|3LEGTKICCHAKGES AND FIELDS

Basic Properties of Coulomb's Law Electric Field : Electric Electric Dipole : Every dipole is Electric Flux: Electric
Charges field intensity at a associated with a dipole moment flux over an area in an
-i2 for like charges point distant r from a p whose magnitude is equal to electric field represents
point charge q in air is the product of the magnitude of the total number of
492 i, for unlike charges either charge (q) and the distance electric field lines
4TE r 2a between the charges, i.e., crossing this area.
p=qx (2a).
Quantization of charge :
Field lines start
Total charge on a body is always an Basic Two field Dipole in an external field
integral multiple of a basicunit of from positive
characteristics lines can experiences
charge denoted by e and is given by charges and of
end at negative electric field never cross
q=tne
lines each other.
charges. Torque
Conservation of charge : Ëi=pxE or t =pE sin.
Total charge of an isolated system Electrostatic field
remains unchanged with time. lines do not form
Gauss's Theorem:Total normal
any closed loops. electric flux over a closed surfaceS
Additivity of charge : in vacuum is 1/e times the charge
Total charge of a system is the
Using Electric field ()contained inside the surface.
algebraicsum (i.e. sum taking into Superposition
account with proper signs) of all due to dipole
Principle
individual charges in the system.
The vector sum Force between two On Equatorial line On Axial line
of forces would charges is unaffected (Broad on position) (End on position) Applications
give us the total by the presence of the E= 1 P
force. 4TE0 3
E= 2p
other charges.
1 .
4TEGr
Gaussian surface

volume charge density, p = 9 linear charge density, h=1

BRAIN
MAP
E=
4TE, R2
surface charge density, o =
1 Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell A
E=

At a point outside the shell i.e., r> R, E= Electric field due to Electric field due to an
4Te r 3e,r a uniformly charged infinitely long thin uniformly
! E=0 1 infinite thin plane sheet,
On the surface r =R, E= charged straight wire,
R 4TE, R' E=
For uniformly charged spherical shell Inside the shell i.e., r<R, E= 0 2E0 2TEr
 BRAIN MAP

ELECTROSTATIC POTENtIALAND CAPACITANCE

Electrostatic Potential Capacitor and Capacitance

Work done per unit positive test Rlectrle fietd f between plates Capacitor is used to store
Electrle Potentlal Energy electrical energy. Capacitance is
charge by an external force in Area A
defined as the ratio of the
jbringing a unit positive charge For a system oftwo charges
from infinity to a point in the Charge on the inside of each plate:
charge stored to the potential
presence of another point charge. +Qon the top, -0 on the bottom between the plates.
W
V= C
4TE Relation between Eand
t ypes
ofc:

Equipotential Surface Electrostatic Potential Due dV t Cornbinatíon of Capacitor

Surace having same electrostatic to an Elecctric Dipole different

potential at every point. At any arbitrary point:v PCose

dr E
Properties
Electric field
line of Series cormbination
Capacitances 1 1, 1
At axial point V =P
4TE
Equipotential
At equatorial point V= 0
Do not intersect each Parallel combination
other
Potential energy of a dipole in Parallel plate
capacitor with dielectric slab
At every point
externalfield916 of thickness t
E l surface anlU(e) =pE (cos @, -cos) C=
’When initially at 0, =90° a-1 Electrostatic Shielding
Work done in moving To shield an electronic
a charge is zero Wnet =0
Parallel plate circuit from external
Ycapacitor flled with dielectric0held by
Closely spaced in the
Air filled parallel
plate capacitor
surrounding it
region of strong field and d / withconducting walls.
vice-versa. C=
d
Parallel plate
Electric Potential due to Uni
capacitor with metallic
conductor inserted in it
Lightning Conductor
formly Charged Spherical Shell Spherical capacitor C=
ab (d-t) Lightning conductors
Outside the shell
V = 92;r>R
C=4Te0 b-a fitted above the highest
part of a building to
On the shell
i protect atall building from
being struck by lightning.
V=
4TE, R
;r=R V= 1 9
4TE) R
Inside the shell
V=
4TE, R
V Energy Stored in a CapacitorEnergy Density
U1
Electric Potential Due to a
Non-Conducting Solid Sphere
U=
or'-hav 2 C
u=
V

inside the sphere

outside the sphere on the sphere i.e.,
V=, 1 q(3R²-r)..
;r<R/
V=. r>R 4TE, R r=R 2R

