

184
CNC Programming

185
 Sample Programming
Sample program format for machining a square contour and drills a hole.

186
 CNC Address Codes

A complete block of information

187
G & M Codes

188
G & M Codes

189
Turning Axis

190
Programming Hints

191
Milling Axis

192
Programming Hints

193
Programming

194
CNC LATHE

195
 CNC LATHE

Some of CNC Lathe

Applications

196
 CNC MILLING
CNC milling, or computer numerical
control milling, is a machining process
which employs computerized controls
and rotating multi-point cutting tools
to progressively remove material from
the workpiece and produce a custom-
designed part or product. This process
is suitable for machining a wide range
of materials, such as metal, plastic,
glass, and wood, and producing a
variety of custom-designed parts and
products.

CNC milling is a mechanical machining process along with drilling,

turning, and a variety of other machining processes, meaning that
material is removed from the workpiece via mechanical means,
such as the actions of the milling machine’s cutting tools.

The CNC milling process begins with the creation of a 2D or 3D CAD part design.
Then the completed design is exported to a CNC-compatible file format and
converted by CAM software into a CNC machine program which dictates the
actions of the machine and the movements of the tooling across the workpiece.
Before the operator runs the CNC program, they prepare the CNC milling
machine by affixing the workpiece to the machine’s work surface (i.e.,
worktable) or workholding device (e.g., vise), and attaching the milling tools to
the machine spindle. The CNC milling process employs horizontal or vertical
CNC-enabled milling machines—depending on the specifications and
requirements of the milling application—and rotating multi-point (i.e., multi-
toothed) cutting tools, such as mills and drills. When the machine is ready, the
operator launches the program via the machine interface prompting the
machine to execute the milling operation.

197
 CNC MILLING
Once the CNC milling process is initiated, the machine begins rotating
the cutting tool at speeds reaching up to thousands of RPM. Depending
on the type of milling machine employed and the requirements of the
milling application, as the tool cuts into the workpiece, the machine
will perform one of the following actions to produce the necessary cuts
on the workpiece:

Slowly feed the workpiece into the stationary, rotating tool

Move the tool across the stationary workpiece
Move both the tool and workpiece in relation to each other

CNC milling is a machining process suitable for producing high

accuracy, high tolerance parts in prototype, one-off, and small to
medium production runs. While parts are typically produced with
tolerances ranging between +/- 0.001 in. to +/- 0.005 in., some
milling machines can achieve tolerances of up to and greater than
+/- 0.0005 in. The versatility of the milling process allows it to be
used in a wide range of industries and for a variety of part features
and designs, including slots, chamfers, threads, and pockets. The
most common CNC milling operations include:

Face milling
Plain milling
Angular milling
Form milling

198
 CNC MILLING
CNC Milling Machine Components
Despite the wide range of milling machines available,
most machines largely share the same basic components.
These shared machine parts include the:

Machine interface
Column
Knee
Saddle
Worktable
Spindle
Arbor
Ram
Machine tool

CNC Milling Machine Configurations and Components

199
 CNC MILLING
Most CNC milling machines are available with 3 to 5 axes— typically
providing performance along the XYZ axes and, if applicable, around
rotational axes. The X-axis and Y-axis designate horizontal movement
(side-to-side and forward-and-back, respectively, on a flat plane), while
the Z-axis represents vertical movement (up-and-down) and the W-axis
represents diagonal movement across a vertical plane. In basic CNC
milling machines, horizontal movement is possible in two axes (XY), while
newer models allow for the additional axes of motion, such as 3, 4, and 5-
axis CNC machines.

200
CNC MILLING

201
Electrical Discharge Machine (EDM)

Basic Working Principle of EDM

Although the principles of EDM machining are the same, there are variations in the
process, especially between wired EDM working and sinker EDM working. Both
processes have anodes and cathodes used to shape the workpiece to fit the
parameters of the produced part. How they complete this process using electrical
current is quite different.

With sinker EDM machining, an electrical potential difference is created between

the tool and work material, both of which are electrically conductive and
submerged in a dielectric fluid such as hydrocarbon oil or deionized water. The
spark gap that separates the tool and workpiece is flooded with the dielectric fluid.
The created electric field depends on the electric potential difference and the
spark gap.
202
Electrical Discharge Machine (EDM)

Basic Working Principle of EDM

The tool takes the negative terminal while the work material
takes the positive terminal of the power generator. Free
electrons on the tool are subjected to electrostatic forces the
moment the electric field begins. If there is less work function or
smaller bonding energy of the electrons, the emission of
electrons would be from the tool (assuming that it is connected
to the negative terminal). This type of emission of electrons is
called cold emission.

Through the dielectric medium, the cold emitted electrons are

accelerated towards the work material. As they gain velocity and
energy and begin moving towards the work, collisions occur
between the electrons and dielectric molecules. The collisions
cause the ionization of the dielectric molecules, which depends
on the work function or ionization energy of the dielectric
molecule and the energy of the electrons. As the electrons
accelerate, positive ions and electrons are generated because of
the collisions.

