Experience Human Development 15th ed

Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell

Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Chapter 1: The Study of Human Periods of the Life Span

Development ● Division of the life span into periods is a
● Development is lifelong social construction: a concept or
● From the moment of conception, human practice that is an invention of a particular
beings begin a process of change that will culture or society
continue until the last flicker of life ends Influences on Development
● Human development focuses on the ● Although students of development are
scientific study of the systematic interested in the universal processes of
processes of change and stability in development experienced by all normal
people beings, they also study individual
Studying the Life Span differences in characteristics, influences,
● Researchers consider life-span and developmental outcomes
development to be from “womb to womb,” Heredity, Environment, and Maturation
comprising the entire human life span from ● Influences on development can be
conception to death described in two primary ways
● Development can be either positive (e.g., ● Some influences are internal and driven
becoming toilet trained or enrolling in a by heredity and biological processes
college course after retirement) or ○ It consists of the inborn traits and
negative (e.g., once again wetting the bed characteristics provided by a
after a traumatic event or isolating after child’s biological parents
retirement ● Other influences stem from the
● The field of human development itself environment outside the body, starting at
developed, its goals came to include not conception with the prenatal environment
just description but also explanation, in the womb and continuing throughout life
prediction, and intervention ● Many typical changes of infancy and early
○ Describe when most children say childhood, such as the abilities to walk
their first word or how large their and talk, are tied to maturation of the
vocabulary is at a certain age body and brain–the unfolding of a natural
○ Explain how children acquire sequence of physical changes and
language and why some children behavior patterns
learn to speak later than usual Contexts of Development
○ Knowledge may make it possible ● Human beings are social beings. From the
to predict future behavior beginning, they develop within a social
○ An understanding of how language and historical context
develops may be used to intervene ● The nuclear family is a household unit
in development consisting of one or two parents and their
Basic Concepts in Human Development children, whether biological, adopted, or
Domains of Development stepchildren
● Growth of the body and brain, sensory ● The extended family–a multigenerational
capacities, motor skills, and health are network of grandparents, aunts, uncles,
parts of physical development cousins, and more distant relatives–is the
● Learning, attention, memory, language, traditional family form
thinking, reasoning, and creativity make ● Polgamy, a family structure in which one
up cognitive development parents (most commonly the father) is
● Emotions, personality, and social married to multiple spouses, is even more
relationships are aspects of psychosocial unusual
development
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● A family’s socioeconomic status (SES) Normative and Nonnormative Influences

is based on family income and the ● To understand similarities and differences
educational and occupational levels of the in development, there are two types of
adults in the household. Many normative influences: biological or
developmental processes are affected by environmental events that affect many or
SES most people in a society in similar ways
● SES affects developmental processes and and events that touch only certain
outcomes indirectly through the kinds of individuals
homes and neighborhoods people live in ○ Normative age-graded influences
and the quality of nutrition, medical care, are highly similar for people in a
and schooling available to them particular age group
● Culture refers to a society’s or group’s ○ The timing of biological events is
total way of life, including its customs, fairly predictable within a normal
traditions, laws, knowledge, beliefs, range. For example, people don’t
values, language, and physical products, experience puberty at age 35 or
from tools to artworks–all of the behavior menopause at 12
and attitudes that are learned, shared, and ○ Normative history-graded
transmitted among members of a social influences are significant events
group (such as World War II or the
● Individualistic cultures place a priority COVID-19 pandemic) that shape
on personal goals and encourage people the behavior and attitudes of a
to view themselves as distinct individuals historical generation: a group of
● Other cultures are collectivistic and are people who experience the event
more concerned with collective goals and at a formative time in their lives
group dynamics ○ For example, the education of
● An ethnic group consists of people united approximately 80 percent of the
by a distinctive culture, ancestry, religion, world’s children was disrupted
language, or national origin, all of which during the COVID-19 pandemic
contribute to a sense of shared identity when schools shut down in an
and shared attitudes, beliefs, and values attempt to stem the spread of the
● Ethnic minorities are those ethnic groups virus
with national or cultural traditions different ● A historical generation is not the same as
from the majority of the population, and an age cohort, a group of people born at
they are often affected by prejudice and about the same time
discrimination ● Nonnormative influences are unusual
● An ethnic gloss is an overgeneralization events that have a major impact on
that obscures or blurs such variations individual lives because they disturb the
Intersectionality and Inequity in Human expected sequence of the life cycle
Development
○ They are either typical events that
● Intersectionality is an analytic framework happen at an atypical time of life
focused on how a person’s (such as the death of a parent
identities–including characteristics such as when a child is young) or atypical
race, gender, age, sexuality, disability, events (such as surviving a plane
socioeconomic status, and crash)
ethnicity–combine to create differences in
● Taken together, the three types of
discrimination or privilege
influences—normative age-graded,
normative history-graded, and
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

nonnormative—contribute to the 6. their resources of time, energy, talent,

complexity of human development as well money, and social support in varying ways
as to the challenges people experience in 7. Development shows plasticity. Many
trying to build their lives abilities, such as memory, strength, and
Timing of Influences endurance, can be improved significantly
● In a well-known study, Konrad Lorenz with training and practice, even late in life
(1957), an Austrian zoologist, showed that 8. Development is influenced by the
newly hatched goslings will instinctively historical and cultural context. Each
follow the first moving object they see, person develops within multiple
whether it is a member of their species or contexts—circumstances or conditions
not. This phenomenon is called defined in part by maturation and in part
imprinting by time and place
● A critical period is a specific time when a Chapter 2: Theory and Research
given event, or its absence, has a specific Basic Theoretical Issues
impact on development
● A scientific theory of development is a set
○ If a necessary event does not of logically related concepts or statements
occur during a critical period of that seek to describe and explain
maturation, normal development development and to predict the kinds of
will not occur, and the resulting behavior that might occur under certain
abnormal patterns may be conditions
irreversible ● Theory and research are interwoven
● Many aspects of development, even in the strands in the seamless fabric of scientific
physical domain, have been found to study. Theories inspire further research
show plasticity, or modifiability of and predict its results. They do this by
performance, it may be more useful to generating hypotheses, explanations or
think about sensitive periods, times predictions that can be tested by further
when a developing person is especially research
responsive to certain kinds of experiences Issue 1: Is Development Active or Reactive?
The Life-Span Developmental Approach ● Psychologists who believe in reactive
1. Development is lifelong. Each period of development conceptualize the
the life span is affected by what happened developing child as a hungry sponge that
before and will affect what is to come soaks up experiences and is shaped by
2. Development is multidimensional. It this input over time
occurs along multiple interacting ● Psychologists who believe in active
dimensions—biological, psychological, development argue that people create
and social—each of which may develop at experiences for themselves and are
varying rates motivated to learn about the world around
3. Development is multidirectional. As people them
gain in one area, they may lose in another, ● In mechanistic model, people are like
sometimes at the same time machines that react to environmental input
4. Relative influences of biology and culture ● The organismic model sees people as
shift over the life span. The process of active, growing organisms who set their
development is influenced by both biology own development in motion. They initiate
and culture, but the balance between events; they do not just react
these influences changes
5. Development involves changing resource
allocations. Individuals choose to invest
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Issue 2: Is Development Continuous or believed in reactive development, as well

Discontinuous? as qualitative changes over time
● Development is always governed by the ● He proposed three hypothetical parts of
same processes and involves the gradual the personality: the id, the ego, and the
refinement and extension of early skills superego
into later abilities, allowing one to make ● Newborns are governed by the id, which
predictions about future characteristics on operates under the pleasure
the basis of past performance. This type of principle—the drive to seek immediate
change is known as quantitative satisfaction of their needs and desires.
change—a change in number or amount, When gratification is delayed, as it is when
such as height, weight, or vocabulary size infants have to wait to be fed, they begin
● Qualitative change, by contrast, is to see themselves as separate from the
discontinuous and marked by the outside world.
emergence of new phenomena that could ● The ego, which represents reason,
not be easily predicted on the basis of develops gradually during the first year or
past functioning so of life and operates under the reality
principle. The ego’s aim is to find realistic
ways to gratify the id that are acceptable
to the superego, which develops at about
age 5 or 6
● The superego includes the conscience
and incorporates socially approved
“shoulds” and “should nots” into the child’s
value system. The superego is highly
demanding; if its standards are not met, a
child may feel guilty and anxious
● The ego mediates between the impulses
Theoretical Perspectives of the id and the demands of the superego
● Five major perspectives underlie much
influential theory and research on human
development: (1) psychoanalytic, which
focuses on unconscious emotions and
drives; (2) learning, which studies
observable behavior; (3) cognitive, which
analyzes thought processes; (4)
contextual, which emphasizes the impact
of the historical, social, and cultural
context; and (5)
evolutionary/sociobiological, which
considers evolutionary and biological
underpinnings of behavior
Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic
● Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a
Viennese physician and the originator of
the psychoanalytic perspective. He
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

shortly after being introduced to

the methodology, would salivate
before the presentation of the
meat. Once he realized this was
occurring, he investigated this
process, using a “bell” (in actuality,
a metronome) as a predictor for
the meat
○ This was the foundation for
classical conditioning, a type of
learning in which a response
(salivation) to a stimulus (a bell) is
elicited after repeated association
○ with a stimulus that normally elicits
the response (food)
● In operant conditioning, the individual
learns from the consequences of
“operating” on the environment
○ The American psychologist B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990) argued that
an organism—animal or
human—will tend to repeat a
● Psychosocial Development by Erik response that has been reinforced
Erikson (1902–1994) modified and by desirable consequences and
extended Freudian theory by emphasizing will suppress a response that has
the influence of society on the developing been punished
personality. Erikson also was a pioneer in ○ Reinforcement is the process by
taking a life-span perspective which a behavior is strengthened,
Perspective 2: Learning increasing the likelihood that the
● Theorists within the learning perspective behavior will be repeated
argued that development was the result of ○ Punishment is the process by
learning, a relatively long-lasting change which a behavior is weakened,
based on experience or adaptation to the decreasing the likelihood of
environment repetition
● Psychologists at the time also viewed the ○ Reinforcement and punishment
mind as tabula rasa, a blank slate upon can be positive, involving “adding”
which experience could write a stimulus to the environment, or
● Behaviorism is a mechanistic theory that negative, involving the
describes observed behavior as a “subtraction” or removal of a
predictable response to experience stimulus from the environment
● Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov ● The psychologist Albert Bandura (1925-
(1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist 2021) developed many of the principles of
studying the role of saliva in dogs’ social learning theory. Whereas
digestive processes behaviorists see the environment as the
○ While conducting this research, chief impetus for development, Bandura
Pavlov realized that the dogs, (1989) suggested the impetus for
○
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

development is bidirectional. Bandura themselves and what they can

called this concept reciprocal accomplish with assistance
determinism: The person acts on the ○ The supportive assistance with a
world as the world acts on the person task that parents, teachers, or
● Classic social learning theory maintains others give a child is known as
that people learn appropriate social scaffolding
behavior chiefly by observing and imitating ● The information-processing approach
models; that is, by watching other people. seeks to explain cognitive development by
This process is called observational analyzing the processes involved in
learning, or modeling making sense of incoming information and
● Self-efficacy - confidence in their abilities performing tasks effectively
Perspective 3: Cognitive Perspective 4: Contextual
● Jean Piaget (1896–1980) developed the ● According to the contextual perspective,
cognitive-stage theory that reintroduced development can be understood only in its
the concept of scientific inquiry into mental social context. Contextualists see the
states. Piaget viewed development individual not as a separate entity
organismically, as the product of children’s interacting with the environment but as an
attempts to understand and act upon their inseparable part of it
world
● Organization is the tendency to create
categories, such as birds, by observing
the characteristics that individual members
of a category, such as sparrows and
cardinals, have in common
● According to Piaget, people create
increasingly complex cognitive structures
called schemes, ways of organizing
information about the world
● Adaptation is Piaget’s term for how
children handle new information in light of
what they already know
○ Assimilation - taking in new
information and incorporating it into
existing cognitive structures
○ Accommodation - adjusting one’s ● The microsystem consists of the
cognitive structures to fit the new everyday environment of home, work,
information school, or neighborhood. It includes
face-to-face interactions with siblings,
● Equilibration—a constant striving for a
parents, friends, classmates, or later in
stable balance—motivates the shift
life, spouses, work colleagues, or
between assimilation and accommodation
employers
● Sociocultural Theory by Lev Vygotsky
● The mesosystem is the interlocking
focused on the social and cultural
influence of microsystems. For example, a
processes that guide children’s cognitive
parent’s bad day at work may affect
development
interactions with a child later that evening
○ Zone of Proximal Development
in a negative way. Despite never having
(ZPD) - the gap between what they
are already able to do by
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

actually gone to the workplace, a child is Research Methods

still affected by it Quantitative and Qualitative Research
● The exosystem consists of interactions ● Quantitative research deals with
between a microsystem and an outside objectively measurable, numerical data
system or institution. For example, that can answer questions such as “how
countries differ with respect to what type much?” or “how many?” and that are
of parental leave, if any, is available. amenable to statistical analysis
Whether or not a parent can stay home ● Qualitative research, in contrast, focuses
with a newborn is a substantial influence on the how and why of behavior
on development. Thus, government Sampling
policies trickle down and can affect a
● Population - a group to whom the findings
child’s day-to-day experiences may apply
● The macrosystem consists of ● Sample - a smaller group within the
overarching cultural patterns, such as population
dominant beliefs, ideologies, and ● Random Selection - in which each
economic and political systems. For person in a population has an equal and
example, individuals are affected by the independent chance of being chosen
type of political system they live in, and ● Random Sample - the result of random
they might reasonably have different selection
experiences if raised in an open ● WEIRD - Western, educated,
democratic society versus an authoritarian industrialized, rich, and democratic
regime with limited freedoms Forms of Data Collection
● The chronosystem represents the
dimension of time. Time marches on, and
as it does, changes occur. These can
include changes in family composition (as
when a new child is born or a divorce
occurs), place of residence, or parents’
employment, as well as larger events such
as wars, ideological shifts, or economic
cycles
Perspective 5: Evolutionary/Sociobiological
● The evolutionary/sociobiological ● Self-reports - the simplest form of
perspective focuses on evolutionary and self-report is a diary or log
biological bases of behavior. It draws on ● Naturalistic and Laboratory
findings of anthropology, ecology, Observation
genetics, ethology, and evolutionary ○ In naturalistic observation,
psychology to explain the adaptive, or researchers look at people in
survival, value of behavior for an individual real-life settings
or species ○ In laboratory observation,
● Ethology is the study of the adaptive researchers observe and record
behaviors of animal species in natural behavior in a controlled
contexts environment, such as a laboratory
● Observer Bias is the researcher’s
tendency to interpret data to fit
expectations or to emphasize some
aspects and minimize others
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Basic Research Designs receive the experimental treatment

or may receive a different
treatment
● An independent variable is something
the researcher directly manipulates to see
if it has an effect on another variable
● A dependent variable is something that
may or may not change as a result of
changes in the independent variable; in
other words, it depends on the
independent variable
● A case study is a study of an individual. ● Operational Definition is a definition
Case studies may use behavioral or stated solely in terms of the operations
physiological measures and biographical, used to measure a phenomenon
autobiographical, or documentary ● Random Assignment is assigning the
materials participants to groups in such a way that
● An ethnographic study seeks to describe each person has an equal chance of being
the pattern of relationships, customs, placed in any group
beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions ● Laboratory, Field, and Natural
that make up a society’s way of life Experiments
● Participant observation is a form of ○ A laboratory experiment is best
naturalistic observation in which for determining cause and effect; it
researchers live or participate in the generally consists of asking
societies or smaller groups they observe, participants to visit a laboratory
as anthropologists often do for long where they are subject to
periods of time conditions manipulated by the
● A correlational study seeks to determine experimenter
whether a correlation, or statistical ○ A field experiment is a controlled
relationship, exists between variables, study conducted in an everyday
phenomena that change or vary among setting, such as a home or school
people or can be varied for purposes of ○ A natural experiment compares
research people who have been accidentally
● Experimental Studies “assigned” to separate groups by
○ An experiment is a controlled circumstances of life—one group
procedure in which the that was exposed, say, to famine
experimenter manipulates or HIV or superior education and
variables to learn how one affects another group that was not
another Developmental Research Designs
● Groups and Variables ● A cross-sectional study most clearly
○ An experimental group consists illustrates similarities or differences among
of people who are to be exposed to people of different ages
the experimental manipulation or ● A longitudinal study tracks people over
treatment—the phenomenon the time and focuses on individual change
researcher wants to study with age
○ A control group consists of ● A sequential study, combines the two
people who are similar to the approaches to minimize the drawbacks of
experimental group but do not the separate approaches
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Chapter 3: Forming a New Life