Oeshe
 " " V=
IR"
Effective Effective
Resistivitysectional
Resistance
Conductance,G=
nductivity, o: Frequencyv=speed
Currentat
ofrevolution In
I-_ne
case
urrent Ohm's
v, of
Conductance
Density,
Current specific specific area
period
any an
nsity, or of Law,
specific uniform
A, point electron
Conductivity
and R- of Current
S=
resistance resistance Resistance revolution Electric
J
E R 1 resistance, AP of
Ag)PP2
AP2 t (A
AgP1 + the revolving
RA conductor
orbit
in in is
parallel series 2rr T= in
= is
nevd p and I 27r a
same).(A
is is
combination = of == circle
same).(lis
combination lengthResistivity
27 of
radius
l
and
is r
cross with

Drift "
" " " Law I=0i.e., Law
[ junction,
=2IRi.e.,closed
loop,
" Drift
R=
terms
= Mobility,
Current
In neAvaI=
Velocity of of
Electricity
Current ELECTRICITY
CURRENT
etA speed, conservation
conservation VI=P=
ml Kirchhoff's
Laws Electric
Power
of in
terms u, va
relaxation
andp= time T, =d
AtEne
m E =:
and I'R=
m eE
of Mobility of
drift of R
net m =neAue7
neAu,E velocity,
= charge
energy

applied
of applied
Charge
at
in a
If
Temperature
T
" " " legscalculates It
resistence = Variation
Terminal
Terminal the
V=E+Ir Emf 0°C
O o ofidentical
Grouping
cells: P
o Internal cell, of
Emf, of and
Cells Cells Cells R the
a coefficient
in
V cell, Internal
potential bridge by the T, of
in in resistance
series,
potential =8-Ir
balancing =T°C Resistance
mixedparallel,
E= Wheatstone
Bridge
of unknown
difference Grouping circuit thenresistance, of
ping, I= difference
of Resistance,
I=R+nr
mR+r
m[
n[ cell, a two a
with
where XT
RÍ
I= r=R when a.=
mR
+
n of Temperature
current Current
mn[
cells)(mcells)(n the Cells R(T,-T)
or Ry
-R
cell
R=
is B
is being in
D
Ro
being (l
drawn case
+
charged aT)
from
 (MoN)IlBg=Monl= kR=TRsensitivity:
Vs Voltage
solenoid NAB constant8alvanometer NAR
carrying current atodue Magnetic
field sensitivity:
= =Ig Current
0_NAB proporIt=ioGO.nalto directly galvanG=komeis
deflectio n
or 0oc ter Where
(0),I
its
Galvanomethtthreeorugh passing Coil MoCurvinrgentI
2rtr
point current
Iaat
2Ta carrying radius
a,
B= of wirestraight Voltmeter Galvanometer
into
infinitely
long anto
ir<a 2ra due fieldMagnetic
Conversion2A
u-1)
=4o $B.dl
path. closed bounded
by area W
S
through passing current thtimes
e hoto Ammeter Galvanometer
into
d
elmagnetic
equal' fiis integral
of line *The fielmagnet
d ic sin uniMB =sin
Circuital
Law Ampere's carrying form T=NIAB a
current ona Torplaqin
ueced coil
MAGNETISM AND
CHARGES MOVING
m) g
X sin9 ldl Ho dB
B B distance. the square
XX X X VT= inversely of with
2Ttm 2tR aelement
nd length
revolution period
of Time " witdirectly
h varies fieldMagneticandcurrent
B
Biot-Savart
Law
qB qB qB
r-P2mEx
2rnqV rod. the centre
of through
the F
acts force This 47(a'+xn
patcircular
h Radiofus j" F=Idi,
xB) 2rNla Ho B
wire, anFor carrying
coil
my ×B=I*×B) ( Ashape
)ofarbitrary
= current circular the of
laxis
given chargeis movíng onMagnetic as (nevaAl]xB (nADevax =B) =Fm the on
point fiaat
eldMagnetic /
FieldMagnetic Transverseforce "
Uniform Conductor Carrying
Charge
in on
Motiof Current aon
ForceMagnetic 2aHB=
coicircular
l
ssibeoe centaofre the fiat
eldMagnetic
4T
22 conductors
o Fís parallel two
currentsin q(vxB) E,=
acton due length conductor
l
ingrepulsion toatttraction of each giby
ven
or forceof The chargeis experienced
the by B
forcemagnetic then B, with
repelcurrents angl0e makes an thùat such
F antiparallel fimagnetic
eB
ld uniform ain V
velocity with moving chargeq A (p)= Pitch
currentswhile attract
Parallel ForceMagnetic
experienced force
is no path helical
=
(F0) pathcircular attain wil charge and sin qvB F=
0B,9= v|| For attain willcharge arbitrary For
qvB Fmay 90°, 0B, V
For 90°) (<angle0
MAGNETISM CHARGES
AND MOVING
MAP BRAIN
 oes BRAIN MAP
y MAGNETISM AND MATTER
THE BAR MAGNET
| GAUSSS LAW IN MAGNETISM
Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid Magnetism and Gauss's Law
Eor solenoid oflength 2l and radius a consisting n The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
urns per unit length, the magnetic field is given by
all all
R " 0 (where m= magnetic moment of solenoid
4n3 Incoming magnetic flux = Outgoing magnetic flux
= n (2l) I(ra?))
" The Gauss's law of magnetismn shows that isolated
magnetic poles (monopoles)does not exíst. There are no
sources or sinks of B. A dipole or current loop is the
" Magnetic dipole : Amagnetic dipole consists of simplest magnetic element.
two unlike poles of equal strength and separated
by a small distance. For e.g., a bar magnet, a
compass needle etc., are magnetic dipoles.
"Magnetic dipole moment : It is defined as the
product of strength of either pole (m) and the
magnetic length (2l) of the magnet. It is denoted
by M
Magnetic dipole moment = strength of either
pole x magnetic length
M=m(2)

