Introduction to Chemical Bonding

Understanding Chemical Bonds

• Chemical bonding is essential for atoms to achieve stability, often through sharing or
transferring electrons.

• Atoms strive for a stable electron arrangement, typically aiming for eight electrons in
their outer shell (octet rule), except for hydrogen (2) and boron (6).

• The two primary types of bonds are covalent (sharing electrons) and ionic
(transferring electrons).

• Bonding is crucial for the formation of molecules and compounds, influencing their
properties and behaviors.

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Covalent Bonds: Formed between non-metal atoms through the sharing of electrons,
resulting in a stable electron configuration.

• Ionic Bonds: Formed through the electrostatic attraction between positively and
negatively charged ions, typically between metals and non-metals.

Covalent Bonding
Formation of Covalent Bonds

• Covalent bonds occur when two positive nuclei attract a shared pair of electrons,
creating a stable bond.

• Diagrams can illustrate how outer electrons are shared, leading to the formation of
molecules.

• Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) through
covalent bonding.

Orbital and Dot & Cross Diagrams

• Orbital Diagrams: Visual representations showing the arrangement of electrons in an

atom's outer shell, crucial for understanding bonding.

• Dot & Cross Diagrams: Used to depict how electrons are shared between atoms in
covalent bonds, highlighting shared pairs and valency.

Shapes of Covalent Molecules

 • The shape of covalent molecules is determined by the number of bonds and their
orientation around the central atom.

• Common shapes include linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal, and tetrahedral, each
influencing the molecule's properties.

Properties of Covalent and Ionic

Compounds
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

• Covalent molecular substances have strong covalent bonds within molecules but weak
intermolecular forces, leading to low melting and boiling points.

• They do not conduct electricity due to the absence of free-moving charged particles.

• Solubility varies; some covalent compounds dissolve in solvents other than water.

Characteristics of Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds exhibit high melting and boiling points due to the strength of ionic
bonds in lattice structures.

• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, where the lattice breaks apart, allowing
ions to disperse.

• Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in solution, as ions
are free to move.

Diatomic Elements and Molecular

Structures
Diatomic Elements

• The seven diatomic elements are: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, which exist as pairs of
atoms bonded covalently.

• These elements are essential in various chemical reactions and biological processes.

Types of Covalent Structures

• Discrete Covalent Molecular: Composed of individual molecules held together by

weak forces, with strong covalent bonds within each molecule.
 • Covalent Network: A continuous network of strong covalent bonds, resulting in high
melting and boiling points and typically insoluble in solvents.

Molecular Shapes and Their Descriptions

Overview of Molecular Shapes

• Covalent molecular substances exhibit various shapes due to the arrangement of

atoms and electron pairs around a central atom.

• The VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory helps predict the
geometry of molecules based on electron pair repulsion.

• Common molecular shapes include linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal

pyramidal, and angular (non-linear).

Specific Molecular Shapes

• Ammonia (NH3): Trigonal Pyramidal shape due to one lone pair of electrons on
nitrogen, which pushes down the hydrogen atoms.

• Methane (CH4): Tetrahedral shape as it has four hydrogen atoms symmetrically

arranged around the carbon atom.

• Water (H2O): Angular/Non-Linear shape due to two lone pairs on oxygen, which
repel the hydrogen atoms.

• Bromine (Br2): Linear shape as it consists of two bromine atoms bonded together
without any lone pairs.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Linear shape due to the double bonds between carbon and
oxygen, with no lone pairs on the central atom.

Types of Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonding

• In covalent bonding, atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer shell, leading to
stable electron arrangements.

• Non-metals typically form covalent bonds by sharing electrons, resulting in molecular

compounds.

• Example: Water (H2O) is formed by the covalent bonding of two hydrogen atoms
with one oxygen atom.

Ionic Bonding
 • Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals, where electrons are transferred
rather than shared.

• Metals lose electrons to form positively charged ions (cations), while non-metals gain
electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions).

• Example: Sodium (Na) loses one electron to become Na+, and chlorine (Cl) gains one
electron to become Cl-.

• The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions forms a strong ionic
bond, resulting in a lattice structure.

Metallic Bonding

• Metallic bonding involves the attraction between positively charged metal ions and
delocalized electrons.

• Delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the metal structure, contributing to
properties like electrical conductivity and malleability.

• Example: In copper (Cu), the metallic bonds allow for the conduction of electricity
due to the movement of delocalized electrons.

Properties of Substances Based on Bonding

Melting Points

• The melting point of a substance is influenced by the type of bonding present:

o Covalent Molecular: Low melting points due to weak intermolecular forces.

o Covalent Network: Very high melting points due to strong covalent bonds
throughout the structure.

o Ionic Lattice: Very high melting points due to strong ionic bonds between
ions.

• Example Table:

Substance Bonding Melting

Type Point (°C)
Magnesium Ionic 714
Chloride
Phosphorus Covalent 44
Molecular
Silicon Covalent 1713
Dioxide Network
Ammonia Covalent -78
Molecular
Water Covalent 0
Molecular
Barium Ionic 961
Chloride
Calcium Ionic 2613
Oxide

Solubility

• Solubility refers to the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a liquid (solvent).