Fertilization
● Fertilization, or conception, is the
process by which sperm and ovum—the
male and female gametes, or sex
cells—combine to create a single cell
called a zygote, which then duplicates
itself again and again by cell division to
produce all the cells that make up a baby
Assisted Reproductive Technologies
● Assisted reproductive technology ● Chromosomes are coils of DNA that
(ART), or conception through artificial consist of smaller segments called genes,
means, provides couples having difficulty the functional units of heredity
conceiving naturally with a means to ● The complete sequence of genes in the
augment their fertility human body constitutes the human
Multiple Births genome
● Dizygotic twins, or fraternal twins, Sex Determination
are the result of two separate eggs being ● Twenty-two pairs of our 23 pairs of
fertilized by two different sperm to form chromosomes are autosomes,
two unique individuals chromosomes that are not related to
● Monozygotic twins are the result of a far sexual expression
different process ● The twenty third pair are sex
Mechanisms of Heredity chromosomes—one from the father and
The Genetic Code one from the mother—that govern the
● The “stuff” of heredity is a chemical called baby’s sex
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The Patterns of Genetic Transmission
double-helix structure of a DNA molecule ● Genes that can produce alternative expres
resembles a long, spiraling ladder whose sions of a characteristic (such as the
steps are made of pairs of chemical units presence or absence of dimples) are
called bases. The bases— adenine (A), called alleles
thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine ● When both alleles are the same, the
(G)—are the “letters” of the genetic person is homozygous for the
code, which cellular machinery “reads” characteristic; when they are different, the
person is heterozygous
● For the trait to be expressed in recessive
inheritance, the person must have two
recessive alleles, one from each
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

parent. If a recessive trait is expressed,

that person cannot have a dominant allele

● Most traits result from polygenic

inheritance, the interaction of several
genes
● If you have brown hair, that is part of your
● In sex-linked inheritance, certain reces
phenotype, the observable characteristics
sive disorders affect male and female
through which your genotype, or
children differently. This is due to the fact
underlying genetic makeup, is expressed
that males are XY and females are XX. In
● Environmental experience modifies the
humans, the Y chromosome is smaller
expression of the genotype for most
and carries far fewer genes than the X
traits— a phenomenon called chromosome
multifactorial transmission
● The field of epigenetics includes the study
of biochemical modifications of genetic
expression “above the genome”—without
altering DNA sequence. The differences
arise as certain genes are turned off or on
as they are needed by the developing
body or when triggered by the
environment. This phenomenon is called
epigenesis, or epigenetics ● Chromosomal abnormalities typically
Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities occur because of errors in cell division,
resulting in an extra or missing
chromosome
● Down syndrome is the most common
chromosomal abnormality, accounts for
about 40 percent of all cases of
moderate-to-severe intellectual disability.
The condition is also called trisomy-21
because it is characterized in more than
90 percent of cases by an extra 21st
chromosome
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Genetic Counseling and Testing ○ Passive correlations: You not

● Genetic counseling can help only inherit genes from your
prospective parents assess their risk of biological parents, you also inherit
bearing children with genetic or environments.
chromosomal defects ○ Reactive, or evocative,
Studying the Influences of Heredity and correlations: Children with
Environment differing genetic makeups evoke
Measuring Heritability different reactions from others
● One approach to the study of heredity ○ Active correlations: As children
and environment is quantitative: It seeks get older and have more freedom
to measure how much heredity and to choose their own activities and
environment influence particular traits. environments, they actively select
This is the traditional goal of the science of or create experiences consistent
behavioral genetics with their genetic tendencies
● Behavioral geneticists have developed a ● This tendency to seek out environments
means of estimating how much of a trait is compatible with one’s genotype is called
due to genetics and how much is the niche-picking; it helps explain why
result of environmental influences by using identical twins reared apart tend to have
a concept known as heritability similar characteristics
● Every trait is a consequence of genes and ● Nonshared environmental effects
environment. By looking at groups of result from the unique environment in
people with known genetic relationships which each child in a family grows up
and assessing whether or not they are Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and
concordant, or the same, on a given trait, Environment
behavioral geneticists can estimate the ● Obesity is usually measured by body
relative influence of genes and mass index, or BMI (comparison of weight
environment to height), and is a risk factor for many
How Heredity and the Environment Work Together negative health outcomes
● Reaction range refers to a range of ● Intelligence – Heredity exerts a strong
potential expressions of a hereditary trait influence on general intelligence, as
● The metaphor of canalization illustrates ● measured by intelligence tests, and a
how heredity restricts the range of moderate effect on specific abilities such
development for some traits as memory, verbal ability, and spatial
● Genotype-environment interaction ability
usually refers to the effects of similar ● Psychologists call babies’ unique and
environmental conditions on genetically characteristic ways of approaching and
different individuals, and a discussion of reacting to environmental stimuli
these interactions is a way to temperament. Temperament is largely
conceptualize and talk about the different inborn and is relatively consistent over the
ways nature and nurture interact years, although it may respond to special
● The environment often reflects or experiences or parental handling
reinforces genetic differences. This ● Schizophrenia is characterized by loss of
tendency is called contact with reality; hallucinations and
genotype-environment correlation, and delusions; loss of coherent, logical
it works in three ways to strengthen the thought, and inappropriate emotionality
phenotypic expression of a genotypic
tendency
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Prenatal Development ● During the embryonic stage, from about

● During gestation, the period between 2 to 8 weeks, the organs and major body
conception and birth, an unborn child systems—respiratory, digestive, and
undergoes dramatic processes of nervous—develop rapidly
development. The normal range of ● A spontaneous abortion, commonly
gestation is between 37 and 41 weeks called a miscarriage, is the expulsion from
● Gestational age is usually dated from the uterus of an embryo or fetus that is
the first day of an expectant mother’s last unable to survive outside the womb
menstrual cycle ● The appearance of the first bone cells at
about 8 weeks signals the beginning of
the fetal stage, the final stage of gestation
● Scientists can observe fetal movement
through ultrasound, the use of
high-frequency sound waves to detect the
outline of the fetus
● Beginning during the 8th week of
gestation, an estimated 250,000 immature
neurons— nerve cells—are produced
every minute
Environmental Influences: Maternal Factors

Stages of Prenatal Development ● A teratogen is an environmental agent,

such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that
● The cephalocaudal principle, from
can interfere with normal prenatal
Latin, meaning “head to tail,” dictates that
development
development proceeds from the head to
● Nutrition and Maternal Weight
the lower part of the trunk
● Malnutrition
● According to the proximodistal
● Physical Activity and Work
principle, from Latin, meaning “near to
● Drug Intake
far,” development proceeds from parts
near the center of the body to outer ones ○ Medical Drugs – Among the
● During the germinal stage, from medical drugs that may be harmful
fertilization to about 2 weeks of gestational during pregnancy are the antibiotic
age, the zygote divides, becomes more tetracycline; certain barbiturates,
● complex, and is implanted in the wall of opiates, and other central nervous
the uterus system depressants; several
hormones, including
diethylstilbestrol (DES) and
androgens; certain anticancer
drugs, such as methotrexate;
Accutane, a drug often prescribed
for severe acne; drugs used to
treat epilepsy; and several
antipsychotic drugs
○ Opioids – opioid use has not been
implicated in birth defects, it is
associated with small babies, fetal
death, preterm labor, and
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

aspiration of meconium (the ● Maternal Emotional State

earliest stool produced by babies) ● Maternal Age
○ Alcohol – Prenatal alcohol ● Outside Environmental Hazards
exposure is the most common Environmental Influences: Paternal Factors
cause of intellectual disability ● High stress, a poor diet, or exposure to
● Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is environmental toxicants such as heavy
characterized by a combination of metals or pesticides can cause epigenetic
retarded growth, face and body changes and result in abnormal or
malformations, and disorders of the poor-quality sperm
central nervous system ● Smoking can also be problematic. Men
○ Nicotine – Maternal smoking who smoke have an increased likelihood
during pregnancy has been of transmitting genetic abnormalities and
identified as the single most heart defects
important factor in adverse ● Older fathers may be a significant source
pregnancy outcomes in both of birth defects due to damaged or
developed and developing deteriorated sperm
countries Monitoring and Promoting Prenatal
○ Caffeine – Several large-scale Development
reviews have indicated that
caffeine intake under 300
milligrams a day is not associated
with an increased risk of
miscarriage, stillbirth, or birth
defects
○ Marijuana – Marijuana is the most
commonly used recreational drug
during pregnancy, and rates of
women who report using marijuana
while pregnant have risen in
concert with more liberal usage
laws in many states
○ Cocaine – Cocaine use during
pregnancy has been associated
with delayed growth, placental
displacement, preterm delivery, low
birth weight, small head size, and
impaired neurological development
○ Methamphetamine – prenatal
Chapter 4: Birth and Physical
methamphetamine exposure is
Development during the First Three Years
associated with preterm delivery,
low birth weight, and reduced head Childbirth, Culture, and Change
circumference ● Across all cultures, birth and the
● Acquired immune deficiency surrounding period as a whole are viewed
syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by not only as a time of joy but also as a time
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), of great vulnerability
which undermines functioning of the
immune system
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

The Birth Process participate fully in a natural, empowering

● Parturition is the act or process of giving experience
birth, and it typically begins about 2 weeks ● In many traditional cultures and
before delivery increasingly in developed countries,
Stages of Childbirth childbearing women are attended by a
● The first stage, dilation of the cervix, is the doula, an experienced mentor, coach, and
longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for helper who can furnish emotional support
a woman having her first child. The first and information and can stay at a
stage tends to be shorter woman’s bedside throughout labor
● The second stage, descent and The Newborn Baby
emergence of the baby, typically lasts up ● The neonatal period, the first 4 weeks of
to an hour or two. The baby’s head life, is a time of transition from the uterus,
emerges completely from the mother’s where a fetus is supported entirely by the
body mother, to an independent existence
● The third stage, expulsion of the placenta, Size and Appearance
lasts between 10 minutes and 1 hour. The ● An average neonate, or newborn, in the
placenta and the remainder of the United States is about 20 inches long and
umbilical cord are expelled from the weighs about 7½ pounds
mother ● New babies have distinctive features,
Electronic Fetal Monitoring including a large head (one-fourth the
● Electronic fetal monitoring can be used body length) and a receding chin (which
to track the fetus’s heartbeat during labor makes it easier to nurse)
● Many newborns have a pinkish cast; their
skin is so thin that it barely covers the
capillaries through which blood flows
● During the first few days, some neonates
are very hairy because some of the
lanugo, a fuzzy prenatal hair, has not yet
fallen off
Body Systems
Vaginal Versus Cesarean Delivery ● If a neonate does not begin breathing
● The usual method of childbirth is vaginal within about 5 minutes, the baby may
delivery. Alternatively, a cesarean suffer permanent brain injury caused by
delivery may be performed when labor anoxia, lack of oxygen, or hypoxia, a
progresses too slowly, when the fetus is in reduced oxygen supply
the breech (feet or buttocks first) or ● Three or four days after birth, about half of
transverse (lying crosswise in the uterus) all babies (and a larger proportion of
position, or when the mother is bleeding babies born prematurely) develop
vaginally neonatal jaundice: their skin and eyeballs
Medicated Versus Nonmedicated Delivery look yellow
● During the twentieth century, several Medical and Behavioral Assessment
alternative methods of natural childbirth ● One minute after delivery and then again
or prepared childbirth were developed. 5 minutes after birth, most babies are
These methods minimize or eliminate the assessed using the Apgar scale
use of drugs that may pose risks for ● The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral
babies and enable both parents to Assessment Scale (NBAS) is used to
assess neonates’ responsiveness to their
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

environment, to identify strengths and from fetal life to the jumble of sensory
vulnerabilities in neurological functioning, stimuli in the outside world
and to predict future development Postmaturity
● Neonatal Screening for Medical ● Postmature babies tend to be long and
Conditions – Children who inherit the thin because they have kept growing in
enzyme disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) the womb but have had an insufficient
will develop permanent intellectual blood supply toward the end of gestation
disability unless they are fed a special diet Stillbirth
beginning in the first 3 to 6 weeks of life ● Stillbirth, the sudden death of a fetus at
or after the 20th week of gestation, is a
tragic union of opposites—birth and death
Survival and Health
Infant Mortality
● In the United States, the infant mortality
rate—the proportion of babies who die
within the 1st year—has fallen almost
continuously since the beginning of the
States of Arousal
twentieth century, when 100 infants died
● We all have internal biological clocks that
for every 1,000 born alive
regulate our states of arousal and activity
● Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Infant
over the course of a day
Mortality – Because causes and risk
factors vary among ethnic groups, efforts
to further reduce infant deaths need to
focus on factors specific to each ethnic
group
● Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS),
sometimes called crib death, is the sudden
death of an infant under age 1 in which
the cause of death remains unexplained
after a thorough investigation that includes
an autopsy
Complications of Childbirth ● Accidental Deaths – About 90 percent of
Low Birth Weight
all injury deaths in infancy are due to one
of five causes: suffocation, motor vehicle
● Low-birth-weight babies (LBW) are
traffic accidents, drowning, residential
those neonates born weighing less than
burns or fires, and falls
2,500 grams (5 pounds) at birth
Immunization for Better Health
● Babies born before the 37th week of
gestation are known as preterm ● Such once-familiar and sometimes fatal
(premature) infants childhood illnesses as measles, pertussis
● Some babies, known as small-for-date (whooping cough), and polio are now
(small-for-gestational-age) infants, are largely preventable, thanks to the
born at or around their due dates but are development of vaccines that mobilize the
smaller than would be expected body’s natural defenses.
● Kangaroo care (KC), an intervention ● Unfortunately, many children still are not
involving extended skin-to-skin contact, adequately protected, and nearly 30
has been theorized to help preemies—and percent of child deaths worldwide are
full-term infants—make the adjustment caused by vaccine-preventable diseases
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Early Physical Development