Magnetic Dipole in Magnetic Field

Torque on magnetic dipole,
T=MB sin CW

Torque on coilor loop, B(uniform) Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity

7-MxB, here M= NIA, Relation between B, Xm and H blei
7=NI¤% B), T=BINA Sin0 asoslosloanue
aiapae
Plane of coil
8= 90° ’Tmay= B=L(H+) (? Bo =LH)
=0° or 180° ’T BINAenee(jioe
=0brs A hod B=Ho(1+ Xm)H=uH (::I =XmH) tsdt
Potential energyyof magnetic dipole,
U=-MB cos =-MB bis (A) dtos u=hol,=(1+m) ’u,=1+m
Poor Diamagneticin
magnetisation
on. nalongooppositeoi
diHererectiB,<Bo CLASSIFICATION OF Ferromagneticin
Strong magnetisation
MAGNETIC MATERIALS direction. Here B,m>>>Bo
same

90631itale
M

Paramagnetic
Poor magnetisation
in same direction.
eupe owi oin ’ Very large, positive and
Here B,n>Bo
m’Smal
negative and,
temperature dependent

XmT To
1
(Curie-Weiss law)

itnedemperpenadeturnet
Km ’ Small, positive and varies (for T> T)
X
moc T inversely with temperature
T (Curie's law)
 BRAIN MAP

ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION
Combination of Inductors
MagneticEnergy Inductors in series, L =L, +L, t 2M oApplication of
Lenz's Law
inductor. Inductors in parallel, Lp Ly- M " i i When north pole of a bar
a
Energystoredinan LË+L, +2M magnet is rmoved towards a coil,
n fcoilsare far away, then M= 0. the current induced in the coil
solenoid, oo So, Lg = L +L, and L, = will be in antí-clockwise
Energystoredinthe L+Ly directíon (and vice versa) as
shown in the figure.
Magneticenergy density, 8cSrioolSritetto
B

Inductance
Emfinduced in the coil/conductor, [ = -L

Coefficient ofselfinduction, L o.=se

dI l dt
Selfinductance ofa long solenoid, L= Loh.n'Al = Ho,N A
Induced Electric Mutual inductance. M- N2-E, Lenz's Law
Field (dl, / dt) (dl, I dt) The direction of the induced
"kis produced by change in Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids, current is such that it opposes
magnetic field in a region. This
is non-conservative in nature. M=Hok, rnl Hok, N,N,4, the change that has produced it.
lo If a current is induced by an
dB Coefficient of coupling, k = increasing(decreasing) flux, itË
0
dt dt will weaken (strengthen) the
This is also known as integral For perfect coupling, k=l so, M=J , original flux.
form of Faraday's law. It is a consequence of the law of
conservation ofenergy.