• Substances can be classified as soluble (dissolve) or insoluble (do not dissolve).

• When a solid dissolves, the forces of attraction holding its particles together are
broken, and new attractions form between solute and solvent molecules.

Solubility of Substances
Aim and Apparatus

• The aim of Experiment 3.1 is to determine the solubility of various substances in

different bonding structures.

• Apparatus includes:

o Bottle of Acetone

o Tap Water

o Selection of Substances (e.g., Sodium Chloride, Potassium Nitrate)

o Beakers (x2)

o Stirring Rods (x2)

o Spatula

Methodology

• Half fill a beaker with water and add one spatula of sodium chloride, stirring to
observe solubility.
 • Record whether sodium chloride is soluble or insoluble in water.

• Repeat the process using acetone instead of water for the same substance.

• Continue this for all substances listed in the results table.

Results and Observations

Substance Bonding Solubility Solubility

Type in Water in
Acetone
Sodium Ionic Soluble Insoluble
chloride
(NaCl)
Potassium Ionic Soluble Insoluble
nitrate
(KNO3)
Calcium Ionic Insoluble Insoluble
carbonate
(CaCO3)
Sand (SiO2) Covalent Insoluble Insoluble
Network
Wax Covalent Insoluble Soluble
(C40H82) Molecular
Sugar Covalent Soluble Soluble
(C12H22O11) Molecular
Sulfur (S8) Covalent Insoluble Insoluble
Molecular

Conclusion

• Ionic compounds generally exhibit higher solubility in aqueous solvents compared to

non-aqueous solvents.

• Covalent molecules tend to be more soluble in non-aqueous solvents.

• Covalent networks are typically insoluble in any solvent.

Electrical Conductivity of Substances

Aim and Apparatus

• The aim of Experiment 3.2 is to determine the electrical conductivity of various

bonding structures.

• Apparatus includes:
 •

o Graphite electrodes

o Bulb

o Crocodile Clips (x2)

o Wires (x3)

o Selection of Solids, Liquids & Solutions

Methodology

• Test the bulb to ensure functionality before starting the experiment.

• Set up the equipment as directed, ensuring electrodes do not touch each other when
placed in the substance.

• Record whether the bulb lights up for each solid, liquid, or solution tested.

Results and Observations

Substance Bonding Electrical Electrical Electrical

Type Conductivity Conductivity Conductivity
(Solid) (Liquid) (Solution)
Sugar Covalent No No No
(C12H22O11) Molecular
Water (H2O) Covalent No No No
Molecular
Sand (SiO2) Covalent No No No
Network
Graphite (C) Covalent Yes Yes Yes
Network
Sodium Ionic No Yes Yes
chloride
(NaCl)
Potassium Ionic No Yes Yes
nitrate
(KNO3)

Conclusion

• Covalent molecules do not conduct electricity in any state due to the absence of free-
moving electrons or ions.
 • Graphite is an exception among covalent networks, as it has delocalised electrons that
allow it to conduct electricity.

• Ionic compounds conduct electricity only in liquid or solution form, as ions are free to
move.

Electrolysis of Ionic Compounds

Aim and Apparatus

• The aim of Experiment 3.3 is to demonstrate that electricity can break down ionic
compounds.

• Apparatus includes:

o Beaker

o Graphite Electrodes (x2)

o Crocodile Clips (x2)

o Lab Pack

o Wires (x2)

o Copper Chloride Solution

o Electrode Holder

Methodology

• Set the lab pack to 8V without turning it on initially.

• Connect wires to the d.c openings and attach crocodile clips to the electrodes.

• Place electrodes into the copper chloride solution and turn on the lab pack, observing
any changes.

Results and Observations

• At the positive electrode, bubbles of gas are produced, which smell like chlorine.

• At the negative electrode, red/brown copper metal forms.

Conclusion
 • The experiment confirms that ionic substances can be decomposed using electricity
when in solution or molten form.

• Copper ions (Cu2+) are attracted to the negative electrode, gaining electrons to form
copper atoms, while chloride ions (Cl-) are attracted to the positive electrode, losing
electrons to form chlorine gas.

Colors of Ions and Density

Color Identification of Ions

• The color of an ionic compound is determined by the ions it contains.

• If a compound is colorless, all its ions are also colorless; if colored, at least one ion
must be colored.

• Example: Sodium chloride is colorless, while copper chloride is blue due to the
copper ion.

Experiment 3.4 – Colors of Ions

Ion Color
Copper Blue
Cobalt Pink
Potassium Colorless
Nickel Green
Sodium Colorless
Carbonate Colorless
Chloride Colorless
Permanganate Purple
Nitrate Colorless
Chromate Yellow
Dichromate Orange
Sulfate Colorless

Conclusion on Colors of Ions

• All colored ions contain metals, which contribute to their distinct colors.

Density of Substances

• Density is a characteristic property defined as mass per unit volume.

• The arrangement and mass of atoms influence the density of a substance.

• Higher density substances will settle at the bottom when mixed with lower density
substances.