This cyclic process increases the electron and ion concentration

in the dielectric fluid between the tool and the work material at
the site of the spark gap. The concentration becomes so high that
the matter in the channel is characterized as “plasma.” The
electric resistance of the plasma channel is very low. The large
number of electrons flux from the tool to the work with ions
moving suddenly from the work to the tool. This motion of
electrons is known as an avalanche.

The sudden movement of electrons and ions creates the thermal

energy of the spark with a heat range of 8,000°C up to 12,000°C.
The rapid motion of the electrons hits the work material and the
ions on the tool. The impact of the electrons and ions on the
surface of the workpiece is converted into thermal energy or heat
flux.
203
Electrical Discharge Machine (EDM)

204
Electrical Discharge Machine (EDM)

205
 Electro-Chemical Machine (ECM)
Electrochemical machining is the reverse of
electroplating. An electrolyte works as a current
carrier, and the high rate of electrolyte flow in the
tool-workpiece gap washes metal ions from the
workpiece (anode) before they have a chance to
plate onto the tool (cathode).

Modification of this process are used for turning,

facing, slotting, tremping, and profiling operations
in which electrode becomes the cutting tools. The
shaped tool is made out of brass, copper, bronze,
or stainless steel.

Overall, Electrochemical Machining is a valuable

manufacturing process for applications that
require precise shaping of conductive materials,
offering unique capabilities that complement
traditional machining methods.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is a manufacturing process that utilises the

principles of electrochemistry to remove material from a workpiece. It is a non-
traditional machining method that offers unique capabilities for shaping and
machining conductive materials.

206
 Electro-Chemical Machine (ECM)
Basic Working Principle of ECM

ECM Parts

Power supply: The power supply unit is responsible for providing the necessary electrical energy to
drive the electrochemical reactions during Electrochemical Machining (ECM). It ensures a stable and
controlled voltage or current output, which is crucial for achieving precise and accurate machining
results.

Electrolyte: The electrolyte solution, a vital component in ECM, acts as a conductive medium that
enables the flow of ions and facilitates the electrochemical reactions. Through careful selection and
composition, the electrolyte ensures optimal ion transport, ionization, and electrolytic conductivity,
ensuring efficient and effective material removal.

Workpiece: The workpiece, composed of a conductive material such as metal, serves as the
component to be machined in ECM. It undergoes controlled material removal through the
electrochemical reactions, resulting in the desired shape, dimensions, and surface characteristics.
The workpiece’s composition, structure, and geometry significantly influence the ECM process.

Tool electrode: The tool electrode, typically constructed from copper or brass, plays a crucial role in
ECM. It serves as the counterpart to the workpiece, determining the final shape and surface
characteristics of the machined part. The tool electrode’s design, geometry, surface finish, and
material properties impact the precision and quality of the ECM process.

Feed unit: The feed unit is responsible for precise control of the movement and positioning of the
tool electrode and workpiece during ECM. It ensures accurate material removal by regulating
parameters such as the feed rate, depth of cut, and tool-workpiece engagement. The feed unit allows 207
for fine adjustments, enabling intricate and complex machining operations.
Electro-Chemical Machine (ECM)
ECM Parts

Tank: The tank houses and provides a controlled environment for the electrolyte solution used
in ECM. It serves as a reservoir, maintaining a consistent volume of electrolyte and ensuring
proper immersion of the workpiece and tool electrode. The tank’s design and construction
contribute to efficient electrolyte flow, temperature control, and containment of the ECM
process.

Workpiece holding table: The workpiece holding table securely clamps and supports the
workpiece during ECM. It provides stability, precise positioning, and alignment, minimizing
vibrations and maintaining workpiece integrity. The workpiece holding table’s rigidity and
adjustability enhance machining accuracy and repeatability.

Pressure gauge: The pressure gauge monitors and measures the pressure of the electrolyte
within the ECM system. It provides real-time feedback, ensuring optimal pressure levels for
effective material removal. Accurate pressure monitoring contributes to consistent and
controlled machining results.

Flowmeter: The flowmeter precisely measures and monitors the flow rate of the electrolyte
during ECM. It enables accurate control and adjustment of electrolyte circulation, ensuring a
consistent and sufficient flow for effective material removal. Precise flow rate control is
crucial for achieving desired machining parameters and surface finish.

Flow control valve: The flow control valve regulates and fine-tunes the flow rate of the
electrolyte. It allows for precise adjustment, optimizing the electrolyte flow to match the
specific ECM requirements. By maintaining the desired flow rate, the flow control valve
contributes to optimal material removal, cooling, and ion transport.

