SEMI CONDUCTORS

Band theory of solids

Energy Band theory is used to study the behavior of solids as conductors (metals), insulators and
semiconductors.
 Electrons of each isolated atom have discrete energy levels.
 When two similar atoms are brought closer, then there is an interaction between the valence
electrons of these two.
 This interaction causes a splitting of each individual energy level into two slightly different
energy levels.
 The atoms in a solid are so close to each other that the energy levels produced after splitting
due to interaction between the various atoms will be so close to each other that they appear
as continuous.
 These closely spaced energy levels form an energy band.
 There are two types of energy bands
Valence band: The energy band occupied by valence electrons is known as valence band. The
electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are called valence electrons. In a normal atom, valence
band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may be totally or partially filled.

Conduction band: The band occupied by the electrons coming from the valence band is called
conduction band. It is either empty or partially filled and lies above the valence band.

Generally, insulators have empty conduction band while conductors possess a partially filled
conduction band.

Fermi level: The highest energy level which an electron can occupy in the valence band at 0K is
called Fermi level.

Forbidden energy gap: The separation between conduction band and valence band on the energy
level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap or the minimum energy required by an electron
to jump from valence band to the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.
Consider a silicon (Si) crystal having N atoms

The electronic configuration of Silicon (Z= 14) is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2.

The levels 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s are completely filled and the level 3p contains only 2 electrons where
as it can accommodate 6 electrons

In a silicon crystal, there are 14N electrons. For each silicon atom, there are two states in energy
level 1s. So there are 2N states in energy level 1s, 2N states in energy level 2s, 6N states in energy
level 2p, 2N states in energy level 3s and 6N states in 3p energy level of a silicon crystal. In 3p
energy level only 2N states are filled and 4N states are empty.

1. At r = d Each atom in the silicon crystal behaves independently and has discrete
energy levels.
2. At r=c The interaction among valence electrons of N atoms splits 3s and 3p levels
into large number of closely spaced energy levels where the energy of an
electron may be slightly less or more than the energy of an electron in an
isolated atom. Thus two bands corresponding to 3s and 3p states are
formed. As the inter atomic spacing (r) is further decreased, the energy
bands corresponding to 3s and 3p states spread more and hence energy gap
between these bands decreases. The levels 1s2, 2s2 and 2p6 lie in the
interior of an atom and hence cannot be influenced by other atoms
3. At r=b The 3s and 3p bands overlap and the energy gap between them disappears.
In this case all 8N levels (2N corresponding to 3s energy level and 6N
corresponding to 3p energy level) are now continuously distributed. Out of
these 8N levels, 4N levels are filled and 4N are empty.
4. At r = a The filled and unfilled energy levels are separated by an energy gap called
i.e. the forbidden energy gap. The energy of forbidden energy gap is denoted by
equilibrium Eg. The lower filled energy band is called valence band and the upper
separation unfilled energy band is called conduction band.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and
good conductors. (Example: Ge, Si).
 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm
 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
 Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
 Current flow: Due to electrons and holes

Semiconductors are broadly classified into two types Viz., intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors:
 The semi-conductors in extremely pure form are called intrinsic semi-conductors. Eg:
Ge, Si etc.
 At T=0K, it behaves like an insulator. However, at room temperature the electrons get
excited and move from the valence band to the conduction band.
 Conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors depends on temperature.
 In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes
 In intrinsic semiconductors, Fermi level lies in between valance band and conduction
band.
 In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as
holes.
 The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons
and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
 For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons to exist in
conduction band decreases exponentially with increasing band gap (Eg)

 Eg = Energy bandgap
 Kb = Boltzmann’s constants =1.38×10-23 J/K
Extrinsic semiconductors:

These semi-conductors prepared by adding impurities to intrinsic semi-conductors. On the

basis of the nature of impurity added, these are further classified into two ways:

i) n-type extrinsic semiconductors :