MagneticFlux and Faraday's Law

Magneticflux ¢ =B"¢= BA Cos 0
Faraday's law : Whenever magnetic flux linked with a coil
changes, an emfis inducedin thecoil. lett atsriscshbo2 aoolnala A
Induced emf, e =-N: dt
Energy Consideration Induced current, I=E d Ø ; /dt)
in Motional emf R R
Emfinthe wire, &
=Bvl Induced charge flow, AQ = IAt = -N ,Ap
nduced current, I= Byl R
AC Generator
Force exerted on the R R

R
wire,69 . Mechanical energy is
converted into electrical
energy by virtue of electro
R
magneticinduction.
Power required to move the
91osvlaa A Motional emfoaksd.0 Inducedemf,UpzA
E-NABO sinot=&hsinot
On astraight conducting wire, [ =Bvl Bol " Induced current,on
is dissipatedasR loule's On arotating conducting wire about one end, &= 2
I=
NBAo -sin ot = I, sin ot
other.
heat. Here, B, v(= or) and I are perpendicular to each R
 BRAIN MA ntrod

ALTERNATINGCURRENT

Th
feg u rs
eh
Alternating Current
Current which changes Transformer
Transformer ratio
afou
devic
r

slernating
+E0-T AC voltage continuously in magnitude
direction.
3n/2 2r andperiodicallyin
&0Half cyde Efficiency of atransformer.
Onefaulcc output power
input power

Alternating voltage Step-up transformer,

E= E sin ot E_>Ep lslpand Nç>N,
Step-down transforme,
Applied across Applied across resistor Applied across Eg<Eplg> Ipand Ng<Np
capacitor inductor a) P

Purely capacitive circuit Purely resistive circuit Purely inductive circuit

Current leads the voltage by a Alternating voltage is in Current lags behind the voltage by a 72 AC Volta
phase angle of r/2. iphase with current. phase angle of r/2. MCQ
I=Ipsin(ot +a/2);1, == oCe
Xç
I=s/R=Isinot I=l,sin(ot-n/2);l,=E/X;=E,/ol 2 The rms currer
where Xç= 1/oC whereX=oL sOurce is 15 A.
1
Combining L,C, Rin series s after t
600
15
Series LCR circuit A
Power in ac circuit
8=E, sinot, I=l, sin(ot-¢) Circuit diagram V2
Average power (Pa)
Pay =Emsrms Cos ¢ Impedance of the 1 circuit:Z=R+(X, -Xç)
A

Co.cos Where, X, =oL, X 0C

Phase difference between IA ACVolta
2
current and voltage is
tan X,-X¢
R C
Iis same for R,Land
Power factor ForX>XoQis +ve.
. Power factor : cos = R For (Predominantlyinductive)
X<X¢is-ve. (Predomi
Phasor diagram
Anauraelcretviadstnoltahgiete isvo
" In pure resistive circuit, Z nantly capacitive) VLt

=0; cos )=1 Vct

In purely inductive or Resonant series LCR circuit "If V,> V then
capacitive circuit
=+" cos =0
When X.=XoZ=R, current
becomes maximum. aV-vc lags the vol
VR A
" In series
LCR circuit, Resonant frequency 0, = VLC "If Ve> Vthen leads the
. Atresonance, X=Xç OE12101 vo
Z=R and =0, cos =1 i9
It is aQuality factor gEsrbo Vc- V lags the vol
measure of sharpness of
resonance. IS marks
Q
RVC Defn coe
 Dispacevem

It is he currentwhich is NNodied
produced when electric feld Ampereslaw
Ampere's and hence electric flux
This law implies the fac that not
circuital law changes with tíme. only a conduction current but a
The line integral of magnetic dt displacement current, associated with a
held around any closed path in ELECTROMAGNETIC hanging electric ield, also produces
vacuun is cqual to uo times the magnetic field.
WAVES
Properties of
total current passing through An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an
that closed path. accelerated charge as coupled electric and magnetic field
B-d =yollc +lp)
electromagnetic waves
" Do not carry any charge. oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
It is not deflected by electric and propagation of wave.
magnetic field. MaxwelI's four
" Travels with speed of light in vacuum. equations
"Frequency does not change when it goes from
one medium to another, but its wavelength 1. Ed-9 2.
changes. Direction of propagation
Transverse in nature.
Magnitude of Eand B are related as o -=C dt
" Does not require any material Bo
medium for propagation. Speed of an electromagnetic wave in free 4 GB=Ho(lc +Ip)
space is given by
Electromagnetic
spectrum
The orderly distribution of
electromagnetic waves in
accordance with their
wavelength or frequency into
Ultraviolet
distinct groups. Infrared Can cause many chemical X-rays
" Useful for elucidating Visible light reactions, e.g., the tanning of Gamma rays
Micro Wavee Penetrate matter (e.g. radiography). In the treatment of
molecular structure. Detected by stimulating the human skin.
Radar communication Ionize gases. cancer and tumours.
Useful for haze nerve endings ofhuman Lonize atoms in atmosphere, Cause fluorescence.
Analysis of fine details of
photography. retina. resulting in the ionosphere.
Radiowaves molecular and atomic " Can cause chemical
Cause photoelectric emission from
metals.
Used in radio structure. reaction.
Uses
communication