Pressure relief valve: The pressure relief valve ensures system safety by releasing excess
pressure within the ECM setup. It acts as a protective mechanism, preventing overpressure
and potential damage to the components. The pressure relief valve ensures safe and reliable
operation during ECM processes.

Pump: The pump plays a critical role in ECM by facilitating the continuous circulation of the
electrolyte throughout the system. It generates the necessary flow and pressure, ensuring
efficient transport of dissolved ions, effective heat exchange, and consistent process
conditions. The pump’s reliability and performance directly impact the effectiveness and
productivity of ECM.

Reservoir tank: The reservoir tank serves as a storage unit for the electrolyte solution used in
ECM. It ensures a continuous and uninterrupted supply of electrolyte to the system, allowing
for prolonged machining operations without interruptions. The reservoir tank’s capacity and
design contribute to the efficiency and productivity of ECM processes.
208
 Electro-Chemical Machine (ECM)
ECM Parts

Filters: Filters are essential components in the ECM system as they remove impurities and
contaminants from the electrolyte. They maintain the cleanliness and quality of the electrolyte,
preventing clogging or damage to system components. By ensuring a clean electrolyte supply, filters
enhance the longevity and performance of ECM processes.

Sludge container: The sludge container collects and contains the solid waste or byproducts
generated during ECM. It provides a designated space for the accumulation of sludge, making
disposal or recycling easier and more efficient. Proper management of the sludge container
promotes a clean and organized ECM environment.

Centrifuge: The centrifuge is a valuable addition to the ECM system, allowing for the separation of
suspended particles from the electrolyte. By subjecting the electrolyte to high-speed rotation, it
enhances the cleanliness and effectiveness of the electrolyte, improving machining performance
and prolonging the life of the electrolyte.

Fume extractor: The fume extractor ensures a safe working environment by effectively removing
fumes or gases generated during ECM. It captures and exhausts potentially hazardous byproducts,
safeguarding the operator’s health and maintaining a clean air quality. The fume extractor
contributes to a comfortable and safe ECM working environment.

Enclosure: The enclosure provides a protective housing for the ECM system, enclosing and
safeguarding the components and subsystems. It prevents accidental contact with electrolyte,
electrical components, or moving parts, ensuring operator safety during ECM operations. The
enclosure also helps maintain a controlled atmosphere, providing a stable environment for precise
and reliable machining.

ECM Applications

1. Medical Device Manufacturing

2. Aerospace Industry
3. Automotive Industry
4. Electronics & Microelectronics
5. Tool and Die Making
6. Jewelry Manufacturing
7. Optics Industry 209
Safety in CNC

210
TUTORIAL
1. Define CNC.
……………………………………………………………………………………….

2. State the meaning of the axis in CNC.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Define the function of each address given in below.

Address Function

X,Y,Z

I,J,K

212
4. Describe TWO (2) differences between G90 and G91.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Decide True (T) or False (F) for each statement.

6. Explain basic principle function of Electro Chemical Machine (ECM)

and Electro Discharge Machine (EDM). Attach figures to support your
answer.

213
7. Explain point-to-point machining method in computer numerical
control (CNC).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Discuss the differences between Absolute and Incremental

positioning modes.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Explain the difference between polar and rectangular coordinates.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Discover which miscellaneous code should be used to:

i. Turn the spindle on clockwise : ………….
ii. Turn off the coolant : ………….
iii. Stop the program : ………….
iv. Change tool : ………….

214
11. State FOUR (4) advantages and THREE (3) disadvantages of CNC
machining.

Advantages Disadvantages

12. Name FOUR (4) types of advanced machining in CNC.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

215
13. Provide a program for Figure 1 using absolute positioning.

Figure 1: CNC sample

216
14. Complete the program blocks for the part in Figure 2.

Figure 2: CNC sample

217
WELDING
 INTRODUCTION
WELDING

1. Welding is a method of joining metals

permanently. It is an ancient method,
about 1500 years old. The method used
in ancient days was forge or blacksmith
welding.

2. One of the methods of classifying

welded joints is the method used to
effect the joint between metal pieces.
Accordingly the methods are:
Fusion method without pressure/ OBJECTIVES
with pressure Apply standard practice
Non-fusion method in operating mechanical

3. Welding and related processes are

complex and require hands-on training,
tools and component

which teaches skills that are otherwise

difficult to obtain.

219
 Fusion welding without pressure

A method of welding in which similar and dissimilar metals are joined together
by melting and fusion their joining edges with or without the addition of filler
metal but without the application of any kind of pressure is known as fusion
welding without pressure.

The joint made is permanent. The common heating sources are:

arc welding
gas welding
chemical reaction (thermit welding)

Pressure welding

This is a method of welding in which similar metals are joined together by

heating them to plastic or partially molten state and then joined by pressing
or hammering without the use of filler metal.

This is fusion method of joining with pressure. Heat source may be

blacksmith forge (forge welding) or electric resistance (resistance welding)
or friction.