Principles of Development
● As before birth, physical growth and
development follow the cephalocaudal
principle and the proximodistal
principle
● According to the cephalocaudal principle,
growth occurs from the top down
● According to the proximodistal principle
(inner to outer), growth and motor
development proceed from the center of
the body outward
Physical Growth
● Children grow faster during the first 3
● Solid Foods – Healthy babies should
years, especially during the first few
consume nothing but breast milk or
months, than they ever will again
iron-fortified formula for the first 6 months.
● The genes an infant inherits have a strong
Most young children do not eat enough
influence on whether the child will be tall
fruits or vegetables, or a sufficient variety
or short, thin or stocky, or somewhere in
of vegetables, and, as they age into
between
toddlerhood, many consume increasing
● Teething usually begins around 3 or 4
amounts of sugar-sweetened beverages
months, when infants begin grabbing
● Obesity – Children born to mothers who
almost everything in sight to put into their
had a higher prepregnancy body mass
mouths, but the first tooth may not actually
index (BMI) or who gained a great deal of
arrive until sometime between 5 and 9
weight during the pregnancy were at
months or even later
higher risk, as were infants who weighed a
Nutrition
great deal at birth or gained weight quickly
● Breast of Bottle? – Through most of
as infants
human history, all babies were breastfed.
● Malnutrition – Chronic malnutrition is
Breastfeeding is almost always best for
caused by factors such as poverty,
infants. However, only 44 percent of
low-quality foods, poor dietary patterns,
infants across the globe are exclusively
contaminated water, unsanitary
breastfed. This is unfortunate, as the lives
conditions, insufficient hygiene,
of approximately 820,000 children could
inadequate health care, and diarrheal
be saved every year if all children under
diseases and other infections
the age of 2 were optimally breastfed
Building the Brain
● Breastfeeding is inadvisable if a baby has
● The central nervous system includes the
been diagnosed with galactosemia (a
brain and spinal cord (a bundle of nerves
genetic metabolic disorder), if the mother
running through the backbone), as well as
is infected with the HIV virus, Ebola, or
a peripheral network of nerves extending
any other infectious illness, if she has
to every part of the body
been exposed to radiation, or if she is
● Brain Anatomy and Development
taking any drug that would not be safe for
○ By birth, the growth spurt of the
the baby
spinal cord and brain stem (the
part of the brain responsible for
such basic bodily functions as
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Early Reflexes – Such an automatic,
breathing, heart rate, body innate response to stimulation is called a
temperature, and the sleep-wake reflex behavior
cycle) has nearly run its course
○ The cerebellum (the part of the
brain that maintains balance and
motor coordination) grows fastest
during the 1st year of life
○ The cerebrum, the largest part of
the brain, is divided into right and
left halves, or hemispheres, each
with specialized functions. This
specialization of the hemispheres
is called lateralization
○ The left hemisphere is mainly
concerned with language and
logical thinking, the right
hemisphere with visual and spatial
functions such as map reading and
drawing. Joining the two
hemispheres is a tough band of
tissue called the corpus callosum.
The corpus callosum is like a giant
switchboard of fibers connecting
the hemispheres and allowing ● Brain Plasticity - the technical term for
them to share information and this malleability of the brain
coordinate commands Early Sensory Capacities
● Brain Cells ● Touch and Pain
○ Neurons, or nerve cells, send and ● Smell and Taste
receive information ● Hearing
○ Glia, or glial cells, nourish and ● Sight
protect the neurons. They are the Motor Development
support system for our neurons Milestones of Motor Development
○ Through integration, the neurons ● Babies first learn simple skills and then
that control various groups of combine them into increasingly complex
muscles coordinate their activities systems of action, which permit a wider
○ Through differentiation, each or more precise range of movement and
neuron takes on a specific, more effective control of the environment
specialized structure and function ● The Denver Developmental Screening
○ Cell death, which may sound Test is used to chart progress between
negative but is a way to calibrate ages 1 month and 6 years and to identify
the developing brain to the local children who are not developing normally
environment and help it work more ○ The test measures gross motor
efficiently skills (those using large muscles),
● Myelination enables signals to travel such as rolling over and catching a
faster and more smoothly ball, and fine motor skills (using
small muscles), such as grasping a
rattle and copying a circle
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● In other cultures, features of the
● Head Control caregiving environment may slow down
● Hand Control motor development slightly
● Locomotion

Chapter 5: Cognitive Development during

the First Three Years
Behaviorist Approach
Classical and Operant Conditioning
● Classical Conditioning - in which a
person learns to make a reflex, or
involuntary, response to a stimulus that
originally did not bring about the response
● Operant Conditioning focuses on the
consequences of behaviors and how they
Motor Development and Perception affect the likelihood of that behavior
● Depth perception, the ability to perceive occurring again
objects and surfaces in three dimensions, Psychometric Approach
depends on several kinds of cues that ● Intelligent Behavior is presumed to be
affect the image of an object on the retina goal oriented, meaning it exists for the
of the eye purposes of attaining a goal
● Haptic perception involves the ability to ● IQ (intelligence quotient) tests consist of
acquire information by handling objects questions or tasks that are supposed to
rather than just looking at them show how much of the measured abilities
Theories of Motor Development a person has by comparing that person’s
● Ecological Theory of Perception - performance with norms established by a
locomotor development depends on large group of test-takers who were in the
infants’ increasing sensitivity to the standardization sample
interaction between their changing Testing Infants and Toddlers
physical characteristics and new and ● The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler
varied characteristics of their environment Development (Bailey-III) is a
○ Visual Cliff - a steep drop down to developmental test designed to assess
the floor children from 1 month to 3½ years
● Dynamic Systems Theory - argued that Assessing the Early Home Environment
“behavior emerges in the moment from the ● Home Observation for Measurement of
self-organization of multiple components” the Environment (HOME), trained
Ethnic and Cultural Influences on Motor observers interview the primary caregiver
Development and rate on a yes-or-no checklist the
● Examining the influence of culture on intellectual stimulation and support
motor development provides an excellent observed in a child’s home
opportunity to consider the intersection of ● Early Intervention - is a systematic
nature and nurture process of planning and providing
● Infants from different cultures may engage therapeutic and educational services for
in different levels of activity and may have families that need help in meeting infants’,
more or less practice with particular motor toddlers’, and preschool children’s
skills developmental needs
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
Piagetian Approach
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage
● Schemes - organized patterns of thought
and behavior
● Circular Reactions - in which an infant
learns to reproduce events originally
discovered by chance
● Substage 1: Use of Reflexes. In the first
substage (birth to about 1 month),
neonates practice their reflexes
● Substage 2: Primary Circular
Reactions. In the second substage (about
1 to 4 months), babies learn to purposely
repeat a pleasurable bodily sensation first Object Concept
achieved by chance ● Object Permanence is the realization that
● Substage 3: Secondary Circular something continues to exist when out of
Reactions. The third substage (about 4 to sight
8 months) coincides with a new interest in Imitation
manipulating objects and learning about ● Deferred Imitation is a more complex
their properties ability requiring long-term memory.
● Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Deferred imitation is the reproduction of an
Schemes. By the time infants reach the observed behavior after the passage of
fourth substage (about 8 to 12 months), time. As the behavior is no longer
coordination of secondary schemes, they happening, deferred imitation requires that
have built upon the few schemes they a stored representation of the action be
were born with recalled
● Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Symbolic Development
Reactions. In the fifth substage (about 12 ● One aspect of symbolic development is
to 18 months), babies begin to experiment the growth of pictorial competence, the
to see what will happen ability to understand the nature of pictures
● Substage 6: Mental Combinations. The Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
sixth substage (about 18 months to 2 ● According to Piaget, the journey from
years) is a transition to the preoperational reflex behavior to the beginnings of
stage of early childhood thought is a long, slow one
○ Representational ability - the ● For a year and a half or so, babies learn
ability to mentally represent objects only from their senses and movements;
and actions in memory, largely not until the last half of the 2nd year do
through symbols such as words, they make the breakthrough to conceptual
numbers, and mental thought
pictures—frees toddlers from Information-Processing Approach
immediate experience
Habituation
● Habituation is a type of learning in which
repeated or continuous exposure to a
stimulus (such as a shaft of light) reduces
attention to that stimulus (such as looking
away)
● The response to a new stimulus is called
dishabituation
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Tools of Infant Research ● Implicit memory refers to remembering

● The tendency to spend more time looking that occurs without effort or even
at one sight rather than another is known conscious awareness; for example,
as visual preference knowing how to tie your shoe or throw a
● Visual Recognition Memory is an ability ball
that depends on the capacity to form and ● Explicit memory, also called declarative
refer to mental representations memory, is conscious or intentional
Perceptual and Attentional Processes recollection, usually of facts, names,
● The capacity for joint attention—which is events, or other things that can be stated
of fundamental importance to social or declared.
interaction, language acquisition, and the Social-Contextual Approach
understanding of others’ intentions and ● Researchers influenced by Vygotsky’s
mental states—develops between 10 and sociocultural theory and working within the
12 months, when babies follow an adults’ social contextual approach are
gaze by looking or pointing in the same interested in how cultural context affects
direction early social interactions
Cross-Modal Transfer ● Guided participation refers to mutual
● Cross-modal Transfer is the ability to use interactions with adults that help structure
information gained from one sense to children’s activities and bridge the gap
guide another between a child’s understanding and an
Information Processing as a Predictor of adult’s
Intelligence Language Development
● Because of weak correlations between ● Language is a communication system
infants’ scores on developmental tests based on words and grammar
such as the Bayley scales and their later Classic Theories of Language Acquisition: The
IQ (Bjorklund & Causey, 2017), many Nature-Nurture Debate
psychologists assumed that the cognitive
functioning of infants had little in common
with that of older children and adults
● Four core cognitive domains appear to be
associated with later IQ: attention,
processing speed, memory, and
representational competence (as indexed
by cross-modal transfer and the ability to
anticipate future events)
Information Processing and Piagetian Abilities
● Categorization
● Causality
● Object Permanence
● Number
Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
● The cognitive neuroscience approach
examines the hardware of the central
nervous system to identify what brain
structures are involved in specific areas of
cognition
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● Nativism emphasizes the active role of ● Children also make categorical mistakes
the learner by either underextending or overextending
● Language Acquisition Device (LAD) word meaning
programs children’s brains to analyze the Influences on Early Language Development
language they hear and to figure out its ● Brain Development
rules ● Social Interaction and the Linguistic
Sequence of Early Language Development Environment
● Before babies can use words, they make ● Child-Directed Speech - sometimes
their needs and feelings known through called “parentese,” “motherese,” or baby
sounds that progress from crying to cooing talk
and babbling, then to accidental imitation,
and then deliberate imitation. These
sounds are known as prelinguistic
speech Chapter 6: Psychosocial Development
● Early Vocalization during the First Three Years
● Perceiving Language Sounds and
Foundations of Psychosocial Development
Structure
● Personality is the relatively consistent
● Cultural Differences in Perceptual
blend of emotions, temperament, thought,
Attunement
and behavior that makes each person
● Gestures
unique
● First Words
Early Emotional Development
○ Linguistic Speech—verbal
● Emotions such as fear are subjective
expression that conveys meaning
reactions to experience that are
○ An entire sentence expressed with
associated with physiological and
one word is known as a
behavioral changes
holophrase
● First Sentences
○ Telegraphic Speech consisting of
only a few essential words
○ Syntax allows us to understand
and produce an infinite number of
utterances
Variations in Language Development
● Bilingual children often use elements of
both languages, sometimes in the same
utterance—a phenomenon called code
mixing ● Crying
● This ability to shift from one language to ● Smiling and Laughing
another is called code switching ○ Social smiling is when newborn
Characteristics of Early Speech infants gaze and smile at their
● Early speech has a character all its own, parents, develops in the 2nd month
no matter what language a child is of life
speaking ○ Anticipatory smiling—in which
● Young children understand grammatical infants smile at an object and then
relationships they cannot yet express gaze at an adult while continuing to
● Overregularization occurs when children smile—rises sharply between 8
inappropriately apply a syntactical rule and 10 months and seems to be
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

among the first types of ● Cultural Influences on Temperament

communication in which the infant ● Goodness of Fit - the match between a
refers to an object or experience child’s temperament and the
● Self-Conscious Emotions such as environmental demands and constraints
embarrassment, empathy, and envy, arise the child must deal with
only after children have developed ● Behavioral Inhibition
self-awareness: the cognitive Early Social Experiences: The Family
understanding that they have a ● The Mother’s Role
recognizable identity, separate and ● The Father’s Role
different from the rest of their world Gender
● By about age 3, having acquired ● Gender - what it means to be male or
self-awareness plus a good deal of female
knowledge about their society’s accepted ● Sex Differences in Infants and Toddlers
standards, rules, and goals, children ● Parental Influences on Gender Differences
become better able to evaluate their own ○ Gender-typing is the process by
thoughts, plans, desires, and behavior which children learn behavior their
against what is considered socially culture considers appropriate for
appropriate. Only then can they each sex
demonstrate the self evaluative
Developmental Issues in Infancy
emotions of pride, guilt, and shame
Developing Trust
● Altruistic Helping and Empathy
● Erikson argued that at each stage in the
○ Empathy is the ability to imagine
life span, we are faced with a challenge
how another person might feel in a
and a complementary risk. As babies, our
particular situation
first challenge involves forming a basic
○ Mirror neurons fire when a person
sense of trust versus mistrust
does something but also when
Developing Attachments
they observe someone else doing
● Attachment is a reciprocal, enduring
the same thing
emotional tie between an infant and a
● Collaborative Activities and Cultural
caregiver, each of whom contributes to the
Transmission
quality of the relationship
Temperament
● Studying Patterns of Attachment
● Temperament can be defined as an
○ The Strange Situation is a
early-appearing, biologically based
classic, laboratory-based
tendency to respond to the environment in
technique designed to assess
predictable ways
attachment patterns between an
● Temperament Patterns and Development
infant and an adult
○ “Easy” Children: generally happy,
○ Babies with secure attachment
rhythmic in biological functioning,
are flexible and resilient in the face
and accepting of new experiences
of stress
○ “Difficult” Children: more irritable
○ Babies with avoidant attachment,
and harder to please, irregular in
by contrast, are outwardly
biological rhythms, wary of new
unaffected by a caregiver leaving
experiences, and more intense in
or returning
expressing emotion
○ Babies who exhibit ambivalent
○ “Slow-to-Warm-Up” Children:
(resistant) attachment are
mild but slow to adapt to new
generally anxious even before the
people and situations
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