X-rays Gamma rays

Radio
Microwave
Infrared Visible
WwwwWwUN
Ultraviolet

Radiation Type 10-9 to 10-12 <10-12

10-3 to 10-6 7x 10-7 to 4x10-7 4X 10-7 to 1.5 X10-9
10-1 to 10-3
Wavelength (m) > 10-1
 n
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICA1,
BRAIN MAP
REFRACTION THROUGH PRIINSTRUMENTS
OPTICALFIBRES olbt b
transmittingoptical SM
throughlong distance.
the
ve POWER OF LENSES
basedon
fibresare
al ofT7R.
heomenon Power of lens: P
Combination fin my
of leDses
Power: P
(d small P+P,- dP P,
TOTALINTERNAL REFLECTION
lenses) separation between the
For d =0 (lenses in
YIRonditions
travellfrom denser to rarer
Relation between ji and ., Power: P= P +Py contact)
+P,ta
Lahtmst where, angle
edium.i9b
anglei minimun
jnidentanglei>critical A=angle of prism THIN SPHERICAL LENS
i:u
Reationbetweenuand sin i Thín lens formula: 1 1
925 or =(u-1)A (Prism ofsmall angle)
Magnification: m
==
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
from
nel's law: When light travels siniiecta REFRACTION BY SPHERICALSURFACES
medium ato medium b, "u, = sinr6VE Relation between object distance (u), image
Refractiveindex, distance (v) and refractive index ()
velocity oflight in vaccum denser Prarer denserrarer (Holds for
velocity of light in medium R any curved
Lens maker's formula spherical
Baland apparent depthvsho 1 surface.)
real depth ()
apparent depth ()
REFLECTION BY SPHERICAL
REFLECTION OF LIGHT MIRRORS
Acording to the laws of reflection, RAY OPTICS Mirror formula, 1,11
t 2
Li=Lr u v f R
lfaplane mirror is rotated by an AND OPTICAL
Magnification, m=-= h
angle9, the reflected rays rotates by INSTRUMENTS
ahn angle 20.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
onaavs Magnifying power, M=m,xm,
MagniOT Tinalfying powerto " For final image formed at D(least
image be formed at D
last distance)M=l+uese odDoo
sopni2lbgiteo distance) M=
hor final image . For final image formed at infinity
formed at
D infinity M=
L D

9M62 r HwoioTELESCOPE
Astronomical telescope TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE

MEFLECTING TELESCOPE al6 j For final image formed at D (least

agnityiMlo_
ng power RI2 distance) M=
Fornormal adjustment M=

Distance between objective

and
In normal adjustment, image formed eyepieced=+4f+f
at infinity M=-f/f
 BRAIN MAP
WAVE OPTICS
principle
Accordingto Huygens principle,
wavefront)
give wavefront (primary INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
gons on
eYpoinl source of
new disturbance, called sec-
The superposition of two
Mry
naveets.
wavelets
TNsmdary medium.
t in all the directions
spreadout, pattern of alternating dark andcoherent waves resulting in a
bright fringes of equal width.i
sovdoflightin the Position of bright fringes x, = nD
secondary wavelets tangen-
the touchingthese
e torwarddirection at any instant gives the Position of dark fringes = (Zn- 1)D
inthe
Aw(800ndary) wavetront at that instant. sin i 2d
aby refraction
i= Lrand law of D
" Fringe width B = 2D
Aoretlection sin r
Huygens wave theory. Ratio of slit width with
iby
explained intensity W
atbe Young
D 's
ouble