Non-fusion welding

This is a method in which similar or dissimilar metals are joined together

without melting the edges of the base metal by using a low melting point
filler rod but without the application of pressure. Examples of non-fusion
welding include riveting, brazing, soldering, staking, clinching, adhesive
bonding and mechanical fastening. Non-fusion processes require skillful
application because there must be enough force applied to create a strong
bond without causing damage to either metal piece being joined together.
220
Welding Processes

221
222
 Advantages

Disadvantages

223
 Welding Applications
Shipbuilding
Fabrication of sheet metal
Connecting ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Automotive and aerospace industries
Joining thin metals
Railway coaches
Earthmover bodies
Doors & gates making
Window shutters
Pipelines
Fabrication work of pressure vessels and steel structures
Arts & jewelleries

224
Welding Terminologies

225
226
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) The electrode is generally coated
is also known as stick welding. It is with a flux which is consumable. The
an arc welding process in which the arc created due to the ionization of
heat required for the welding comes air between the electrode tip and
from an electric arc. the base metal generates an intense
arc heat having a temperature
The flux coating on the electrode between 3600°C - 4000°C.
also melts and provides a gaseous
shield around the arc which The welding current is provided by
protects the molten metal from an AC or DC machine. When the
atmospheric contamination. Hence weld metal solidifies, the slag (of
this is called shielded metal arc
flux coating) gets deposited on its
welding (SMAW).
surface as it is lighter than the
metal and the weld metal is allowed
A pool of molten metal is formed
to cool gradually and slowly.
near electrode tip, and as electrode
is moved along joint, molten weld
pool solidifies in its wake.

SMAW basic equipments 227

 Slag & Electrode

Slag aka flux is a layer on the

weldment , a byproduct of the
electrode coating.

A substance that prevents

formation of oxides and other
contaminants in welding, or An electrode is a solid electric
dissolves them and facilitates conductor that carries electric
removal. current into non-metallic solids, or
liquids or gases or plasmas or
It has these functions: vacuums.
Provides protective atmosphere
for welding The electrode size refers to the
Stabilizes arc diameter of its core wire. Each
Reduces spattering electrode has a certain current
Forms the weld range. The welding current
Slow down the cooling rate increases with the electrode size
Cleans metal of oxides (diameter).
Provides mechanical protection
Keeps oxygen away Standard length of electrodes
Control the shape of the
weldment The electrodes are manufactured in
two different lengths, 350 or
450mm.

228
229
 SMAW Techniques
Two techniques to perform arc welding (at the start):

Scratching

Also known as Brushing

Scratch the rod on the metal, and the bring the rod back to begin
the molten weld puddle to start welding.

Tapping

Hold the welding rod in a 90 degree angle to the base metal.

Begin the arc by tapping it on the metal surface. After you tap, lift
the rod to about the distance of the diameter of the welding rod.
You can also 'bounce' the welding rod rather than tapping it.
You'll know you have an arc when you hear the distinct stick
welding sound which is a crackling sound.
230
 Welding Faults
Arc Length

Beginners will commonly have too long an arc length and too great
a lead angle.

231
 Welding Faults
Travel Speed

Beginner welders tend to move the rod too quickly, especially those
who are transitioning to arc welding from another welding process.

232
 Welding Faults
Current Setting

233
Welding Positions

Flat
Horizontal
Vertical
Overhead

234
235
 Welding Polarity

Indication of wrong polarity

If the electrode is used on wrong polarity it will result in:
Excess spatter and poor penetration
Improper fusion of the electrode
Heavy brownish deposition on the face of the weld metal
Difficulty in manipulation of the arc
Abnormal sound of the arc
236
Poor weld bead appearance with surface defects and more spatter.
 Oxy Acetylene Welding
A method of joining metals by heating them to the melting point using a mixture of oxygen
and acetylene gases.

Acetylene

A fuel gas which produces a very high temperature flame with the help of oxygen because it
has more amount of carbon (92.3%) than any other fuel gas. Its chemical symbol is C2 H2
and composed of:

Carbon 92.3%
Hydrogen 7.7%

It is a colourless gas, lighter than air and highly inflammable and burns with a brilliant flame.
Acetylene absorbs heat during producing and liberates heat when
decomposed.

Oxygen

Oxygen is a supporter of combustion. Its chemical symbol is O2. It is a clear,

colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is slightly soluble in water. It does not burn itself,
but supports combustion of fuels. It is industrially produced by two methods:
by air liquefaction.
by electrolysis of water.