caregiver leaves, sometimes Social Referencing

approaching the caregiver for ● When babies look at their caregivers on
comfort when the stranger looks at encountering an ambiguous event, they
or approaches them for interaction are engaging in social referencing,
○ Babies with the seeking emotional information to guide
disorganized-disoriented behavior
attachment pattern seem to lack a Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood
cohesive strategy to deal with the The Emerging Sense of Self
stress of the Strange Situation ● The self-concept is our image of
● Stranger and Separation Anxiety ourselves—our total picture of our abilities
○ Stranger Anxiety - wariness of a and traits
person he/she does not know Development of Autonomy
○ Separation Anxiety - distress ● Erikson identified the period from about 18
when a familiar caregiver leaves months to 3 years as the second stage in
him/her personality development, autonomy
● Long-Term Effects of Attachment versus shame and doubt, which is
○ As attachment theory proposes, marked by a shift from external control to
security of attachment seems to self-control
affect emotional, social, and Moral Development and Socialization
cognitive competence, presumably ● Socialization is the process by which
through the action of internal children develop habits, skills, values, and
working models motives that make them responsible,
● Intergenerational Transmission of productive members of society
Attachment Patterns ● Compliance with parental expectations
○ Attachment history influences how can be seen as a first step toward
parents interact with their children compliance with societal standards.
○ Parents’ attachment history also Socialization rests on internalization of
influences their perceptions of their these standards
baby’s temperament, and those ● Developing Self-Regulation
perceptions may affect the ● Cultural Influences of Self-Regulation
parent-child relationship ● Developing a Conscience
Mutual Regulation ○ Conscience which involves both
● The ability of both infant and caregiver to the ability to refrain from certain
respond appropriately and sensitively to acts as well as to feel emotional
each other’s mental and emotional states discomfort for failing to do so
is known as mutual regulation ○ Some children could put the toys
● Ideally, caregivers and infants have high away as long as their parents were
interactional synchrony—in which both there to remind them. These
unconsciously coordinate their behavior children showed what is called
and affect in a rhythmic back-and-forth situational compliance
manner, responding appropriately and ○ Committed Compliance; that is,
effectively to each other’s signals in an they were committed to following
interactive dance requests and could do so without
● Interactional synchrony in 2- to their parents’ direct intervention
9-month-old infants is measured using the ○ Receptive Cooperation - is a
still-face paradigm child’s eager willingness to
cooperate harmoniously with a
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

parent, not only in disciplinary obtaining of a person for the purpose of a

situations but also in a variety of commercial sex act, was included in the
daily interactions, including reports for the first time in 2018
routines, chores, hygiene, and play Maltreatment in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Relationships with Other Children ● Babies who do not receive nurturance and
Siblings affection or who are neglected sometimes
● Research has shown that babies usually suffer from nonorganic failure to thrive,
become attached to their siblings and can slowed or arrested physical growth with no
use them as a secure base and that their known medical cause, accompanied by
older siblings generally offer them comfort poor developmental and emotional
when they are distressed functioning
Peers ● Shaken baby syndrome is a form of
● Infants and—even more so—toddlers maltreatment found mainly in children
show interest in people outside the home, under 2 years old, most often in infants
particularly people their own size ● Characteristics of Abusive and Neglectful
● Preschoolers usually like to play with Parents
children of the same age, sex, and gender ● Cultural Influences
Children of Working Parents Long-Term Effects of Maltreatment
Effects of Maternal Employment ● Long-term consequences of maltreatment
● Because there has not been much may include physical, psychological and
variability in paternal employment but behavioral consequences that may persist
women have increasingly joined the work across generations
force, most studies of the impact of ● As adolescents, maltreated children are
parents’ work on children’s well-being more likely to engage in risky sexual
have focused on employed mothers activity, juvenile delinquency, and alcohol
● In general, the more satisfied a mother is and drug use
with her employment status, the more ● Despite elevated risk, many maltreated
effective she is likely to be as a parent children show remarkable resilience
Early Child Care
● Factors Having an Impact on Child Care
● Cultural Variations in Early Child Care
Child Maltreatment Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive
● Physical abuse, injury to the body Development in Early Childhood
through punching, beating, kicking, or Aspects of Physical Development
burning Bodily Growth and Change
● Neglect, failure to meet a child’s basic ● Children grow rapidly between ages 3 and
needs, such as food, clothing, medical 6 but less quickly than before
care, protection, and supervision ● Muscular and skeletal growth progresses,
● Sexual abuse, any sexual activity making children stronger
involving a child and an older person Sleep
● Emotional maltreatment, including
rejection, terrorization, isolation,
exploitation, degradation, ridicule, or
failure to provide emotional support, love,
and affection
● Sex trafficking, the recruitment,
harboring, transportation, provision, or
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● Sleep Disturbances ● Handedness, the preference for using

○ A child who experiences a night one hand over the other, is usually evident
terror appears to awaken abruptly by about age 3
from a deep sleep early in the night Health and Safety
in a state of agitation Obesity and Overweight
● Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night ● A tendency toward obesity can be
terrors share many characteristics. They hereditary, but the main factors driving the
all occur during slow wave sleep and are obesity epidemic are environmental
more common when children are sleep Undernutrition
deprived, have a fever or are on ● Food insecurity occurs when families do
medications, or when conditions are noisy not have dependable access to adequate
● Nightmares are common during early amounts of food to support healthy living
childhood, peaking between 6 to 10 years ● In early childhood, food insecurity and
of age low-quality diet have been linked to
● Bed-Wetting vitamin and mineral deficiencies, higher
○ Enuresis, repeated, involuntary body weight, and reduced cognitive and
urination at night by children old social-emotional skills
enough to be expected to have Food Allergies
bladder control ● A food allergy is an abnormal immune
Brain Development system response to a specific food
● During the first few years of life, brain ● Children who suffer from food allergies
development is rapid and profound are, on average, smaller and shorter than
● By age 6, the brain has attained about 90 children without food allergies
percent of its peak volume ● Changes in diet, how foods are
● The corpus callosum is a thick band of processed, the timing of the introduction of
nerve fibers that connects both foods, and decreased vitamin D based
hemispheres of the brain and allows them upon less exposure to the sun have all
to communicate more rapidly and been suggested as contributors to the
effectively with each other increase in allergy rates
Motor Skills Oral Health
● Gross Motor Skills, such as running and ● By age 3, all the primary (baby) teeth are
jumping, which involve the large muscles in place, and the permanent teeth, which
● Fine Motor Skills, which are manipulative will begin to appear at about age 6, are
skills such as buttoning and drawing that developing
involve eye-hand and small-muscle ● Tooth decay in early childhood often
coordination stems from overconsumption of
● Such combinations of skills are known as sweetened milk and juices in infancy,
systems of action especially when bottles are taken to bed,
together with a lack of regular dental care
● Dental Caries - or cavities
Deaths and Accidental Injuries
● Other common causes of death in early
childhood include cancer, congenital
abnormalities and chromosomal disorders,
assault and homicide, heart disease,
respiratory diseases (including both
chronic respiratory disease as well as
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

influenza and pneumonia), and ○ In addition to their growing ability

septicemia (a bacterial infection that to use the symbolic function,,
poisons the blood, leading to organ children also begin to be able to
failure) understand the symbols that
Environmental Influences describe physical spaces, although
● Socioeconomic Status this process is slow
● Race/Ethnicity ● Causality
● Homelessness ○ Piaget maintained that
● Environmental Pollutants preoperational children cannot yet
Cognitive Development reason logically about cause and
Piagetian Approach effect. Instead, he said, they
reason by transduction
● Identities and Categorization
○ Categorization, or classification,
requires a child to identify
similarities and differences
○ The tendency to attribute life to
objects that are not alive is called
animism
● Number
Immature Aspects of Preoperational Thought
● Centration is the tendency to focus on
one aspect of a situation and neglect
others
● Decenter - think about several aspects of
a situation at one time
● Egocentrism is a form of centration.
According to Piaget, young children center
so much on their own point of view that
they cannot take in another’s
● Another classic example of centration is
the failure to understand conservation,
Advances on Preoperational Thought the fact that two things that are equal
● The Symbolic Function remain so if their appearance is altered, as
○ Being able to think about long as nothing is added or taken away
something in the absence of ● Irreversibility - failure to mentally reverse
sensory or motor cues an action
characterizes the symbolic Theory of Mind
function ● Theory of mind is the understanding that
○ In pretend play, also called others have their own thoughts, beliefs,
fantasy play, dramatic play, or desires, and intentions
imaginary play, children use an ● Knowledge about Thinking and Mental
object to represent something else States
● Object Space ● False Beliefs and Deception
● Distinguishing between Appearance and
Reality
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● Distinguishing between Fantasy and Childhood Memories

Reality ● Generic memory, which begins at about
● Individual Differences in Theory of Mind age 2, produces a script, or general
Development outline of a familiar, repeated event, such
● Cultural Influences on Theory of Mind as riding the bus to preschool or having
Development lunch at Grandma’s house. It helps a child
Memory know what to expect and how to act
Basic Processes and Capacities ● Episodic memory refers to awareness of
● Encoding is like putting information in a having experienced a particular event at a
folder to be filed in memory; it attaches a specific time and place
“code” or “label” to the information so it will ● Autobiographical memory, a type of
be easier to find when needed episodic memory, refers to memories of
● Storage is putting the folder away in the distinctive experiences that form a
filing cabinet person’s life history
● Sensory memory is a temporary ● Influences on Memory Retention
storehouse for incoming sensory ○ The social interaction model,
information based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural
● Information being encoded or retrieved is approach, provides a rationale
kept in working memory, a short-term Intelligence
storehouse for information a person is Psychometric Measures of Intelligence
actively working on, trying to understand, ● The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
remember, or think about are used for ages 2 and up and take 45 to
● The central executive orders information 60 minutes
encoded for transfer to long-term ● The Wechsler Preschool and Primary
memory, a storehouse of virtually Scale of Intelligence, Revised
unlimited capacity that holds information (WPPSI-IV) is an individual test that takes
for long periods of time 30 to 60 minutes
● Recognition is the ability to identify Influences on Measured Intelligence
something encountered before; for ● A common misconception is that IQ
example, picking out a missing mitten from scores represent a fixed quantity of inborn
a lost-and-found box intelligence. In reality, an IQ score is
● Recall is the ability to reproduce simply a measure of how well a child can
knowledge from memory do tasks at a certain time in comparison
Metamemory with other children of the same age
● Metamemory is one component of ● Test scores of children in many
metacognition and can be described as industrialized countries have risen steadily
the knowledge of and reflection about since testing began, forcing test
memory processes developers to raise standardized norms
Executive Functioning ● The degree to which family environment
● The growth of working memory permits influences a child’s intelligence is difficult
the development of executive function, to specify. Some of parents’ influence on
the conscious control of thoughts, intelligence comes from their genetic
emotions, contribution, and some results from the
and actions to accomplish goals or to fact that they provide a child’s earliest
solve problems environment for learning
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Testing and Teaching Based on Vygotsky’s Theory Emergent Literacy

● Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is ● Emergent literacy refers to the
the imaginary psychological space development of these skills. Language is
between what children can do or know by necessary for literacy, but it is by no
themselves and what they could do or means enough
know with help Early Childhood Education
● Scaffolding is the supportive assistance Cultural Variations in Early Education
that a more sophisticated interaction ● There are wide global variations in the
partner provides, and ideally, it should be proportion of children who attend
aimed at the ZPD preschool, as well as in the cultural ideals
Language Development and skills taught to young children
Vocabulary ● Preschools in different countries also vary
● The rapid expansion of vocabulary occurs with respect to their developmental goals
through fast mapping, which allows a and socialization practices
child to pick up the approximate meaning Preschool
of a new word after hearing it only once or ● Preschools vary greatly in their goals and
twice in conversation curriculums
Grammar and Syntax ● The Montessori method is based on the
● The ways children combine syllables into belief that children’s natural intelligence
words and words into sentences grow involves rational, spiritual, and empirical
increasingly sophisticated during early aspects
childhood as their understanding of ● The Reggio Emilia approach is a less
grammar and syntax becomes more formal model than Montessori. Teachers
complex follow children’s interests and support
Pragmatics and Social Speech them in exploring and investigating ideas
● Pragmatics involves the practical and feelings through words, movement,
knowledge of how to use language to dramatic play, and music
communicate ● Another type of preschool involves
Private Speech compensatory programs
● Private speech—talking aloud to oneself ● Generally, research has shown that
with no intent to communicate with children who are enrolled in compensatory
others— is normal and common in preschool programs show academic and
childhood social gains in multiple, but not all, target
Speech and Language Delays areas immediately following their
● About 11 percent of 3- to 6-year-old participation
children have a communication disorder, ● Another type of preschool is universal
most frequently a problem with speech or preschool, a national system for early care
language and education using the public schools
● Some risk factors are medical in nature Kindergarten
and include birth complications leading to ● Although only 13 states require
oxygen deprivation; preterm delivery; kindergarten programs or kindergarten
seizure disorders; some developmental attendance, most 5-year-olds attend
delays; deformities in the head, mouth, kindergarten
and face; or hearing loss ● Emotional and social adjustment affects
readiness for kindergarten and strongly
predict school success
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● Some children are asked to repeat Understanding Emotions

kindergarten, generally out of the belief ● At about 3 years of age, after children gain
that a second year of kindergarten will self-awareness and accept the standards
help children gain the skills they need to of behavior their parents have set, they
keep up develop the social emotions, including
guilt, shame, and pride
Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt
● Preschool children can do—and want to
Chapter 8: Psychosocial Development in do—more and more. At the same time,
Early Childhood they are learning that some of the things
The Developing Self they want to do meet social approval,
whereas others do not
The Self-Concept and Cognitive Development
● The self-concept is our total picture of our Gender
abilities and traits—who we think we are ● Gender identity, awareness of one’s
and how we feel about who we are gender and all it implies in one’s society of
● Changes in Self-Definition origin, is an important aspect of the
○ Children’s self-definition—the developing self-concept
way they describe Sex Differences
themselves—typically changes ● Sex differences (as traditionally
between about ages 5 and 7, investigated and defined) are
reflecting self-concept psychological or behavioral differences
development and advances in between males and females
cognitive abilities ● Physically, among the larger sex
○ Real Self - the person he/she differences are boys’ higher activity level,
actually is superior motor performance, especially
○ Ideal Self - the person he/she after puberty, and greater propensity for
would like to be physical aggression. Sex-typed play
● Race and Self-Concept preferences increase between
● Cultural Differences in Self-Concept toddlerhood and middle childhood, and
● Disability and Self-Concept the degree of sex-typed behavior
exhibited early in life is a strong indicator
○ A disability is defined as any
of later gender-based behavior
mental or physical condition
● Boys and girls do equally well on tasks
making it difficult for a person to do
involving basic mathematical skills and are
certain activities and interact with
equally capable of learning math but show
the world around them
variations in specific abilities
Self-Esteem
● Girls generally show a verbal advantage
● Self-esteem is the self-evaluative part of
● We need to remember, of course, that sex
the self-concept, the judgment children
differences are valid for large groups of
make about their overall worth
boys and girls but not necessarily for
● Developmental Changes in Self-Esteem
individuals
● Cultural Influences on Self-Esteem
Perspectives on Gender Development
● Self-Esteem and Mindset
● Gender roles are the behaviors, interests,
Regulating Emotions
attitudes, skills, and personality traits that
● Cultural Influences on Emotion Regulation
a culture considers appropriate for males
or females
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