S lE
itxperiment

COHERENT SOURCES ADDITION OF

acobotiThe source which emit continuous COHERENT WAVE
ilight waves of same " Intensity distributíon : If a,
wavelength,
/same frequency and in same phase i
b are
the
amplitudes of interfering waves
Forward moving VSiare coherent sources. due to two coherent sources and
wavefront ol Incoherent Sources is constant phase difference between
Superposition ! Two sources of light which do the two waves at any point P, then
Waves
e!not emit light waves with a the resultant amplitude at P will be
Light
constant phase difference are
s
of
called incoherent source. R=Ja' +b' +2ab cos
HUYGENS
WAVE THEORY Resultant intensity
Erery point on a wave Secondary Barrier with Light IR= I, +I, t+ 2 7|, cos
oat may be considered as wavelets narrow slit intensity For bright fringes,
SOurce of secondary Imax =(Ij +/,) at = 0°, 2TT, 4T..
sherical wavelets which Single Slit
B For dark fringes,
^pread out in the forward Diffraction Imin =(I,-;)² at = 1, 31, 5T..
drection at the speed of
ht The new wavefront is Arai For i =h=lo;lR= 4/hcos 2
be tangential surface to Backwave (absent)
oí these secondary 8 (With zero intensity) Imax
-D
Wavelets at a later
Huygen Fresnel Imin

Principle
FRESNEL'S DISTANCE
iRay optics as a limiting case ofwave optics /
o2 S r i . Diffraction at circular
aperture Single slit
DIFFRACTION
experiment
Linear spread, x= Z0 e-1.22 al Angular position of nth minima, O, =
Areal spread, x²=(ze)² | a
rswarli vd bsine vi Fresnel's distance: Distance at which
" Angular position of nth maxima, 0,= 2n t1A
2a
i
diffraction spreada/s equal to the size Width of central maximum Bo=2ß= 2DA
of aperture, Z;=
Size of Fresnel zone, ap= Z

"The locus
De of all oi teasoo
particles
De-Spherpendiincgal shape of thesourcesmedium vibrating
on the
WAVEFRONT
in the same phase at a given instant is known as wavefront.a8C
of of light,
wavefront
wavef
-CwaPlyavlneienfårorwavefront r
t:
ont:
When the source of light is a
of light is
can be of three types
inctal wavefrontWhen theWhenpointthe source pointlinear,source,wavefront
the
the wavefront spherical.
is
cylindrical.
is
or linear source of light is at very large distance, a small portion of spherical or cylindrical
appears be plane. source
to
Such a wavefront is known as plane wavefront.
oipaita aniehena 2oadogalsHom the oetal
oi gnibica
pienon
BRAIN E l e c t r o

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION ANDMATTER

botioe e e n e ro
g y
f

(6
a

Photoelectric Cel Electron Microscope

Photocell An electrical device Electron microscope is a
Radiant energy Evacuated device designed to study
chamber which converts light Photo

very minute objects,swe

energy into
electrical energy, is Based on principle of de

Positive
-Metal
surface called as photocell
or photoelectric cell.
Broglie wave and the fast
moving electrons can be
de-Broglie Wavelength
h
one
of

terminal
Current It works on the focussed by E or B field in For electron havingKE.(Kis Whc
o h

e m i s s i oo
n f

a same way as beam of

Voltage I indicator h
source principle of iradate
b dy
,here p=mk
For a J2mk
photoelectric light is focussed by glass
a Rubidiu
emission of
electrons.
lenses.
charged
accelerated by particle
potential Vis e Cadmiu

Effect V2qm here p=2am' A mark

Photoelectric

Define
thete
Particle Nature
DUAL NATURE OF Wave Nature
of
of Radiation RADIATION AND MATTER of Matter Broglie
WavesGo
oplication
emission.
Appli

Definethete
Photoelectric Effect
" Variation of stopping potential ofphotoele
The phenomenon of emission of
electrons from a metal surface when
V, with frequency v of incident
radiation:
de-Broglie
Due to
Hypothesis Definethe
an electromagnetic wave of suitable symmetry in
the particle in motionnature,
also electromag
frequency is incident on it is called
photoelectric effect.
1 possess wave-like properties.
And these waves are called
Stopping Metal A
potential matter waves.
(V)
Metal B