237
 OAW Equipment & Accessories
Acetylene Cylinders Oxygen Gas Cylinders
The acetylene gas used in gas welding is The oxygen gas required for gas welding is
stored in steel bottle shaped cylinders stored in bottle shaped cylinders. These
painted in maroon colour. The normal storing cylinders are painted in black colour. Oxygen
capacity of storing acetylene in dissolved cylinders can store gas to a capacity of 7m3
state is 6m3 with the pressure ranging with the pressure ranging between 120 to 150
between 15-16 kg/cm2. kg/cm2. Oxygen gas cylinder valves are right
hand threaded.
Acetylene Regulator
This is also used to reduce the cylinder gas Oxygen Gas Regulator
pressure to the required working pressure This is used to reduce the oxygen cylinder
and to control the flow of acetylene gas at a gas pressure according to the required
constant rate to the blowpipe. The threaded working pressure and to control the flow of
connections are left handed. For quickly oxygen at a constant rate to the blowpipe.
identifying the acetylene regulator, a The threaded connections are right hand
groove is cut at the corners of the nut. threaded.

There are two types of regulators Blowpipe & Nozzle

- single stage regulator Blowpipes are used to control and mix the
- double stage regulator oxygen and acetylene gases to the
required proportion.
Rubber Hose Pipes & Connections
These are used to carry gas from the regulator
Cutting Torch
to the blowpipe. These are made of
The cutting torch differs from the regular
strong canvas rubber having good flexibility.
welding blowpipe in most cases. It has an
Hose-pipes which carry oxygen are black
additional lever for the control of the cutting
in colour and the acetylene hoses are of
oxygen used to cut the metal. The torch has
maroon colour.
the oxygen and acetylene control valves to
control the oxygen and acetylene gases while
Hose Protectors preheating the metal.
At the blowpipes end of the rubber hoses The cutting tip is made with an ORIFICE in the
hose-protectors are fitted. The hose centre surrounding by five smaller holes. The
protectors are in the shape of a connecting centre opening permits the flow of the
union and have a non-return disc fitted inside cutting oxygen and the smaller holes are for
to protect from flashback and backfire during the preheating flame. Usually different tip
welding. sizes are provided for cutting metals of
different thicknesses.
238
239
 Manifold System

Manifold system is a gas welding assembly in which oxygen gas cylinders

and a separate acetylene gas collected between the two. Both gases will be
channeled through the steel pipe to each welding station.

For manifold of single cylinder of oxygen and acetylene will be coupled

together in each welding station. But, it has a security feature low and not
very economical.

Whereby, a manifold system provides high security and gas savings as more
stations can be operated simultaneously. Thus, each station will be spacious
& comfortable.

240
Oxy Acetylene Flame

241
3 Famous
Flames in
OAW

242
 Flame Selection

The selection of the flame is based on the metal to

be welded. The neutral flame is the most commonly
used flame. Metals and flame to be used are as
given below:

Metal Types of Flame

Aluminium Neutral

Brass Oxidizing

Cast Iron Neutral

Copper Neutral

Mild Steel Neutral

Stainless Steel Neutral

Stellite Carburizing

243
 Flashback Vs Backfire
TERM CAUSE SOLUTION

Flame is being sucked into the

Backfire - The flame burns back into
torch. It may be caused by: Clean the tip
the torch with a sharp bang. Either
a spark from the metal Adjust the
the flame is extinguished, or it is
going up the tip pressures
reignited at the nozzle opening.
the pressures being too low Cool down the
A flame goes out with a loud pop
the tip being clogged/ dirty torch
from the torch.
Overheat the tip

Flashback - Occur when the speed of Be sure the

combustion at one or more places equipment has
This is very serious & is actually
in the flame hole becomes greater flashback
a series of explosions in the gas
than the speed of gas flow, allowing arrestors
line usually caused by:
the flame to burn back into the Clean the tips
very unequal pressures
blowpipe. Adjust the
between the two gases
It’s a sign that something is wrong pressures
clogged tips
the torch. When it happens, it Cool down the
produces a squealing noise. torch

244
 Metal Inert Gas Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), by Advantages of GMAW

definition, is an arc welding process
which produces the coalescence of GMAW process enjoys widespread use
metals by heating them with an arc because of its ability to provide high
between a continuously fed filler quality welds, for a wide range of
metal electrode and the work. The ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, at a
process uses shielding from an low price.
externally supplied gas to protect the
molten weld pool. The application of GMAW also has the following
GMAW generally requires DC+ advantages:
(reverse) polarity to the electrode. The ability to join a wide range of
material types and thicknesses.
GMAW is commonly known as MIG Simple equipment components are
(Metal Inert Gas) welding and it is less readily available and affordable.
commonly known as MAG (Metal GMAW has higher electrode
Active Gas) welding. In either case, the efficiencies, usually between 93%
GMAW process lends itself to weld a and 98%, when compared to other
wide range of both solid carbon steel welding processes.
and tubular metal-cored electrodes. Higher welder efficiencies and
The alloy material range for GMAW operator factor, when compared to
includes: carbon steel, stainless steel, other open arc welding processes.
aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, GMAW is easily adapted for high-
silicon bronze and tubular metal- speed robotic, hard automation
cored surfacing alloys. The GMAW and semiautomatic welding
process lends itself to semiautomatic, applications.
robotic automation and hard
automation welding applications.