 These semi-conductors are obtained by doping with an impurity carrying more number
of external electrons than parent atom.
 For example doping of group 15 elements such as P, As, Sb with group 14 elements i.e
pure Ge or Si.
 The extra electrons from the impurity remain in a delocalized energy level which is
known as donor impurity level and is placed just below the empty conduction band.
 These extra electrons can be easily exited to the empty conduction band. As the electrons
are responsible for conduction these semi-conductors are called n-type semi-conductors.

ii) p-type extrinsic semiconductors :

 These semi-conductors are obtained by doping with an impurity carrying less number
of external electrons than parent atom.
 For example doping of group 13 elements such as B, Al, Ga etc., with group 14
elements i.e pure Ge or Si.
 The positive holes are created in the valency band of parent element remain in acceptor
impurity level and placed close to filled valency band.
 The electrons from the filled valency band can be easily promoted to the empty
acceptor level carrying positive holes.
 Under the influence of applied field, an electron from adjacent atom migrates into the
hole creating another hole.
 As this continuous the hole migrates in a direction opposite to that of electron.
Therefore, here current flow is attributed to the migration of positive holes and hence
named as p-type semiconductors.
 SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

PN junction diode:

 A p–n junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors together in very
close contact.
 Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one
direction.

 When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal, it is
said to be forward biased.

 When an external voltage (V ) is applied across the diode such that n-side is positive and
p-side is negative, it is said to be reverse biased

PN junction diode as Rectifier:

A device which converts alternating current or voltage into direct current or voltage is known as
rectifier. The process of converting AC into DC is called rectification.
Half-Wave Rectifier:

 A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the positive half cycle (positive
current) of the input signal into DC (Direct Current) output signal.
 The half-wave rectifier circuit is made by using a diode (D) with a load resistance RL. The
diode is connected in series with the secondary coil of the transformer and the load
resistance RL. The primary coils of the transformer are being connected to the ac supply
mains.
 During the positive half-cycles of the input ac voltage, the diode is forward biased and
therefore conducts current.
 During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage, the diode is reverse biased and so
does not conduct.

Full-Wave Rectifier:

 A full-wave rectifier converts the whole cycle of applied AC signal into DC signal.
 The full-wave rectifier circuit is made by using an ac source, two diodes (D1&D2), a
centertap transformer and a load resistance RL are a connected as shown in circuit.
 During the positive half-cycles of the input ac voltage, the diode D1 is forward biased and
D2 is reverse biased hence D1 conducts and D2 remains off.
 During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage, the diodeD2 is forward biased and
D1 is reverse biased hence D2 conducts and D1 remains off.
Transistor:
A transistor is an arrangement obtained by growing a thin layer of one type of semiconductor
between two thick layers of other similar type semiconductor.
 A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of
doped semiconductor material.
 It may be used in amplifying or switching applications.
 Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes.
 Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction
between two regions of different charge concentrations.
 3 adjacent regions of doped Si (each connected to a lead):
 Base. (thin layer, less doped).
 Collector.
 Emitter

Types of transistors

 The left side semiconductor is called emitter, the right side semiconductor is called
collector and the thin middle layer is called base.
 Emitter is highly doped and base is feebly doped.
 A transistor can be utilized as an amplifier and oscillator but not a rectifier
 Maximum amplification is obtained in common-emitter configuration.
Depending upon the terminals which are used as a common terminal to the input and output
terminals, the transistors can be connected in the following three different configurations.

Common emitter configuration: In this configuration emitter terminal is connected as a common

terminal. The input is applied between the base and emitter terminals. The output is taken between
the collector and base terminals.

Common base configuration: In this configuration base terminal is connected as a common

terminal. The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals. The output is taken between
the collector and base terminals.

Common collector configuration: In this configuration collector terminal is connected as a

common terminal. The input is applied between the base and collector terminals. The output is
taken between the emitter and collector terminals
Transistor as an Amplifier
An amplifier is a device which is used for increasing the amplitude of variation of alternating
voltage or current or power.
The amplifier thus produces an enlarged version of the input signal.
The general concept of amplification is represented in figure. There are two input terminals for the
signal to be amplified and two output terminals for connecting the load; and’ a means of supplying
power to the amplifier.