● Gender-typing, the acquisition of a ○ Gender Constancy, a child’s

gender role, takes place early in realization that their gender will
childhood, but children vary greatly in the always be the same
degree to which they become ○ Gender Identity: Awareness of
gender-typed one’s own gender and that of
● Gender stereotypes are preconceived others typically occurs between
generalizations about male or female ages 2 and 3
behavior: “All females are passive and ○ Gender stability: Awareness that
dependent; all males are aggressive and gender does not change. However,
independent” children at this stage base
● Biological Approach judgments about gender on
superficial appearances (clothing
or hairstyle) and stereotyped
behaviors.
○ Gender consistency: The
realization that a girl remains a girl
even if she has a short haircut and
plays with trucks and a boy
remains a boy even if he has long
hair and earrings typically occurs
between ages 3 and 7
○ Transgender people are ○ Gender-Schema Theory - like
individuals whose gender identity cognitive-developmental theory, it
is different from their biological sex views children as actively
○ Intersex people are those born extracting knowledge about gender
with sexual or reproductive from their environment before
anatomical variations not typical for engaging in gender-typed behavior
male or female bodies ● Social Learning Approach
○ Gender dysphoria is a feeling of ○ Social Cognitive Theory, an
psychological distress occurring expansion of social learning theory,
when there is a mismatch between incorporates some cognitive
a person’s gender identity and elements in an attempt to address
biological sex these issues
● Evolutionary Approach Play
○ Theory of Sexual Selection, the Cognitive Levels of Play
selection of sexual partners is a ● Functional Play - consisting of repeated
response to the differing practice in large muscular movements,
reproductive pressures early men such as rolling a ball
and women confronted in the ● Constructive Play - is the use of objects
struggle for survival or materials to make something, such as a
● Psychoanalytic Approach house of blocks or a crayon drawing
○ Identification, the adoption of ● Dramatic Play - involves imaginary
characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, objects, actions, or roles
values, and behaviors of the parent ● Formal Games with Rules—organized
of the same sex games with known procedures and
● Cognitive Approach penalties, such as four square and freeze
tag
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
and getting ideas from the child
The Social Dimension of Play about what is fair
○ Power assertion is intended to
stop or discourage undesirable
behavior through physical or verbal
enforcement of parental control; it
includes demands, threats,
withdrawal of privileges, spanking,
and other types of punishment
○ Withdrawal of love may include
ignoring, isolating, or showing
Gender and Play dislike for a child
● As mentioned previously, girls tend to Parenting Styles
select other girls as playmates, and boys ● Baumrind’s Model of Parenting Styles
prefer other boys, a phenomenon known ○ Authoritarian Parenting
as gender segregation emphasizes control and
Culture and Play unquestioning obedience.
● Cultural values influence beliefs about the Authoritarian parents try to make
importance of play children conform to a set standard
● The degree of egalitarianism of a country of conduct and punish them
does not seem to affect children’s toy forcefully for violating it. They are
preferences, although a comparison of less warm than other parents.
more recent studies to older studies Their children tend to be more
suggests gendered toy preferences have discontented, withdrawn, and
declined, especially for girls, in recent distrustful
decades ○ Permissive Parenting
● Culture also influences the nature of play emphasizes self-expression and
via peer interactions self-regulation. Permissive parents
Parenting make few demands. They consult
Forms of Discipline with children about policy decisions
● In the field of human development, and rarely punish. They are warm,
discipline refers to methods of molding noncontrolling, and undemanding.
character and of teaching self-control and Their preschool children tend to be
acceptable behavior immature—the least self-controlled
● Reinforcement and Punishment and the least exploratory
● Corporal Punishment - has been defined ○ Authoritative Parenting
as “the use of physical force with the emphasizes a child’s individuality
intention of causing a child to experience but also stresses limits.
pain, but not injury, for the purpose of Authoritative parents are loving
correction or control of the child’s behavior and accepting but also demand
● Other Disciplinary Techniques good behavior and are firm in
○ Inductive Techniques - are maintaining standards. They
designed to encourage desirable impose limited, judicious
behavior or discourage undesirable punishment when necessary,
behavior by setting limits, within the context of a warm,
demonstrating logical supportive relationship.
consequences of an action, Preschoolers with authoritative
explaining, discussing, negotiating, parents tend to be the most
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

self-reliant, self-controlled, Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive

self-assertive, exploratory, and Development in Middle Childhood
content Physical Development
● Criticisms of Baumrind’s Model Aspects of Physical Development
Height and Weight
● Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each
year between ages 6 and 11 and
approximately double their weight during
● Cultural Differences in Parenting Styles that period
Dental Health
Relationships with Other Children
Sibling Relationships
● The earliest, most frequent, and most
intense disputes among siblings are over
property rights or access to the mother
● Conflict is common in siblings
● The quality of sibling relationships tends to
persist over time and to carry over to
relationships with other children
The Only Child Nutrition
● With respect to academic outcomes and ● The recommended calories per day for
success in work, they perform slightly school children 9 to 13 years of age range
better than children with siblings. They from 1,400 to 2,600, depending on gender
tend to be more motivated to achieve and and activity level
to have slightly higher self-esteem; and ● Research across 33 different countries
they do not differ in emotional adjustment, has shown that skipping breakfast, which
sociability, or popularity occurs in 10 to 30 percent of children and
● Only children may do better because rises with age, is associated with an
parents focus more attention on only increased risk of overweight, obesity, and
children, talk to them more, and expect cardiometabolic risk factors
more of them than do parents with more ● Approximately one-third of children eat at
than one child fast-food restaurants on any given day
● Those with siblings reported higher levels ● Nutrition education in schools can be
of fear, anxiety, and depression than only helpful when combined with parental
children, regardless of sex or age education and changes in school lunch
Playmates and Friends menus, although they have been more
● Friendships develop as people develop successful in improving fruit intake than
● Preschoolers usually like to play with vegetable intake
children of the same age Sleep
● The traits that young children look for in a ● Sleep needs decline from 10 to 13 hours a
playmate are similar to the traits they look day for 3- to 5-year-olds to 9 to 11 hours a
for in a friend day for ages 6 to 13
● Overall, peer relationships are important ● Snoring can be a marker of poor sleep
for psychosocial development ● Failure to get adequate sleep is also
associated with a variety of adjustment
problems
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Brain Development Physical Health

● A number of cognitive advances occur in Overweight
middle childhood that can be traced back ● Overweight, a body mass index between
to changes in the brain’s structure and the 85th and 95th percentile, and obesity,
functioning a body mass index over the 95th
● Magnetic resonance imaging shows that percentile, have become a major health
the amount of gray matter in the frontal issue for children worldwide
cortex, which is strongly influenced by ● Causes of Overweight and Obesity
genetics, is likely linked with differences in ○ Obesity can result from an
IQ inherited tendency aggravated by
too little exercise and too much or
the wrong kinds of food
● Overweight and Obesity Outcomes
○ The adverse health effects of
obesity for children are similar to
those faced by adults. These
children commonly have medical
problems, including high blood
● Changes in the volume of gray matter pressure, high cholesterol, and
peak at different times in the different high insulin levels, or they may
lobes develop such diseases at a
● Beneath the cortex, gray matter volume in younger age
the caudate—a part of the basal ganglia ● Prevention and Treatment
involved in control of movement and Chronic Medical Conditions
muscle tone and in mediating higher ● Acute Medical Conditions—occasional,
cognitive functions, attention, and short term conditions, such as infections
emotional states—peaks at age 7 in girls and warts—are common
and age 10 in boys ● Chronic Medical Conditions: physical,
● The loss in density of gray matter with age developmental, behavioral, or emotional
is balanced by another change: a steady conditions that persist for 3 months or
increase in white matter more
Motor Development and Physical Activity ● Asthma - a is a chronic, allergy-based
● Cross-Cultural Research on Physical respiratory disease characterized by
Activity sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing,
● Recess and difficulty breathing
○ Rough-and-Tumble Play: ● Diabetes - is characterized by high levels
wrestling, kicking, tumbling, of glucose in the blood
grappling, and chasing, often ● Childhood Hypertensions - or high blood
accompanied by laughing and pressure, was once rare in childhood, but
screaming it has become increasingly common,
● Organized Sports especially among ethnic minorities
● The Impact of COVID-19 on Physical Accidental Injuries
Activity ● As in early childhood, accidental injuries
are the leading cause of accidental death
among school-age
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Cognitive Development particular members of a class of

Piagetian Approach: Cognition people, animals, objects, or
● At about age 7, according to Piaget, events, and then drawing
children enter the stage of concrete conclusions about the class as a
operations when they can use mental whole
operations, such as reasoning, to solve ○ Deductive reasoning, by contrast,
concrete problems starts with a general statement—a
Cognitive Advances premise—about a class and
● In the stage of concrete operations, applies it to particular members of
children have a better understanding than the class
preoperational children of spatial ● Conservation
concepts, causality, categorization, ○ Piaget’s term for this inconsistency
inductive and deductive reasoning, in the development of different
conservation, and number types of conservation is horizontal
● Piaget maintained that the shift from the décalage
rigid, illogical thinking of younger children ● Number and Mathematics
to the flexible, logical thinking of older ● Cultural Influences on Piagetian Task
children depends in part on neurological Performance
development, a belief that has been Information-Processing Approach: Planning,
bolstered by research in brain imaging Attention, and Memory
Executive Functioning
● The gradual development of executive
function from infancy through adolescence
is the result of developmental changes in
brain structure
● Environmental influences are also
important and, given the slow rate of
development of the frontal cortex, exert a
relatively large effect
● Illustrating the plasticity of the brain,
children—particularly those with poor
● Spatial Relationships executive control—benefit from training
● Causality Selective Attention
● Categorization
● School-age children can concentrate
○ Seriation - arranging objects in a longer than younger children and can
series according to one or more focus on the information they need and
dimensions want while screening out irrelevant
○ Transitive Inferences - (if a < b information
and b < c, then a < c) ● The increasing capacity for selective
○ Class Inclusion is the ability to attention is believed to be due to
see the relationship between a neurological maturation and is one of the
whole and its parts, and to reasons memory improves during middle
understand the categories within a childhood
whole Working Memory
● Inductive and Deductive Reasoning ● Working memory involves the short-term
○ Inductive Reasoning involves storage of information that is being
making observations about
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

actively processed, like a mental 18, is designed to evaluate cognitive

workspace abilities in children with diverse needs
● The efficiency of working memory (such as autism, hearing impairments, and
increases greatly in middle childhood, language disorders) and from varying
laying the foundation for a wide range of cultural and linguistic backgrounds
cognitive skills ● Dynamic tests based on Vygotsky’s
Mnemonics theories focus on the child’s zone of
● Mnemonic Device - a strategy to aid proximal development (ZPD): the
memory difference between the items a child can
● External Memory Aids - prompts by answer alone and the items the child can
something outside the person answer with help
● Organization is mentally placing The IQ Controversy
information into categories (such as ● The use of psychometric intelligence tests
animals, furniture, vehicles, and clothing) such as those just described is
to make it easier to recall controversial. On the positive side,
● In elaboration, children associate items because IQ tests have been standardized
with something else, such as an imagined and widely used, there is extensive
scene or story information about their norms, validity, and
Metamemory reliability
● Metamemory can be described as the ● On the other hand, critics claim that the
knowledge of and reflection about memory tests underestimate the intelligence of
processes children who are in ill health or, for one
Psychometric Approach: Intelligence reason or another, do not do well on tests
Measuring Intelligence ● A more fundamental criticism is that IQ
● The most widely used individual test is the tests do not directly measure native ability;
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for instead, they infer intelligence from what
Children (WISC-IV). The test for ages 6 children already know
through 16 measures verbal and Influences on Intelligence
performance abilities, yielding separate ● Brain Development
scores for each as well as a total score ● Influence of Schooling on IQ
● Another commonly used individual test is ● Influences of Race/Ethnicity on IQ
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Is There More Than One Intelligence
The Stanford-Binet measures both verbal ● Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
and nonverbal abilities and consists of five ○ According to Gardner, conventional
subtests: fluid reasoning, knowledge, intelligence tests tap only three
quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial “intelligences”: linguistic,
processing, and working memory logical-mathematical, and, to some
● A popular group test, the Otis-Lennon extent, spatial
School Ability Test (OLSAT8), has levels ○ Gardner argued that these
for kindergarten through 12th grade. intelligences are distinct from each
Children are asked to classify items, show other and that high intelligence in
an understanding of verbal and numerical one area does not necessarily
concepts, display general information, and accompany high intelligence in any
follow directions of the others
● The second edition of the Kaufman ○ Gardner (1995) would assess each
Assessment Battery for Children intelligence directly by observing
(K-ABC-II) an individual test for ages 3 to its products— how well a child can
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

tell a story, remember a melody, or Pragmatics

get around in a strange area— and ● Pragmatics - the social context of
not with typical standardized tests language
○ Critics of Gardner argue that his Second-Language Learning
multiple intelligences are actually ● Some schools use an English-immersion
more accurately labeled as talents approach (sometimes called ESL, or
or abilities and assert that English as a second language) in which
intelligence is more closely language-minority children are immersed
associated with skills that lead to in English from the beginning in special
academic achievement classes
● Bilingual - fluent in two languages
● Another, less common approach is
two-way (dual-language) learning, in
which English-speaking and
foreign-speaking children learn together in
their own and each other’s languages
Literacy
● Learning to Read and Write
○ Decoding - match the visual
● Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of features of letters and the
Intelligence phenomes and remember which
○ The componential element is the ones go together
analytic aspect of intelligence; it ○ Phonetic (code-emphasis)
determines how efficiently people Approach, the child sounds out
process information the word, translating it from print to
○ The experiential element is speech before retrieving it from
insightful or creative; it determines long-term memory
how people approach novel or ○ The whole-language approach
familiar tasks emphasizes visual retrieval and the
○ The contextual element is use of contextual cues
practical; it helps people deal with ○ By using visually based retrieval,
their environment the child simply looks at the word
○ Tacit Knowledge - learn practical and then retrieves it
skills The Child in School
Language and Literacy Influences on School Achievement
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax ● Self-Efficacy Beliefs
● As vocabulary grows during the school ● Gender
years, children use increasingly precise ● Peer Acceptance
verbs ● Parenting Practices
● Children’s understanding of rules of syntax ● Socioeconomic Status
(the deep underlying structure of language ● Educational Reform
that organizes words into understandable ● Class Size
phrases and sentences) becomes more ● Charter Schools and
sophisticated with age Homeschooling
● Sentence structure continues to become ● The Influence of COVID-19 on
more elaborate Education
● Computer and Internet Use
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Educating Children with Special Needs Chapter 10: Psychosocial Development in