245
 Advantages of GMAW Limitations of GMAW

All-position welding capability. The lower heat input characteristic

Excellent weld bead appearance. of the short-circuiting mode of
Lower hydrogen weld deposit — metal transfer restricts its use to
generally less than 5 mL/100 g of thin materials.
weld metal. The higher heat input axial spray
Lower heat input when compared transfer generally restricts its use
to other welding processes. to thicker base materials.
A minimum of weld spatter and The higher heat input mode of axial
slag makes weld clean up fast and spray is restricted to flat or
easy. horizontal welding positions.
Less welding fumes when The use of argon based shielding
compared to SMAW (Shielded gas for axial spray and pulsed
Metal Arc Welding) and FCAW spray transfer modes is more
(Flux-Cored Arc Welding) expensive than 100% carbon
processes. dioxide (CO2).

MIG WELDING

246
247
248
What Are the Common Materials Used in MIG
Welding? What Is the Hardest Material to MIG Weld?
The most common materials used in MIG
welding are listed below: The hardest material to MIG weld is
aluminum as it has a very low melting point
1. Copper paired with high thermal conductivity. Poor
Copper is a soft, malleable metal used in heat conductivity means that aluminum does
plumbing and electrical applications. MIG not absorb the heat from the electrical arc
welding is the preferred process for welding well and so it is hard to keep a stable
copper. However, the heat required to weld temperature throughout the process without
copper is about twice that of steel where the either burning through or failing to penetrate
heat temperature makes it easier and the joint at all.
possible.
What Is the Easiest Material to MIG Weld?
2. Aluminum
Aluminum is a soft, silvery, non-ferrous The easiest material to MIG weld is mild steel.
metal. Welding aluminum requires 100% pure This is because of its high melting
argon gas. Aluminum welding can be difficult temperature, which makes mild steel very
as the melt pool can quickly burn through the forgiving to changes in welding parameters.
part and drip out the other side. The lower the carbon content of mild steel,
the easier it is to weld.
3. Steels
Steels are alloys made mainly of iron and What Materials Cannot Be MIG Welded?
carbon, usually also including sulfur and
phosphorus. When welding steel, it is advised Materials such as wood, composites, and
not to use 100% argon gas for shielding but plastics cannot be MIG welded. Additionally,
rather 75% argon and 25% carbon dioxide. dissimilar metals cannot be welded together
This is because 100% argon gas will reduce — aluminum, for instance, cannot be welded
the ductility of the weld. to steel or copper.

4. Nickel Alloys
Nickel alloys are composed of nickel and
usually chromium, iron, molybdenum, and/or
copper. Usually, 100% argon gas is used to
weld nickel alloys. However, when more
energy is required, up to 40% helium can be
used. 249
 Shielding Gases for GMAW
GMAW Equipment Shielding Gases

The basic equipment of MIG: Argon and helium are the two inert
shielding gases used for protecting
1. Power source the molten weld pool. The inert
2. Welding torch classification indicates that neither
3. Wire feed unit argon nor helium will react chemically
4. Inert gas supply/ gas cylinder with the molten weld pool. However,
5. Electrode wire in order to become a conductive gas,
6. Workpiece clamp that is, a plasma, the gas must be
ionized. Different gases require
3 basic criteria are useful in different amounts of energy to ionize,
understanding the properties of and this is measured in terms of the
shielding gas: ionization energy. For argon, the
ionization energy is 15.7 eV. Helium, on
Ionization potential of the gas the other hand, has an ionization
components energy of 24.5 eV. Thus, it is easier to
Thermal conductivity of the ionize argon than helium. For this
shielding gas components reason argon facilitates better arc
The chemical reactivity of the starting than helium.
shielding gas with the molten weld
puddle The thermal conductivity, or the
ability of the gas to transfer thermal
energy, is the most important
consideration for selecting a shielding
gas. High thermal conductivity levels
result in more conduction of the
thermal energy into the workpiece.