SUPER CONDUCTORS

The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of electrical resistance in a

material, when it is cooled below a certain temperature is known as
super conductivity.
(Or)
The ability of certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero electrical
resistivity when they are cooled to low temperature is known as
superconducting materials.

Example: Tin (3.2 K), Mercury (4.15 K).

Barium - Lanthanum - Copper - Oxide (BLCO) - 35 K
Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (YBa2Cu3O4) - 92 K

1:2:3 super conductor:

Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (YBa2Cu3O4) - 92 K

Preparation:
 Preparation of a homogeneous mixture of their oxides (Y2O3, BaCO3 and CuO ) in their
molar ratios.
 Heating them to obtain oxygen deficient super conductor in muffle furnace.
 Annealing the above compound to room temperature to retain its composition, structure
and super conducting properties.
Critical temperature (or) Transition Temperature:

The temperature at which a normal conductor loses its resistivity and becomes a superconductor
is known as critical temperature (or) Transition temperature.
Every superconductor has its own critical temperature at which it passes over into superconducting
state.
Depending on the transition temperature, superconductors are classified into two groups are
i) Low temperature superconductors (LTS): The superconductors which have low transition
temperature (below 30K) are known as low temperature superconductors.
Example: Tin (3.2 K), Mercury (4.15 K).
ii) High temperature superconductors (HTS): The superconductors which have high transition
temperature (above 30K) is known as high temperature superconductors.
Example: Barium - Lanthanum - Copper - Oxide (BLCO) - 35 K
Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (Y Ba2 Cu3 O4) - 92 K.

Properties of superconductors

1. Zero Electrical Resistance: The electrical resistivity drops to zero at the transition temperature.
2. Effect of magnetic field: Below TC, the superconducting property disappears when strong
magnetic field is applied. i.e., it returns to normal state.
3. Diamagnetic property: The superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic.
4. Effect of heavy Current: The superconducting property disappears when a heavy current flows,
since current flow will set up a magnetic field.
5. Isotope effect: The presence of isotopes in superconductors changes the transition temperature
of the superconductors.
Ex: The atomic mass of mercury varies from 199.5 to 203.4, and hence the transition temperature
varies from 4.185 K to 4.146 K.
6. Thermal properties: Entropy and specific heat decreases at transition temperature and the
thermoelectric effect disappear in the superconducting state.
7. Effect of Impurities: The impurities change the magnetic properties of the superconductors
8. Effect of pressure: If pressure increases, the critical temperature also increases
9. The transition temperature is unchanged with the frequency variation.
10. Meissner effect: super conductors exhibits meissener effect.
 Meissner effect
When a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field, under the condition T≤Tc and
H≤Hc the flux lines are excluded from the material. Thus the material exhibits perfect
diamagnetism. This phenomenon is called as Meissner effect

We know that diamagnetic material have the tendency to expel the magnetic lines of force. Since
the super conductor also expels the magnetic lines of forces it behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This
behavior is first observed by Meissner and hence called as Meissner effect.
.

When a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field of flux density ‘B’ the magnetic
lines of force penetrates through the material as shown in fig. a
Now, when the material is cooled below its transition temperature then the magnetic lines of force
are ejected out from the material as shown in fig. b

Application of Meissner effect

1. It is a standard test to prove whether the material is a perfect superconductor or not.

2. This effect is used for magnetic levitated train.

Type-I and Type –II super conductors

There are two types of super conductors based on their variation in magnetization, due to external
magnetic field applied.
 Type I superconductor or soft super conductor
 Type II superconductor or hard superconductor
TYPE-I SUPERCONDUCTORS:

When the super conductor is kept in the magnetic

field and if the field is increased the
superconductor becomes normal conductor
abruptly at critical magnetic field as shown in fig.
These types of materials are termed as Type I
superconductors.
Below critical field, the specimen excludes all the
magnetic lines of force and exhibit perfect
Meissner effect. Hence, Type I superconductors
are perfect diamagnet, represented by negative
sign in magnetization.