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation Frequency of incident

radiation (u)
E= Kmax + o, where o = work function, Variation of photocurrent with
E=energy of incident light, "The wave packet description of an electron: The Eect of |
collector plate potential for wave packet corresponds to a spread d
Kmax maximum KE of e
different intensity of incident wavelength around some central wavelength (and NCO
radiation :
hence by de Broglie relation, aspread
momentum), Consequently, it is associated with he worle
Photocurtent an uncertainty in position (Ax) and an uncertimy
in momnentum (Ap). 315 eV.
Stopping
potential
Saturatiog
Current
dh electrc
Experimental Study and Conclusion
-V
Retarding
150
Collector plate
of Photoelectric Effect potential potential 375
Variation of
collector platephotocurrent
At constant frequencyv and potential V with
(Photo-current) i, <I(intensity)
" At constant frequency and intensity, the radiation:
potential for
different frequencies of incident The matter
(a) Alocalísed wave packet deinite
wave corresponding to a
momentum of an electron extends all over spa
sertike
minimum negative potential at which the
photocurrent becomes zero is called In thís case,
stopping potential (V,). Photoelectric
current
Ap =0and Ax 0,
At stopping potential V Kmax Ofe = eV
For a given frequency of the incident
radiation, the V, is independent ofI. Saturation
curreat
The V, varies linearly with u. Vos-Vg2-V wavelength
Retardine
potential Collector plate (b) An extended wave with fixed
potential
 lbdgenaizalm

Rutherford's Model of Atom

ATOMS

1 (cisrblovbv
" K.E.ofa-particles, K=-my2
AIN ScateringMIangAle D
Alpha particle's
Goldfoil
2 trajectory
approach, aram
"Distance ofclosest
Aphapartes Source 2Ze 1 4Ze2 Nucdeu
4TE K o4To my2
Lead
Detector " Impact parameter, Important Expressions from
1
ze' cot2 Z cot:2 Atomic Model
b= 4TE) Electron orbits and
their
Drawbacks of
Ruthertord's atomic K 4TE)
.Radius permit ed
of
nthenorbi
ergyte
model electromagnetic Conclusion : An atom consists ofa smalland
to " 4n'mkZe
"According aceleratedchargeparticde massive central core in which entire
positive
theor;an
always radiates
energy. Electrons
of orbit charge and whole mass of
atom is Velocity of electron in nh orht.
anditsradius 2TkZe?
losesitsenergy
continuouslyandfinallyit
concentrated
nh
decreases nucdeus. But in n

wouldspiral into the collapse. e92 aidT " Energy of electron in nth orbit
practicalatomsdo not cinabeal-2r'mk'z
revolving in any orbit E,= 1
" An electron all ta"oil i nth
emits continuous radiation of
elements
ATOMS Enlksiogcd where the symbols have their uSual
wavelengths. Actually the
spectral lines of meanings.
are found to emit allof
definite frequencies and not
them. cesfegnoussinoi brnsi lonization Energy and lonization
Bohr's Model of Atombs8io (rgnela Potential al2io
" Bohr developed a theory of hydrogen and Ionization energy and potential of
hydrogen like atoms which have only one
orbital electron. an electron in hydrogen atom for n
state. 13.62
Angular momentum of the electron in a e
" Ionization energy
stationary orbit is an integral multiple of
h/2T.A 13.62
nh nol nhis srit nisic "Ionization potential =
i.e., L= or, nvr =
Radiated light of every shorter. 2T 2Tt

Atomic Spectra Series limit

Maximum
wavelength
Lines
found

Initial Final Wavelength First member n,’ oo to n, (u,+1)ton,

formula second member
state state
(b)
Lyman From oo to
From2 to
4 UVregiaa
n, =2 to n,=1 =3R
n,=2, 3, R = 1216¢
n,=3 to n, = 1
Line Spectra of 4, 5, 6, ...

"While transitionHydrogen Atom From3 to2 Visible

Balmer From oo to 2
between different 36 region

atomic levels, light radiated in n=3,4,

n, =2
n=3 to n, =2
n,=4 to n,=2
R
5R
=6563¢
5,6, 7,...
various discrete 2 = 3646 A
frequencies
called spectral series of
are Paschen From oo to 3
From4 to3
144
IR
regio
atom. hydrogen n,=4, 5,
6,7, 8,... "=3
n, =4to n,-3 2=18753A
7R

"Rydberg formula: Brackett

n, =5to n =3 A=8204 ¢
From oo to 4
From5 to
400
4
region
Wave number = 1 n, =5 to n,=4
16
=R n-5,6,
1,8,9,. n=4 n=6 to n,=4 2= 14585 Å
R 2=40515A

to5
Pfund
R=Rydbergs
=1.097 x10const
m-1ant M6,7, n, =6 to n,=5
From oo to 5
From6

1=74583Á
900
region

8,9, 10,... n=5 R

n,=7to n,=5 2=22790¢
siiahs ar otnobesobbnt ylbotocg Jnaszio
sdmunt catolbbim toaialbun odgn
BRAIN MA
NUCLEI