Children with Learning Problems Middle Childhood
● Intellectual Disability - is significantly The Developing Self
subnormal cognitive functioning. It is Self-Concept Development
indicated by an IQ of about 70 or less, ● Representational Systems - broad,
coupled with a deficiency in age inclusive self-concepts that integrate
appropriate adaptive behavior (such as various aspects of the self
communication, social skills, and Industry Versus Inferiority
self-care), appearing before age 18 ● According to Erikson (1982), a major
● Learning Disabilities - interfere with determinant of self-esteem is children’s
specific aspects of school achievement, view of their capacity for productive work,
such as listening, speaking, reading, which develops in his fourth stage of
writing, or mathematics, resulting in psychosocial development: industry
performance substantially lower than versus inferiority
would be expected given a child’s age,
Emotional Development
intelligence, and amount of schooling
● As children grow older, they are more
○ Dyslexia is the most commonly aware of their own and other people’s
diagnosed of the learning feelings
disabilities. Dyslexia is a chronic, ● Understanding others’ emotions is
persistent medical condition and important
tends to run in families ● Parents help shape their children’s
● Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder growing understanding of emotions
- is a chronic condition usually marked by ● The development of emotion regulation
persistent inattention, distractibility, has behavioral and academic
impulsivity, and low tolerance for consequences. Children who are good at
frustration self-regulation tend to be socially
Gifted Children competent and do well in school
● Enrichment programs may deepen ● The changes in children’s self-control
students’ knowledge and skills through abilities may help explain why the
extra classroom activities, research influence of parental support of emotions
projects, field trips, or expert coaching changes over time
● Acceleration programs speed up their ● Parents transmit important cultural values
education through early school entrance, within the context of their interactions with
grade skipping, placement in fast-paced children
classes, or advanced courses ● Cultural values also influence children’s
● Defining and Measuring Creativity emotional experiences
○ Convergent Thinking—the kind ● While children become better at identifying
IQ tests measure—seeks a single and understanding emotions with age,
correct answer some children lag behind, and this can
○ Divergent Thinking, by contrast, cause social and behavioral issues
involves coming up with a wide The Child in the Family
array of fresh possibilities, such as Family Atmosphere
when children are asked to list how ● Coregulation and Parental Control
many different uses there might be Strategies
for a paper clip or to write down ○ Middle childhood brings a
what a sound brings to mind transitional stage of coregulation
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

in which parent and child share ● Sociometrically, popular children receive

power many positive nominations and few
● Cultural Differences in Family Dynamics negative nominations
● Family Conflict ● Children can be unpopular in one of two
○ Internalizing behaviors include ways. Some children are rejected, and
anxiety, fearfulness, and they receive a large number of negative
depression—anger turned inward nominations. Other children are neglected
○ Externalizing behaviors include and receive few nominations of any kind
aggression, fighting, disobedience, ● Other children can be average in their
and hostility—anger turned ratings and do not receive an unusual
outward number of either positive or negative
● Maternal Employment nominations. Finally, some children are
● Poverty controversial and receive many positive
Family Structure and negative nominations, indicating that
● Divorce some children like them a great deal and
● One-Parent Families some dislike them a great deal
● Cohabitating Families ● Popularity is important in middle
● Stepfamilies childhood, although the quality of
● Gay and Lesbian Parents friendships appears to be more important
● Adoptive Families than the actual number of friends
Sibling Relationship
● Children’s sociometric popularity is
influenced by family context
● Sibling relations have both positive and
● Cultural norms can affect children’s criteria
negative aspects to them
for popularity
● However, sibling conflict is not always
Friendship
beneficial. High sibling conflict has been
associated with internalizing (e.g., ● Children look for friends who are like them
depression and anxiety) and externalizing in age, sex, activity level, and interests
(e.g., delinquency and aggression) ● School-age children distinguish among
problems as well as risky behaviors “best friends,” “good friends,” and “casual
● Gender also appears to be an influence friends” on the basis of intimacy and time
on sibling relationships. Sisters are higher spent together
in sibling intimacy than brothers or ● Unpopular children can make friends, but
mixed-sex dyads they tend to have fewer friends than
● Siblings also influence each other popular children, and they demonstrate a
indirectly, through their impact on each preference for younger friends, other
other’s relationship with their parents unpopular children, or children in a
different class or a different school
The Child in the Peer Group
Aggression and Bullying
Peer Groups
● Bullies and Victims
● Prejudice - unfavorable attitudes toward
outsiders, especially members of certain ○ Aggression becomes bullying
racial or ethnic group when it is deliberately, persistently
Popularity
directed against a particular target:
a victim
● Children can also easily describe which
children they don’t like to play with, like the ● The Influence of Media Violence on
least, or think other kids don’t like; this is a Aggression
negative nomination ● Outcomes of Aggression
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Mental Health intrusive thoughts, images, or

Common Emotional Problems impulses (often involving irrational
● Disruptive Conduct Disorders fears); may show compulsive
○ When such a pattern of behavior behaviors, such as constant
persists until age 8, children hand-washing; or both
(usually boys) may be diagnosed ● Childhood Depression - n is a disorder
with oppositional defiant of mood that goes beyond normal,
disorder (ODD), a pattern of temporary sadness
defiance, disobedience, and ● The Influence of COVID-19 on Child
hostility toward adult authority Mental Health
figures lasting at least 6 months Treatment Techniques
and going beyond the bounds of ● In individual psychotherapy, a therapist
normal childhood behavior sees a child one-on-one to help the child
○ Some children with ODD may later gain insights into his or her personality
be diagnosed with conduct and relationships and to interpret feelings
disorder (CD), a persistent, and behavior
repetitive pattern, beginning at an ● In family therapy, the therapist sees the
early age, of aggressive, antisocial family together, observes how members
acts, such as truancy, setting fires, interact, and points out both
habitual lying, fighting, bullying, growth-producing and growth-inhibiting or
theft, vandalism, assaults, and destructive patterns of family functioning
drug and alcohol use ● Behavior therapy, or behavior
● Anxiety Disorders modification, is a form of psychotherapy
○ Separation anxiety disorder that uses principles of learning theory to
involves excessive anxiety for at eliminate undesirable behaviors or to
least 4 weeks concerning develop desirable ones
separation from home or from ● When children have limited verbal and
attachment figures conceptual skills or have suffered
○ Children with school phobia have emotional trauma, art therapy can help
an unrealistic fear of going to them describe what is troubling them
school. Sometimes school phobia without the need to put their feelings into
may be a form of social phobia, or words
social anxiety: extreme fear and/or ● Play therapy, in which a child plays freely
avoidance of social situations such while a therapist occasionally comments,
as speaking in class or meeting an asks questions, or makes suggestions,
acquaintance on the street has also been demonstrated to be
○ Some children have a generalized effective for a variety of emotional,
anxiety disorder, not focused on cognitive, and social problems, especially
any specific part of their lives. when consultation with parents or other
These children worry about just close family members is part of the
about everything: school grades, process
storms, earthquakes, and hurting ● The use of drug
themselves on the playground therapy—antidepressants, stimulants,
○ Far less common is tranquilizers, or antipsychotic
obsessive-compulsive disorder medications—to treat childhood emotional
(OCD). Children with this disorder disorders is controversial
may be obsessed by repetitive,
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Resilience physically or when they began a

● Resilient children are those who weather vocational apprenticeship
circumstances that might blight others, Physical Development
who maintain their composure and Puberty
competence under challenge or threat, or ● Puberty involves dramatic biological
who bounce back from traumatic events changes. These changes are part of a
● The two most important protective factors long, complex process of maturation that
that help children and adolescents begins even before birth, and their
overcome stress and contribute to psychological ramifications may continue
resilience are good family relationships into adulthood
and cognitive functioning Hormonal Changes in Puberty
○ The child’s temperament or ● The advent of puberty is not caused by
personality: Resilient children are any single factor. Rather, puberty results
adaptable, friendly, well liked, from a cascade of hormonal responses
independent, and sensitive to ● Puberty can be broken down into two
others basic stages: adrenarche and gonadarche
○ Compensating experiences: A ○ Adrenarche occurs between ages
supportive school environment or 6 and 8. During this stage, the
successful experiences in studies, adrenal glands secrete increasing
sports, or music, or with other levels of androgens, most notably
children or adults can help make dehydroepiandrosterone
up for a destructive home life ○ The second stage, gonadarche, is
○ Reduced risk: Children who have marked by the maturing of the sex
been exposed to only one of a organs, which triggers a second
number of factors for psychiatric burst of DHEA production. During
disorder (such as parental discord, this time, a girl’s ovaries increase
a disturbed mother, a criminal their input of estrogen, which in
father, and experience in foster turn stimulates the growth of
care) are often better able to female genitals, breasts, and the
overcome stress than children who development of pubic and
have been exposed to more than underarm hair. In boys, the testes
one risk factor increase the production of
androgens, especially
testosterone. This increase leads
to the growth of male genitals,
Chapter 11: Physical and Cognitive muscle mass, and body hair
Development in Adolescence Puberty and Sexual Maturity
Adolescence ● Primary and Secondary Sex
● Adolescence— a developmental Characteristics
transition that involves physical, cognitive, ○ The primary sex characteristics
emotional, and social changes and takes are the organs necessary for
varying forms in different social, cultural, reproduction. In the female, the
and economic settings sex organs include the ovaries,
Adolescence as a Social Construction fallopian tubes, uterus, clitoris, and
● Adolescence is a social construction. In vagina. In the male, they
preindustrial societies, children entered
the adult world when they matured
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

include the testes, penis, scrotum, its normal timing can vary from age
seminal vesicles, and prostate 10 to 16½
gland. During puberty, these Pubertal Timing
organs enlarge and mature ● Secular Trends in Pubertal Timing
○ Secular Trend—a trend that spans
several generations
● Influences on Pubertal Timing
● Implications of Pubertal Timing
The Adolescent Brain