250
The thermal conductivity also affects Inert Shielding Gases
the shape of the arc and the
temperature distribution within the Argon is the most commonly used inert
region. Argon has a lower thermal gas. Compared to helium its thermal
conductivity rate — about 10% of the conductivity is low. Its energy required
level for both helium and hydrogen. to give up an electron, ionization
The high thermal conductivity of helium energy, is low, and this results in the
will provide a broader penetration finger-like penetration profile
pattern and will reduce the depth of associated with its use.
penetration. Gas mixtures with high
percentages of argon will result in a Argon supports axial spray transfer.
penetration profile with a finger-like Nickel, copper, aluminum, titanium, and
projection into the base material, and magnesium alloyed base materials use
this is due to the lower thermal 100% argon shielding. Argon, because
conductivity of argon. of its lower ionization energy, assists
with arc starting. It is the main
Can we MIG Without Gases? component gas used in binary (two-
part) or ternary (three-part) mixes for
Yes. Most MIG welders can run using GMAW welding. It also increases the
flux-cored wire which won’t need gas. molten droplet transfer rate.
This is because the flux-core wire
contains the shielding gas component Helium is commonly added to the gas
within the welding wire. These wires are mix for stainless and aluminum
different to standard solid welding wire. applications. Its thermal conductivity is
You can’t weld with solid welding wire very high, resulting in the broad but
without gas. There are also stand-alone less deep penetration profile. When in
wire feed welders that are specifically use, arc stability will require additions
designed to run flux-core welding wires of arc voltage.
only.
Helium additions to argon are effective
in reducing the dilution of base material
in corrosion resistant applications.
Helium/argon blends are commonly
used for welding aluminum greater than
1” (25 mm) thick.
251
252
 Reactive Shielding Gases

Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (CO2) are

reactive gases. Reactive gases combine chemically with the
weld pool to produce a desirable effect.

Bead contour and penetration patterns for various shielding gases

Relative effect of Oxygen versus CO2 additions to the argon shield

253
254
255
 MIG SAFE PRACTICES

Metal Fumes. The welding fumes generated by GMAW can be controlled by general
ventilation, local exhaust ventilation, or if the exposure cannot be adequately controlled
using ventilation, by respiratory protective equipment as described in ANSI Z49.1. The
method of ventilation required to keep the level of toxic substances within the welder’s
breathing zone below acceptable concentrations is directly dependent upon a number of
factors. Among these are the material being welded, the size of the work area, and the
degree of the confinement or obstruction to normal air movement where the welding is
being done. Each operation should be evaluated on an individual basis in order to determine
what ventilation, exhaust or personal protective equipment will be required. Legally
required exposure limits for hazardous substances are called Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL) and are established by DOSH.
256
 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Equipments:
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) also
known as Tungsten Inert Gas welding
The equipment required for the
(TIG) is an electric arc welding process
that produces an arc between a non- gas tungsten arc welding
consumable electrode (tungsten operation includes a welding
which does not melt due to its high torch utilizing a nonconsumable
melting point) and the work piece to tungsten electrode, a constant-
be welded. The weld is shielded from current welding power supply,
the atmosphere by a shielding gas that and a shielding gas source.
forms an envelope around the weld 1. Welding torch
area. However, a filler metal is usually 2. Power supply
used in the process . The weld area is 3. Electrode
protected from atmospheric 4. Shielding gas
contamination by an inert shielding
5. Filler Rod
gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal
is normally used.
TIG WELDING

257
Welding Torch:

GTAW welding torches are designed for either automatic or manual operation and are
equipped with cooling systems using air or water. The automatic and manual torches are
similar in construction, but the manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch
normally comes with a mounting rack. The angle between the centerline of the handle and
the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as the head angle, can be varied on some
manual torches according to the preference of the operator.

Air cooling systems are most often used for low-current operations (up to about 200 A),
while water cooling is required for high-current welding (up to about 600 A). The torches
are connected with cables to the power supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source
and where used, the water supply.

The internal metal parts of a torch are made of hard alloys of copper or brass so it can
transmit current and heat effectively. The tungsten electrode must be held firmly in the
258
center of the torch with an appropriately sized collet, and ports around the electrode
provide a constant flow of shielding gas. Collets are sized according to the diameter of the
tungsten electrode they hold. The body of the torch is made of heat resistant, insulating
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends on the amount of
shielded area desired. The size of the gas nozzle depends upon
the diameter of the electrode, the joint configuration, and the
availability of access to the joint by the welder. The inside
diameter of the nozzle is preferably at least three times the
diameter of the electrode, but there are no hard rules. The
welder judges the effectiveness of the shielding and increases
the nozzle size to increase the area protected by the external
gas shield as needed. The nozzle must be heat resistant and
thus is normally made of alumina or a ceramic material, but
fused quartz, a high purity glass, offers greater visibility.
Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for special
applications, such as gas lenses or valves to improve the
control shielding gas flow to reduce turbulence and
introduction of contaminated atmosphere into the shielded
area. Hand switches to control welding current can be added
to the manual GTAW torches.
259
 Filler Rod:

Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases, the
filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some
applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which often is stored on
spools or coils

This filler material is a metal alloy specifically designed to withstand the high heat
of welds and to fuse the two pieces of stock together as a composite. So, not
surprisingly, the alloy and size of filler rods vary for the varying stock thicknesses
and types of base metals people weld.

Also, be sure to determine the correct current (amperage) range for the rod. Plus,
check the polarity, gas flow, cup size, torch speed, etc. before you strike an arc and
start welding with a specific filler rod.