Binding Energy Curve The main features of the curve

E
Itis curve drawn between binding energy per nucleon and mass number as shown in follows:
(MeV)
the figure. The binding energy per nucdeoai
10
nucleon 32G
56Fe
100Mo 127|
practically constant, ie, practial
184W independent of the atomic numba
He 180 197Au 238r for nuclei of middle mass numb
per 14N
energy (30 < A <170). The curve has
6L maximum value of about 8.75 Me
Binding for A= 56 and has a value of7
H
MeV for A = 238.
2H
oriioneor91 Sviog ai The binding energy per nucen
lower for both light n
50 100 150 200 250
Mass number (A) (A <30) and heavy nuclei(4> I

Nuclear Reaction
221
Concept of Binding Energy
A nuclear reaction
is represent
. The binding energy is defined as the surplus
by
energy which the nucleons give up by virtue of A+4>B+b+Q
their attractions when they bound together to
form a nucleus,
NUCLEI nucleus -
where A is the target Bandbure
Bpartice,
-M,l?591 nisoibbe t93to i the impinging is the enes
Ey=(Zm, +(A-Z)m, bounc sbuo itov
O
the products, process.
E, released in the
Binding energy per nucleon = A reaction isreprese
The nuclear b).
A(a,
ed bynotation
nuclearreaction
Composition and Size of Nucleus Qvalue of
m,- m,-M,
Q=(m,+fission the
tis
ieecgiue loi93 Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and :
" Nuclear a he
spliting
neutrons collectively called nucleons, phenomenontwo smalk
more
or
Radius ofa nucleus is proportional to its mass Vcomparablemas
nucleus into
Nuclear Chain Reaction
number as R= RyA/), (R,=1.2 fm) nuclei ofnearly
conditions, the three fusion:tuwoormo
Under suitable " Nuclear offusing stigehe
may cause oni
secondary neutrons phenomenon forma
andfiO21 5salbuld nucleito
further fission of U235 nucleichain lighterr
as nuclear nucdeus
start what is known
reaction. The nuclear
chain reaction Application of Nuclear Reactions ditchyad

Fission
is controlled by .
reproductionfactor (K) Uncontrolled chain reaction: eONTAINMENT
SrRUCTURE

Neutron Principle of atomic bombs, Control rods

production ofneutrons
Pump

rate of .Controlled chain reaction:

rate oflossof
nuetrons Principle of nuclear reactors. Pump
Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the source of
energy in the Sun and Stars,
 Vihttapoon =812% P'dEfcPaciciency=
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D
frequency Output
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44
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-4-2
0Voltage frequency Input =
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max
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increases. potential Rectifier Wave Half
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the
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ac toUsed
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atresistance
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decreases. potential barrier Effective
current. drift
produces movement
regionTransition such and junction
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orDepletion the ofside other
Biased Forward tomove to
forced
Barrier
poten
Contact acarriers
re charge
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current. diffusion
it
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in conduct p-side from difuses
characteristic important most The
tionis p-n aof diference, concentration
holes carrier high toDue "
ioJunction
de p-n Symbol and
ofCharacteristic Junction Formation
p-n of
aged. diodes
get ordinary the where voltage carriers. intrinsic Density
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=n; Hole =n,
iased reverse high occurs
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=where, n;; =1,n=
uA. orderof the flowofcurrent carriers. current
low junction
and the offered
atresistance High semiconductors
having pure The
generated thermally
increases potential barrier Effective
increases layerdepletion Wiof
dth Semiconductors Intrinsic
Characteristics Bias Reverse
.a order
of the flof
ow =e O Electrical
ninl [n,t conductivity,
rrent high junction
and offeredat
resistance Low atoimpurity
m. pentavalent by
dopinga Obtained
decreases potential barrier Effective >>(n,
n):semiconductor n-type
decreases layerdepletion Wiof
dth atom.impurity trivalent by
dopinga Obtained
characteristic Forward
bias >>(n,
n):semiconductor p-type
ed. diois dejunction boundary,p-n continuous
at semiconductors. extrinsic of
ins structure semiconductor
that such n-type an On
basis the impurity.
of to
is p-type
types two arethere doping semiconductorwhose The
wiwhetlhcontact
aannguage, intolbrought
ayman semiconductor due mainlyconductivityis
In Junction
Diode: P-N Semiconductors Extrinsic
Semiconductor
Diode
SEMICONDUCTORS TYPES
OF
SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIALS,ELECTRONICS:
CIRCm SIMPLE ANDDEVICES
P BRAIN