CHARACTRISTICS:

1. These are called Soft superconductors.

2. It exhibits complete Meissner Effect.
3. They are completely diamagnetic.
4. The material loses magnetization suddenly
5. They have only one critical magnetic field value.
6. No mixed state exists.
7. It requires low magnetic field to destroy the superconductivity.
8. The value of HC is always too low. It is about 0.1 tesla
9. Ex : Tin, Lead, Mercury, etc.,

TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS:
When the super conductor kept in the magnetic
field and if the field is increased, below the lower
critical field Hc1, the material exhibit perfect
diamagnetism (i.e) it behaves as a super conductor
and above Hc1, the magnetization decreases and
hence the magnetic flux starts penetrating through
the material. The specimen is said to be in a mixed
state between Hc1 and Hc2. above Hc2 (upper
critical field) it becomes normal conductor as
shown in fig.

CHARACTRISTICS:

1. These are called Hard superconductors.

2. It does not exhibit a complete Meissner Effect
3. They are not completely diamagnetic.
4. The material loses magnetization gradually.
5. They have two critical magnetic field values. Lower critical magnetic field [HC1] and
 Higher critical magnetic field [HC2].
6. Mixed state is present.
7. It requires large magnetic field to destroy the superconductivity.
8. The values of HC is high and it is about 30 tesla.
9. Ex : Nb-Zr, Nb- Ti, Nb-Sn, Va- Ga, etc.,

APPLICATIONS OF SUPER CONDUCTORS

1. Electric generators can be made by using superconductors with smaller size, less weight
and low energy consumption.
2. Superconductors can be used for the transmission of power over very long distances without
any power loss.
3. Superconductors can be used in switching Devices.
4. The superconductors can be used in sensitive electrical instruments.
5. It can be used as a memory or storage element in computers.
6. These are used to design Cryotron, Maglev, Josephson Devices and SQUID.
7. Superconductors are used to design rectifiers, logic gates, modulators etc.
8. Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting magnets.
9. Superconductors are used for the detection of brain tumor, defective cells, etc.,
10. Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into orbit directly from the
earth without use of rockets.
11. These are used in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) imaging equipment which is used
for scanning purposes.
12. DC superconducting motors are used in ship propulsion and in large mills.
13. Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto hydrodynamic power generation to
maintain the plasma in the body.
 SUPER CAPACITORS

A supercapacitor is a type of capacitor that can store a large amount of energy, typically 10 to 100
times more energy per unit mass or volume compared to electrolytic capacitors.
Specifications of Supercapacitors:
 Supercapacitors possess high capacitances of up to 2 kF.
 Supercapacitors store enormous amounts of energy.
 Supercapacitors offer to bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and rechargeable
batteries.
 The charging time of a supercapacitor is around 1–10 seconds.
 Supercapacitors store electricity through either electrostatic charge absorption/desorption.

Types of super capacitors:

Supercapacitors are classified into three main types which are
 Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors
 Pseudo Capacitors
 Hybrid Capacitors

Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors:

 Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors comprises two electrodes, a separator, and an
electrolyte.
 Electrolyte is a mixture comprising positive and negative ions dissolved in water.
 The two electrodes are separated from each other through a separator.
 The supercapacitors use carbon electrodes with much higher electrostatic double-layer
capacitance.
 The separation of charge in electrostatic double-layer capacitors is much less than in a
conventional capacitor which ranges from 0.3–0.8 nm.
Pseudo Capacitors:
 Pseudo Capacitors are also referred to as electrochemical pseudo-capacitors.
 They make use of metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes that have a high amount
of electrochemical pseudocapacitance.
 They store electrical energy by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte.
 It is done through the oxidation and reduction reaction commonly known as a redox
reaction.