260
 Shielding Gas

As with other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, shielding gases are
necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as
nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity, and weld metal
embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding
metal. The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it
helps start and maintain a stable arc.

The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors, including the type of
material being welded, joint design, and desired final weld appearance. Argon is
the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW, since it helps prevent defects due
to a varying arc length. When used with alternating current, argon shielding results
in high weld quality and good appearance. Another common shielding gas, helium,
is most often used to increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the
welding speed, and to weld metals with high heat conductivity, such as copper and
aluminum. A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc with helium
gas, and the decreased weld quality associated with a varying arc length.

Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in GTAW, since they can
increase control of the heat input while maintaining the benefits of using argon.
Normally, the mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about 75% or
higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures increase the speed and quality of
the AC welding of aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc. Another
shielding gas mixture, argon-hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of light
gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can cause porosity, its uses are limited.
Similarly, nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help stabilize the austenite
in austenitic stainless steels and increase penetration when welding copper.

Due to porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits, however, it is not a
popular shielding gas additive.

261
 Tungsten Electrode

The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy, because

tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals, at 3422 °C
(6192 °F). As a result, the electrode is not consumed during welding, though some
erosion (called burn-off) can occur.

Electrodes can have either a clean finish or a ground finish—clean finish

electrodes have been
chemically cleaned, while ground finish electrodes have been ground to a uniform
size and have a polished surface, making them optimal for heat conduction.
262
 Power Supply

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) uses a constant current power source, meaning that
the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance
and voltage change. This is important because most applications of GTAW are manual
or semiautomatic, requiring that an operator hold the torch.

Maintaining a suitably steady arc Direct current with a negatively charged

distance is difficult if a constant voltage electrode
power source is used instead, since it (DCEN) is often employed when welding
can cause dramatic heat variations and steels, nickel, titanium, and other metals. It
make welding more difficult. The can also be used in automatic GTAW of
preferred polarity of the GTAW aluminum or magnesium when helium is
system depends largely on the type of used as a shielding gas. The negatively
metal being welded. charged electrode generates heat by
emitting electrons, which travel across the
Direct current with a positively charged arc, causing thermal ionization of the
electrode (DCEP) is less common, and is shielding gas and increasing the
used primarily for shallow welds since temperature of the base material. The
less heat is generated in the base ionized shielding gas flows toward the
material. Instead of flowing from the electrode, not the base material, and this
electrode to the can allow oxides to build on the surface of
base material, as in DCEN, electrons go the weld.
the other direction, causing the
electrode to reach very high
temperatures. To help it maintain its
shape and prevent softening, a larger
electrode is often used.

As the electrons flow toward the

electrode, ionized shielding gas flows
back toward the base material, cleaning
the weld by removing oxides and other
impurities and thereby improving its
263
quality and appearance.
264
265
WELDING DEFECTS

266
267
TUTORIAL
1. Illustrate shielded metal arc welding equipment in the box below.

2. Illustrate oxy acetylene welding equipment in the box below.

269
3. Illustrate metal inert gas welding equipment in the box below.

4. Illustrate gas tungsten arc welding equipment in the box below.

270
5. List FIVE (5) advantages and disadvantages of SMAW.

Advantages Disadvantages

6. Differentiate between oxygen and acetylene tanks.

7. Explain the correct procedure in lighting the torch in oxy acetylene

welding.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
271
8. In oxy-acetylene welding, the proportion of oxygen and acetylene
can be adjusted to produce a neutral, oxidizing or carburizing flame.
Show by drawing, label and describe each three flames.

Flames drawing Description

272
9. Differentiate DCEN and DCEP in SMAW.

DCEN DCEP

10. Compare Alternating current (AC) to Direct current (DC).

Alternating Direct
current (AC) current (DC)

273
11. Name TWO (2) inert gas used in GTAW.
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………..

12. What are welding defects?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13. State NINE (9) common defects in welding.

14. State the prevention method of distortion.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. Explain the manifold system in gas welding.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

274
16. There are five basic types of joints; butt joint, corner joint, edge
joint, lap joint and tee-joint. Characterize each joint.

WELDING JOINT CHARACTERISTICS

1. BUTT

2. CORNER

3. EDGE

4. LAP

5. TEE

17. The problem caused by residual stresses such as cracking,

distortion and buckling can be reduced by preheating the base metal
or parts to be welded. Define residual stresses.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

275
18. Seven types of famous welds are as follows. Give its descriptions
in orderly manner.

276
19. Sketch welding terminologies and label the root, face, throat, toe,
leg and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ).

277
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https://www.slideshare.net/hassang66/gears-terminologies-standards-
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https://khkgears.net/new/gear_knowledge/gear-nomenclature/over-pin-
measurement.html

https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-
fabricating/understanding-cnc-milling/

https://www.emag.com/industries-solutions/technologies/ecm-electro-
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