Physical and Mental Health

Physical Activity
● The benefits of regular exercise include
○ The secondary sex improved strength and endurance,
characteristics are physiological healthier bones and muscles, weight
signs of sexual maturation that do control, and reduced anxiety and stress,
not directly involve the sex organs; as well as increased self-esteem, school
for example, the breasts of females grades, and well-being
and the broad shoulders of males. ● The World Health Organization (2020)
Other secondary sex recommends that adolescents do 1 hour
characteristics are changes in the or more of moderate to vigorous physical
voice and skin texture, muscular activity per day
development, and the growth of Sleep
pubic, facial, axillary, and body hair ● The American Academy of Sleep Medicine
● Signs of Puberty recommends that adolescents ages 13 to
● The Adolescent Growth Spurt - a rapid 18 should regularly sleep a minimum of 8
increase in height, weight, and muscle to 10 hours per 24-hour period
and bone growth that occurs during ● This is particularly distressing as both
puberty—generally begins in girls between children and adolescents need sleep, and
ages 9½ and 14½ (usually at about 10) adolescents need even more sleep than
and in boys between 10½ and 16 (usually when they were younger
at 12 or 13) ● Sleep deprivation can sap motivation and
● Sexual Maturity cause irritability, and concentration and
○ The first ejaculation, or school performance can suffer
spermarche, occurs at an average Nutrition and Eating Disorders
age of 13 ● Overweight and Obesity
○ The first menstruation, called ● Body Image and Body Satisfaction
menarche, occurs fairly late in the
sequence of female development;
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
○ Body image—or one’s Depression
perceptions, thoughts, and feelings ● Across the world, depression is a leading
about one’s body—can be affected cause of death and disability in teens
by puberty ● Girls are more likely to experience
depression than boys
● Depressed adolescents who do not
respond to outpatient treatment or who
have substance dependence or psychosis
or seem suicidal may need to be
hospitalized
Death in Adolescence
● Anorexia Nervosa - distorted body ● Deaths from Vehicle Accidents
image and, though typically severely ● Suicide
underweight, think they are too fat ● Homicide
● Bulimia Nervosa and Binge Eating
Cognitive Development
Disorder
Aspects of Cognitive Maturation
○ Bulimia nervosa - a person with Piaget’s Stage of Formal Operations
bulimia regularly goes on huge,
● Adolescents enter what Piaget called the
short-lived eating binges (2 hours
highest level of cognitive
or less) and then may try to purge
development—formal operations—when
the high caloric intake through
they move away from their reliance on
self-induced vomiting, strict dieting
concrete, real-world stimuli and develop
or fasting, excessively vigorous
the capacity for abstract thought
exercise, or laxatives, enemas, or
● Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning -
diuretics
involves a methodical, scientific approach
○ The related binge eating disorder
to problem solving, and it characterizes
(BED) involves frequent binging
formal operations thinking
but without subsequent fasting,
Immature Aspects of Adolescent Thought
exercise, or vomiting
● Imaginary Audience - a conceptualized
● Diversity and Eating Disorders
“observer” who is as concerned with a
● Treatment and Outcomes
young person’s thoughts and behavior as
Drug Use
he or she is
● Substance abuse is harmful use of ● The personal fable is the belief by
alcohol or other drugs. Abuse can lead to adolescents that they are special, their
substance dependence, or addiction, experience is unique, and they are not
which may be physiological, subject to the rules that govern the rest of
psychological, or both, and is likely to the world
continue into adulthood Language Development
● Trends in Drug Use
● In adolescence, both oral and written
● Alcohol
vocabulary knowledge continues to
○ Binge drinking—consuming five improve and become more adultlike
or more drinks on one ● Adolescents also become more skilled in
occasion—puts teens at social perspective-taking, the ability to
particularly high risk tailor their speech to another person’s
● Marijuana point of view
● Tobacco
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Language is not static; it is fluid, and the Educational and Vocational Issues
words and phrases used by people Academic Achievement
change over time ● Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy
Moral Development and Prosocial Behavior ○ Self-Efficacy—who believe that
● Moral Reasoning they can successfully achieve
academic goals
● Gender
● Technological Influences
● Parents and Peer Influence
● Race and Ethnicity
● The School
Dropping Out of High School
● Education is one of the most powerful
ways in which to reduce poverty and
promote health, gender equality, and
○ Level I: Preconventional well-being
morality. People act under ● There are consequences for both society
external controls. They obey rules and individuals for dropping out. Society
to avoid punishment or reap suffers when young people do not finish
rewards, or they act out of school. Dropouts are more likely to be
self-interest. This level is typical of unemployed or to have low incomes, to
children ages 4 to 10 end up on welfare, to have poor health,
○ Level II: Conventional morality and to become involved with drugs, crime,
(or morality of conventional role and delinquency
conformity). People have Preparing for Higher Education or Vocations
internalized the standards of ● Gender and Career Choice
authority figures. They are ● Guiding Students Not Bound for College
concerned about being “good,” ● Adolescents in the Workplace
pleasing others, and maintaining
the social order. This level is
typically reached after age 10;
many people never move beyond Chapter 12: Psychosocial Development in
it, even in adulthood Adolescence
○ Level III: Postconventional The Search for Identity
morality (or morality of
● The search for identity—which Erikson
autonomous moral principles).
(1968) defined as a coherent conception
People recognize conflicts
of the self, made up of goals, values, and
between moral standards and
beliefs to which the person is solidly
make their own judgments on the
committed— comes into focus during the
basis of principles of right, fairness,
teenage years
and justice. People generally do
Identity Versus Identity Confusion
not reach this level of moral
● The chief task of adolescence, said
reasoning until at least early
Erikson (1968), is to confront the crisis of
adolescence or, more commonly,
identity versus identity confusion, or
in young adulthood, if ever
identity versus role confusion, so as to
● Culture, Religion and Moral Reasoning
● Prosocial Behavior
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
become a unique adult with a coherent ● However, more recent research has
sense of self and a valued role in society indicated there are few gender differences
● Psychosocial Moratorium - the time-out in identity status
period that adolescence provides, allows ● Most notably, a meta-analysis using data
young people to search for commitments from studies conducted in the 1970s and
to which they can be faithful 1980s showed that identity status and
Identity Status intimacy were associated with each other
● The four categories differ according to the in both men and women but that the
presence or absence of crisis and relationship was more robust for men
commitment, the two elements Erikson Identity Development in Sexual-Minority Youth
saw as crucial to forming identity ● In adolescence, a person’s sexual
● Identity diffusion (no commitment, no orientation, the direction of their erotic
crisis). Mark has not seriously considered interests, becomes more clear
options and has avoided commitments. He ● The term LGBTQ+, an acronym for
is unsure of himself and tends to be “lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer
uncooperative. His parents do not discuss and/or questioning, and others,” has been
his future with him; they say it is up to him. developed to encompass the diversity of
People in this category tend to be sexual identities now recognized
unhappy and often lonely ● Transgender is a term that refers to
● Foreclosure (commitment without crisis). individuals whose biological sex assigned
Isabella has made commitments by at birth and gender identity are not the
uncritically accepting her family’s plans for same
her life. She is self-assured, but she Racial and Ethnic Differences in Identity Formation
becomes dogmatic when her opinions are
questioned. She has close family ties and
is obedient
● Moratorium (crisis with no commitment
yet). Marcus is actively grappling with his
identity and trying to decide for himself
who he wants to be and the path he wants
his life to take. He is not only lively,
talkative, and self-confident but also
anxious and fearful. He will probably come
out of his crisis with the ability to make
commitments and achieve identity
● Identity achievement (crisis and
commitment). After a crisis period, Olivia
made thoughtful choices and expressed ● Cultural socialization includes practices
strong commitment to them. Research in a that teach children about their racial or
number of cultures has found people in ethnic heritage, promote cultural customs
this category to be more mature and more and traditions, and foster racial/ethnic and
socially competent than people in the cultural pride
other three Cultural Differences in Identity Formation
Gender Differences in Identity Formation ● Culture shapes our understanding of who
● Some earlier research supports Erikson’s we are not just within the context of our
view that for women, identity and intimacy parents’ socialization practices but also
develop together with the influence of wider cultural values
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● In individualistic cultures, because of the Sibling Relationships
strong emphasis on the self, people’s ● In many traditional cultures, older siblings
self-concept is individual in nature and are responsible for caring for younger
their personality—because it is siblings
conceptualized as something that lives ● Changes in sibling relationships in many
within individuals—is generally stable ways mirror the changes we see in the
across situations relationships of adolescents and their
Sexuality parents
● Seeing oneself as a sexual being, ● Siblings are important in part because
recognizing one’s sexual orientation, and social skills learned within the context of
forming romantic or sexual attachments all sibling relationships can be transferred to
are parts of achieving sexual identity and the peer group
important milestones in the path to adult ● Sibling relationships also interact with
relationships parent-child relations and the parents’
Sexual Orientation marital relationship
● Origins of Sexual Orientation ● A recent meta-analysis supports the
Sexual Behavior
strong connection between warm
relationships with little conflict and
● Correlates of Adolescent Sexual Activity
healthier psychological adjustment in
● Contraceptive Use
siblings
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Peer Relationships
● Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
● Friendships
are diseases spread by sexual contact
● Social Media and Electronic Interaction
● Viral STIs
● Romantic Relationships
● Bacterial STIs
Teen Pregnancy
Antisocial Behavior and Juvenile Delinquency
Biological Influences
● Outcomes of Teenage Pregnancy
● Sex Education and Pregnancy Prevention ● Antisocial behavior is genetically
Other Risks of Adolescence
influenced
● Neurobiological deficits, particularly in the
● Female Genital Mutilation and Child
portions of the brain that regulate
Marriage
reactions to rewards and punishments,
Relationships with Family, Peers, and Adult
may help explain why some children
Society
become antisocial adolescents
The Myth of Adolescent Rebellion
● Part of this abnormal physiological profile
● The teenage years have been called a may involve arousal processes
time of adolescent rebellion, involving ● Attentional processes may also be
emotional turmoil, conflict within the family, involved. Children, especially boys, with
alienation from adult society, reckless attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
behavior, and rejection of adult values (ADHD) are at higher risk for the
Adolescents and Parents development of comorbid oppositional
● Individuation and Family Conflict defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct
● Parenting Styles and Parental Authority disorder (CD), which contribute to
● Parental Monitoring and Adolescents’ antisocial behavior
Self-Disclosure Environmental Influences
● Family Structure and Atmosphere ● Parents of children who become
● Mothers’ Employment and Economic chronically antisocial have been found to
Stress
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
use more harsh parenting and adult roles. This period of the life span is
psychological control techniques marked by identity exploration and a focus
● However, when parents show high warmth on the self
and low hostility, even delinquent teens Physical Development
tend to reduce their problematic behavior Health and Fitness
and behave more positively Health Status
● Antisocial adolescents tend to have ● Globally, most young adults are in good
antisocial friends, and their antisocial health
behavior increases when they associate ● Lower socioeconomic status is
with each other consistently, although not invariably,
● Family economic circumstances also associated with poor health
influence the development of antisocial ● Although the risk of death or severe
behavior complications such as respiratory distress
● Weak neighborhood social organization in and stroke as a result of COVID-19
a disadvantaged community can influence infection is lower in younger adults than in
delinquency through its effects on older adults, it does exist
parenting behavior and peer deviance as Genetic Influences on Health
well as on norms about antisocial or ● Mapping the human genome has enabled
violent acts us to examine more clearly the genetic
● Culture might also be predicted to roots of many disorders
influence antisocial tendencies in youth as Behavioral Influences on Health
well ● Diet and Nutrition
● The vast majority of young people who ● Obesity and Overweight
engage in juvenile delinquency do not ● Food Insecurity
become adult criminals ● Physical Activity
Preventing and Treating Delinquency ● Stress
● Adolescents who have taken part in ● Sleep
well-designed early childhood intervention ● Smoking
programs are less likely to get in trouble ● Alcohol Use
than their peers who did not experience Indirect Influences on Health
such programs ● Socioeconomic Status
● Programs such as teen hangouts and ● Race and Ethnicity
summer camps for behaviorally disturbed ● Health Care Access
youth can be counterproductive because ● Relationships and Health
they bring together groups of deviant
Mental Health Problems
youth who tend to reinforce each other’s
● Alcoholism - is a long-term physical
deviancy
condition characterized by compulsive
drinking that a person is unable to control
● Drug Use and Abuse
● Depression
Chapter 13: Physical and Cognitive Sexual Issues
Development in Emerging and Young Sexual Behavior and Attitudes
Adulthood ● Sexual behaviors and attitudes across
Emerging Adulthood different nations vary widely
● Emerging Adulthood - it is a time during ● Premarital sex is more likely to be
which young people are no longer considered acceptable in developed than
adolescents but have not yet settled into developing countries
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Emerging adults tend to have more sexual emotions—our own and those of
partners than in older age groups, but they others—so as to achieve goals
have sex less frequently Moral Reasoning
● Casual sex (hooking up) is fairly common, The Three Ethics
especially on college campuses ● Cultures affect moral reasoning because
● The acceptability of homosexual unions is important cultural values and goals,
growing, especially in younger cohorts including those associated with religion,
and in women, although religious adults, are reflected in the dominant ethical
especially evangelical Protestants, are system of a culture
less likely to be supportive of same-sex ● The ethic of autonomy is characteristic of
relationships individualistic cultures, and it focuses on
● By emerging adulthood, most lesbian, gay, the rights of the individual and abstract
bisexual, and transgender persons are concepts of justice. The ethic of
clear about their sexual identity community, more characteristic of
Sexually Transmitted Infections collectivistic cultures, focuses on social
● Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also connections, duty to others, group
known as sexually transmitted diseases harmony, and respect for the structures
(STDs), are illnesses that are transmitted that maintain social harmony. Last, the
by having sex ethic of divinity views the person as a
● A variety of interventions have been used temporary vessel for a divine soul or
to try to stem the tide of STI infections, sacred being. Moral dictates, in this view,
particularly with respect to HIV center upon attaining holiness and
Menstrual Disorders endorse concepts related to sanctity or
● Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a purity
disorder that produces physical discomfort Education and Work
and emotional tension for up to 2 weeks College
before a menstrual period ● Gender, Socioeconomic Status, and
Cognitive Development Race/Ethnicity
Perspectives on Adult Cognition ● Cognitive Growth in College
Piagetian Approaches Entering the World of Work
● Postformal Thought - this higher stage of ● Combining Work and Schooling
adult cognition, which tends to emerge in ● Cognitive Growth at Work
early adulthood and is associated with ○ Substantive Complexity of
higher education Work—the degree of thought and
● Reflective Thinking - was first defined by independent judgment it requires
the American philosopher and educator
John Dewey (1933) as “active, persistent,
and careful consideration” of information
or beliefs
Chapter 14: Psychosocial Development in
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Emerging and Young Adulthood
● Tacit Knowledge is commonsense
Developmental Tasks of Emerging Adulthood
knowledge of how to get ahead—how to
Paths to Adulthood
win a promotion or cut through red tape
● Traditionally, adulthood was defined by
Emotional Intelligence
markers such as moving out of the family
● Emotional Intelligence - it refers to four
home, marriage, children, full-time
related skills: the abilities to perceive, use,
employment, or the establishment of a
understand, and manage, or regulate,
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
career. Today, although a wide variety of life—such events as marriage,
paths may be followed on the way to parenthood, grandparenthood, and
adulthood, three primary pathways retirement
increasingly characterize the trajectory of ● Social Clock - their society’s norms or
young adulthood expectations for the appropriate timing of
● The first group includes those young life events
adults who begin families early and Trait Models
generally do not go to college ● Trait models are psychological models
● The second pathway includes those that focus on the measurement and
young adults who delay having children examination of these different traits
until young adulthood but who, rather than ● One of the best known of these models is
investing in college, move into full-time the five-factor model consisting of
work factors, or dimensions, that seem to
● The third group involves emerging adults underlie five groups of associated traits,
who delay parenthood and other known as the “Big Five”
traditional markers of adulthood in pursuit ● Continuity and Change in the Big Five
of educational or career goals
Identity Development
● The Contemporary Moratorium
● Ethnic and Cultural Factors in Identity
Formation
● Religious Identity Formation
Typological Models
● Sexual and Gender Identity Formation
● Jack Block was a pioneer in the
Personality Development: Four Views
typological approach
Normative-Stage Models
● Typological research seeks to complement
● Normative-stage models are theoretical
and expand trait research by looking at
approaches that hold that adults follow a
personality as a functioning whole
basic sequence of age-related
● Ego Resiliency - adaptability under stress
psychosocial changes
● Ego Control - self-control
● The normative crisis of young adulthood is
Relationships in Emerging Adulthood
intimacy versus isolation
Relationships with Parents
● Failure to Launch