Hybrid Capacitors:
 Hybrid Capacitors are made by using the techniques of double-layer capacitors and pseudo-
capacitors.
 In these capacitors, electrodes with different characteristics are used.
 One electrode has the capacity to display electrostatic capacitance and the other electrode
showcases electrochemical capacitance.
 An example of a hybrid capacitor is the lithium-ion capacitor.
Application of Supercapacitors:
1. Electric cars
2. Wind turbines
3. Photographic flash
4. Flywheel in machines
5. MP3 players
6. Regenerative braking in the automotive industry
7. Static memories (SRAM)
8. Industrial electrical motors
Advantages:
 Long life: It works for large number of cycle without wear and aging.
 Rapid charging: it takes a second to charge completely.
 Low cost: it is less expensive as compared to electrochemical battery.
 High power storage: It stores huge amount of energy in a small volume.
 Faster release: Release the energy much faster than battery.

Disadvantages
 They have Low energy density
 Individual cell shows low voltage
 Not all the energy can be utilized during discharge
 They have high self-discharge as compared to battery.
 Voltage balancing is required when more than three capacitors are connected in series
 NANO MATERIALS
 The word nano itself means dwarf in Greek.
 One nanometer is 10-9 m. 1nm= 10 Ao

‘The materials having structured components with at least one dimension less than 100 nm are
known as nano-materials’.
CLASSIFICATION
Nano structured materials are classified based on spatial dimensions
a) 0-D spheres or clusters. Eg:-nano particles
b) One dimensional nano-materials. Eg:-nanofibres, nano wires, nano rods etc.,
c) Two dimensional nano-materials. Eg:- Graphene, nano films, nano sheets etc.,
d) Three dimensional nano-materials. Eg:-Fullernes, CNT, quantum dots, quantum drivers.

The US Environmental Agency:

 Carbon based nanomaterials: are composed mostly of carbon with spherical, ellipsoidal
or tubular forms. Eg: fullerenes, nano tubes

 Metallic based nanomaterials: they can be quantum dots (quantum dots or transistors of
a single electron) or nanoparticles of gold, silver or of reactive metals like titanium dioxide.

 Dendrimers: are highly branched macromolecules with the dimensions nanometer-scale.

The surface of a dendrimer possess numerous chain which can be modified to perform
specific chemical functions.

 Composite nanimaterials: Nanocomposite can be described as a multiphase solid

material where at least one of the phases has one, two or three dimensions in nanoscale.
The most common examples of these materials are colloids, gels and copolymers.
Composition Nanoparticles

 Pure metal: Au, Ag, Pd, Pt, Cu, Co, Ni, Ru

 Bimetal: Fe-Co, Co-Ni, Pd-Au
 Alloy: FePt, CoPt, PdNi, PtRu
 Semiconductor: GaAs, CdTe, CdSe, CdS, ZnSe, AgBr
 Oxide: SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, CeO2, Fe3O4, ZrO2
 CARBON NANO TUBES (CNT)
Carbon nanotubes are a graphite sheets consisting of covalently bonded carbon atoms in
hexagonal type arrangement. The sheet is rolled up into a cylinder with the ends closed by
hemispherical graphite domes.
Carbon nanotubes can be divided into two basic classes namely
 Single wall nanotubes (SWNT): Single-walled carbon nanotubes can be formed in three
different designs: Armchair, Chiral, and Zigzag. The design depends on the way the
graphene is wrapped into a cylinder.
 Multi wall nanotubes (MWNT): MWNT‘s include structures formed in coaxial
arrangement of several (2-100) graphite cylinders and their external diameter ranges from
10 to100nm
 There are two structural models of multi-walled nanotubes: – Russian Doll model –
Parchment model. In the Russian Doll model, a carbon nanotube contains another nanotube
inside it. In the Parchment model, a single graphene sheet is rolled around itself multiple
times, resembling a rolled up scroll of paper.

Single wall nano tubes Multi wall nano tubes

Russian doll Parchment

.
 The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m) called the chiral
vector, where the integers n and m represent the number of unit vectors along two directions in
the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene.
 If m = 0, the nanotubes are called “zigzag”.
 If n = m, the nanotubes are called “armchair”.
 Otherwise, they are called “chiral”.
 An ideal multi-wall carbon nanotube can similarly be visualized as concentrically rolled-up
sheets of graphene.
 SYNTHESIS OF CNT’S
ARC DISCHARGE METHOD:

 The carbon arc discharge method, initially used for producing C60fullerenes.
 This method creates nano tubes through arc-vaporization of two carbon electrodes.
 In this two carbon rods are placed end to end, separated by approximately 1mm, in an
enclosure that is usually filled with inert gas (helium, argon) at low pressure (between 50
and 700 mbar).
 A direct current of 50 to 100 A driven by approximately 20 V creates a high temperature
discharge between the two electrodes.
 The discharge vaporizes one of the carbon rods and forms a small rod shaped deposit on
the other rod usually cathode.
 However, it produces a mixture of components and requires separating nanotubes from the
soot.
 Producing nano tubes in high yield depends on the uniformity of the plasma arc and the
temperature of the deposit form on the carbon electrode.

Properties of CNTs:

1. These are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure

2. The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds
3. CNTs are strongest and stiffest materials in terms of tensile strength.
4. CNTs are hardest can withstand a pressure upto 25GPa without deformation.
5. These are toxic in nature.
6. CNTs posses electromagnetic waves absorption characteristics.
7. Mechanical Properties: Young’s modulus of carbon nano tubes is 10 times greater than
that of steel. CNTs have very structural defects in their walls, and hence, do not fracture
on bending. The tensile strength of CNTs is about 20 times that of steel.
8. Electrical Properties: The electrical properties of CNTs vary between metallic to
semiconducting materials. The very high electrical conductivity of CNT is due to the
minimum defects in the structure.
9. Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of CNT is very high due to the vibration
of covalent bonds due to minimum defects in the structure.
Applications of CNTs:

 Because of their high strength, these are used in space elevators, stab proof and bullet
proof materials.
 CNTs find use in water purification
 CNTs are used for hydrogen storage owing to their capillary effect.
 They are used in stain- resistant textiles
 CNTs are used for treatment of cancer
 CNTs are used in solar cells.
 Used to prepared high tensile strength fibers
 CNT fibers are used to prepare bullet proof jackets
 Electrically conducting CNT films are used in LCD’s, touch screens, computers, cell
phones and photovoltaic devices.

FULLERENES
 A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere,
ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes.
 Spherical fullerenes are also called bucky balls, and they resemble the balls used in football
(soccer).
 Cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or bucky tubes.
 Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets
of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal)
rings.

 The first fullerene molecule to be discovered is Buckminster fullerene (C60).

 Fullerenes are cage like structure having formula C60, C70, C78 etc.,

Types of fullerene:

1. Spherical fullerenes:
 Bucky ball clusters: smallest member is C20 (unsaturated version of dodeca hedrane)
and the most common is C60;
 nano"onions": spherical particles based on multiple carbon layers surrounding a
buckyball core, proposed for lubricants;
2. cylindrical fullerenes:
 Nanotubes: hollow tubes of very small dimensions, having single or multiple walls;
potential applications in electronics industry;
 Mega tubes: larger in diameter than nanotubes and prepared with walls of different
thickness; potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes
 3. linked "ball-and-chain" dimers: two bucky balls linked by a carbon chain;

Properties:

1. Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many solvents. Common solvents are CS2, toluene.
2. Fullerenes exhibits wave particle duality.
3. Some fullerenes are inherently chiral.
4. C60 exhibits small degree of aromaticity.

Applications of fullerenes:

1. As a catalyst for hydrogenation, since these have ability to transfer H2

2. Act as potential inhibitor to HIV.
3. Used in rechargeable batteries, in microelectronic devices, solar cells.
4. Takes part in catalytic processes.
5. Used in cosmetics for skin protection.
6. Used as MRI agents in medical world.
7. Used as proton exchange membrane for fuel cells.
8. Used as lubricants since act as miniature ball bearings.