Friendship
● Young adults generally have the largest
friendship networks; however, friendships
during this time are often less stable than
in either adolescence or later adulthood,
primarily because people in emerging
adulthood relocate more frequently
Timing-of-Events Model ● Over the course of young adulthood, the
● Timing-of-Events Model - holds that the number of friends and the amount of time
course of development depends on when spent with them gradually decrease as
certain events occur in people’s lives leisure time decreases and responsibility
● Normative life events (also called to others increases
normative age-graded events) are those
that typically happen at certain times of
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Women typically have more intimate and lesbian relationships tend to be less
friendships than men do stable than heterosexual relationships,
● Fictive Kin - these types of friends are perhaps due to the lack of institutional
treated as family members despite a lack supports
of blood relationship Cohabitation
Love ● Cohabitation is an increasingly common
● According to Sternberg’s triangular lifestyle in which an unmarried couple
theory of love (1995), the three elements, involved in a sexual relationship live
or components, of love are intimacy, together
passion, and commitment ● Cohabiting relationships tend to be less
● Intimacy, the emotional element, involves satisfying and less stable than marriages
self-disclosure, which leads to connection, Marriage
warmth, and trust ● Cultural and Contextual Influences on
● Passion, the motivational element, is Marriage
based on inner drives that translate ● Marriage Trends
physiological arousal into sexual desire ● Marital Satisfaction
● Commitment, the cognitive element, is the ● Extramarital Sexual Activity
decision to love and to stay with the Parenthood
beloved Cultural and Contextual Influences
● Cultural Differences
● Dual-Income Families
Relationship Dynamics
● Gender Differences in Parenting
● Marital Satisfaction
When Marriage Ends
Divorce
● Predictors of Divorce
● Adjusting to Divorce
Remarriage and Stepparenthood
Marital and Nonmarital Lifestyles
Single Life
● Men and women living with children from a
previous relationship are most likely to
● Despite being single, many adults enjoy
form a new union with someone who also
sexual and intimate relationships with
has resident children, thus forming a
others
stepfamily
Nonheterosexual Relationships
● The more recent the current marriage and
● In most ways, gay and lesbian
the older the stepchildren, the harder
relationships mirror heterosexual
stepparenting seems to be
relationships
● Differences between gay and lesbian
couples and heterosexual couples have
also emerged from research. First, gay Chapter 15: Physical and Cognitive
and lesbian couples are more likely than Development in Middle Adulthood
heterosexual couples to negotiate Middle Age: A Social Construct
household chores on a more egalitarian Physical Changes
basis. Second, they tend to resolve Sensory Functioning
conflicts in a more positive atmosphere ● Presbyopia - difficulty focusing on near
than heterosexual couples do. Third, gay objects
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Myopia - near-sightedness ● Menopause - takes place when a woman
● Presbycusis - gradual hearing loss permanently stops ovulating and
Physical Fitness menstruating and can no longer conceive
● Basal metabolism is the minimum a child; it is generally considered to have
amount of energy, typically measured in occurred 1 year after the last menstrual
calories, that your body needs to maintain period
vital functions while resting ● Perimenopause - during this time, a
The Brain at Midlife woman’s production of mature ova begins
● The aging brain can be described in two to decline, and the ovaries produce less
ways: as working more slowly and as estrogen
having difficulty juggling multiple tasks
● Starting at about age 35, there is a steady
decline in whole brain volume of
approximately 0.2 percent per year that
accelerates to 0.5 percent as adults near
60 years of age
● Although some declines are likely,
declines are neither inevitable nor
necessarily permanent
● Two factors that do seem to be important ● Changes in Male Sexual Functioning
are keeping both body and mind busy ○ Erectile dysfunction is defined as
● A busy mind is also important. Adults who a persistent inability to achieve or
read and write on a regular basis or who maintain an erect enough penis for
work in a cognitively stimulating satisfactory sexual performance
environment are more likely to retain their ● Sexual Activity
cognitive functions
Physical and Mental Health
● The aging brain compensates for
Physical Health at Midlife
functional declines in part by recruiting a
● Hypertension (chronically high blood
larger number of brain areas to work
pressure) is the world’s leading
together to distribute processing demands
preventable cause of early death
more widely for difficult tasks
Behavioral Influences on Health
Structural and Systemic Changes
● Weight in particular seems to affect health.
● Vital capacity—the maximum volume of
Excess weight in middle age increases the
air the lungs can draw in and expel—may
risk of impaired health and death, even in
begin to diminish at about age 40 and can
healthy people and for those who have
drop by as much as 40 percent by age 70
never smoked
Sexuality and Reproductive Functioning
● Physical activity in midlife is an important
● Infertility - the inability to conceive a baby
protective factor, particularly given that
after 12 months of intercourse in the
declines in cardiovascular fitness are
absence of birth control method
steep after age 45
Socioeconomic Status and Health
● People with low socioeconomic status
tend to have poorer health, shorter life
expectancy, more activity limitations due
to chronic disease, and lower well-being
than people with higher SES
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● The reasons for the connection between Cognitive Development
SES and health may also be Cognitive Development at Midlife
psychosocial. People with low SES tend to Cognitive Performance
live in more stressful environments and
report higher levels of perceived stress
● However, there are wide individual
differences in health among low-SES
adults. Protective influences include the
quality of social relationships and the level
of religious engagement from childhood
on. Negative influences include loneliness,
which has a negative effect on both
mental and physical well-being and is a Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
risk factor for poor health and mortality ● Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve
Race/Ethnicity and Health novel problems on the fly
● By far, the most research has focused on ● Crystallized intelligence, by contrast, is
correlates of ethnicity and how those the ability to remember and use
might be related to differences in health. information acquired over a lifetime, such
People who live in poverty generally have as finding a synonym for a word or solving
poorer access to health care, more a math problem
stressful lives, and greater exposure to The Distinctiveness of Adult Cognition
potential toxins in their everyday Expertise
environment. Moreover, people of different
● Encapsulation makes that knowledge
races may have differential responses to
easier to access, to add to, and to use
poverty
Integrative Thought
● There are other differences between
● Although not limited to any particular
people of different ethnicities
period of adulthood, postformal thought
Gender and Health
seems well suited to the complex tasks,
● Bone Loss and Osteoporosis
multiple roles, and perplexing choices and
○ Osteoporosis (“porous bones”), a challenges of midlife, such as the need to
condition in which the bones synthesize and balance work and family
become thin and brittle as a result demands
of calcium depletion ● Society benefits from this integrative
● Breast Cancer and Mammography feature of adult thought. Generally, it is
○ Mammography - diagnostic X-ray mature adults who translate their
examination of the breasts knowledge about the human condition into
● Hormone Therapy (HT) - is treatment inspirational stories to which younger
with artificial estrogen, sometimes in generations can turn for guidance
combination with progesterone, to help Creativity
relieve symptoms of menopause Creativity and Age
Mental Health at Midlife ● Poets, mathematicians, and theoretical
● Stress - is the damage that occurs when physicists tend to be most prolific in their
perceived environmental demands, or late twenties or early thirties. Research
stressors, exceed a person’s capacity to psychologists reach a peak around age
cope with them 40, followed by a moderate decline.
● Stress and Health
● Emotions and Health
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Novelists, historians, and philosophers Chapter 16: Psychosocial Development in
become increasingly productive through Middle Adulthood
their late forties or fifties and then level off. Theoretical Models of Change at Midlife
These patterns hold true across cultures Normative-Stage Models
and historical periods ● Erikson (1985) believed that the years
Work and Education around age 40 were a time when people
Work and Retirement entered their seventh psychosocial stage:
● Before 1985, the average age of generativity versus stagnation.
retirement moved steadily downward. Generativity, as Erikson defined it,
Since then, the trend has reversed, and involved finding meaning through
age at retirement has moved steadily contributing to society and leaving a
upward legacy for future generations
● People sometimes continue working to ● Typically, generativity is expressed by
maintain their physical and emotional being a parent or grandparent, although
health and their personal and social roles this is not the only path
or simply because they enjoy the ● Erikson believed that generativity was
stimulation of work especially salient during midlife because
● As with many areas of life, the COVID-19 of the demands placed on adults through
pandemic affected patterns of retirement work and family
Work and Cognitive Development ● Overall, highly generative people tend to
● “Use it or lose it” applies to the mind as report greater well-being and satisfaction
well as the body. Work can influence in midlife and in later adulthood, perhaps
cognitive functioning through the sense of having contributed
● Occupational choice can affect this meaningfully to society
process in adults in an interactive fashion ● The positive effects are also physical in
● Work need not necessarily be construed in nature; generativity is also associated with
the traditional way, and the same is true of good health and a decreased risk of
men and women engaged in complex disability, cognitive decline, and mortality
household work, such as planning a ● Cultural Influences on Generativity
budget or making complicated repairs Trait Models
such as putting in new plumbing ● Culture and Personality
● Openness to experience (OTE)—a Timing of Events Models
personality variable—also affects cognitive ● Every culture has a social clock
performance over time describing the ages at which people are
● This suggests that if work, both on the job expected to reach certain milestones
and at home, could be made meaningful ● In previous generations, the timing of
and challenging, more adults might retain major events in the social clock were fairly
or improve their cognitive abilities predictable. When occupational patterns
Adult Education were more stable and retirement at age 65
● Literacy Training was almost universal, the meaning of work
○ Literacy is a fundamental requisite was more similar for all adults nearing
for participation not only in the retirement age
workplace but in all facets of a ● There are many norms regarding the
modern, information-driven society “correct” timing for life events, and one
particularly strong influence, especially for
women, involves norms surrounding
parenting
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Fortunately, despite the multiple ● Ideally, people are able to achieve
challenges and variable events of midlife, identity balance and maintain a stable
many middle-aged adults show sense of self while adjusting their self
remarkable resilience schemas to incorporate new information,
Issues and Themes at Midlife such as the effects of aging
The Midlife Crisis? ● Generativity and Identity Processes in
● Changes in personality and lifestyle such Women
as these during the early to middle forties Positive Mental Health at Midlife
are attributed to what has been called a ● Life Satisfaction
midlifecrisis ● Well-Being
● Turning Point—a psychological transition ● Emotional Influences on Well-Being
that involves significant change or ● Religiosity and Well-Being
transformation in the perceived meaning, Relationships at Midlife
purpose, or direction of a person’s life Theories if Social Contact
● The midlife review involves recognizing ● Social Convoy Theory - people move
the finiteness of life and can be a time of through life surrounded by social convoys:
taking stock, discovering new insights circles of close friends and family
about the self, and spurring midcourse members of varying degrees of closeness,
corrections in the design and trajectory of on whom they can rely for assistance,
one’s life well-being, and social support, and to
● Ego Resiliency—the ability to adapt whom they in turn offer care, concern, and
flexibly and resourcefully to potential support
sources of stress ● Socioemotional Selectivity Theory -
Identity Development assumes we select our friends based on
● Narrative Psychology their ability to meet our goals
Relationships and Well-Being
● For most middle-aged adults,
relationships are key to well-being
● However, relationships, or the lack of
them, can also present stressful demands
● In studying midlife social relationships, we
need to keep in mind that their effects can
be both positive and negative
Consensual Relationships
Marriage
● Identity Process Theory - physical ● Gay and Lesbian Relationships
characteristics, cognitive abilities, and ● Arranged Marriages
personality traits are incorporated into ● Marriage and Health
identity schemas Cohabitation
● Identity Assimilation - involves holding ● What explains the rise in cohabitation for
onto a consistent sense of self in the face older adults? One of the reasons is a
of new experiences that do not fit the desire for an intimate companion without
current understanding of the self the commitment of formal marriage—a
● Identity Accommodation, in contrast, commitment that, in middle age, may
involves adjusting the identity schema to come to mean having to care for an infirm
fit new experiences partner
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● On average, cohabitating couples report Relationships with Maturing Children
worse mental health than do married Adolescent Children
couples ● Ironically, the people at the two times of
● However, particularly later in life, life popularly linked with emotional
cohabitation does offer benefits and often crises— adolescence and midlife—often
serves as a substitute for marriage live in the same household
Divorce ● Although many parents report a mix of
● Divorce rates for younger adults have emotional warmth and antagonism in their
fallen in recent years; however, divorce relationships with their children, most
rates for middle-aged adults are rising parents at midlife express they are happy
● With respect to physical health, marital with their parenting role
dissolution is associated with apparently ● Parental satisfaction declines when
contradictory health outcomes parents perceive their adolescent children
● It may be that individual differences in the as being involved in negative behaviors or
response to divorce explain the failing to meet the challenges of life
discrepancy in findings ● Some parents, known as helicopter
● Long-standing marriages may be less parents, have more difficulty granting
likely to break up than more recent ones autonomy
● One possible explanation lies with the The Empty Nest
concept of marital capital ● Empty Nest - occurs when the youngest
● Another important factor that keeps many child leaves home
couples from divorcing is finances ● When children are not accomplished,
● One interpretation of these findings is that however, this process may be more
healthy marriages are more likely to have difficult. Typically, when adult children
healthy finances and thus presumably have greater needs, parents provide more
more to lose on both fronts in the event of material and financial support to them, a
divorce process which can provide parents relief
● The number one reason given for divorce from negative moods
is partner abuse—verbal, physical, or ● The departure of children from the family
emotional home generally increases marital
● Divorce is not just a feature of the modern satisfaction, perhaps because of the
world. It is also common in hunter gatherer additional time partners now have to
cultures spend with each other
Friendships ● Race, ethnicity, and cultural context can
● Social relationships are vitally important; affect the dynamics of leaving the nest
both their quantity and quality are ● However, the empty nest does not signal
predictive of mental health, physical the end of parenthood. It is a transition to
health, and mortality a new stage: the relationship between
● The quality of midlife friendships often parents and adult children
makes up for what they lack in quantity of Adult Children
time spent ● Revolving Door Syndrome - sometimes
● While in early adulthood, loneliness, called the boomerang phenomenon, has
depression, well-being, and social become more common. Increasing
integration are affected by the number of numbers of young adults, especially men,
friends a person has, in late adulthood, return to their parents’ home, sometimes
the quality of friends is what matters more than once and sometimes with their
own families
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● These transitions can be challenging to Chapter 17: Physical and Cognitive
navigate Development in Late Adulthood
Voluntary Childlessness Old Age Today
● The number of women without children ● Ageism—prejudice or discrimination
has been rising sharply in recent decades based on age
● Although involuntary childlessness—or The Graying of the Population
infertility—has a negative effect on
● Countries vary with respect to how aged
well-being, voluntary childlessness does
their populations are
not
Conceptualization of Aging
● In later adulthood, research has shown
● Primary aging is a gradual, inevitable
that childless women tend to fare well, but
process of bodily deterioration that begins
childless men are more vulnerable
early in life and continues through the
Other Kinship Ties
years irrespective of what people do to
Aging Parents
stave it of
● Sandwich Generation—may be caught in ● Secondary aging results from disease,
a squeeze between the competing needs abuse, and disuse—factors that are often
of their own children and the emerging within a person’s control
needs of their parents ● Young Old - ages 65-74
● Ethnic and Cultural Differences in ● Old Old - ages 75-84
Caregiving ● Oldest Old - ages 85 and above
● Strains of Caregiving ● More likely to be frail and infirm and to
○ Caregiver Burnout - a physical, have difficulty managing activities of
mental, and emotional exhaustion daily living (ADLs)
that can affect adults who care for ● Functional Age - how well a person
aged relatives functions in a physical and social
Siblings environment in comparison with others of
● Sibling ties are the longest-lasting the same chronological age
relationships in most people’s lives ● Gerontology is the study of the aged and
● Overall, relationships between siblings at aging processes
midlife tend to be positive in nature, with ● Geriatrics - the branch of medicine
lower sibling conflict than that found earlier concerned with aging, are concerned with
in life differences among the elderly
● Dealing with the care of aging parents can Physical Development
bring siblings closer together but also can Longevity and Aging
cause resentment and conflict ● Life expectancy is the age to which a
Grandparenthood person born at a certain time and place is
● Cultural and Ethnic Differences in statistically likely to live, given their current
Grandparenting age and health status
● Grandparenting after Divorce and ● Longevity - or actual length of life, of
Remarriage members of a population
● Raising Grandchildren ● The human life span is the longest period
○ Grandparents providing kinship that members of our species can live
care who do not become foster Correlates of Life Expectancy
parents or gain custody have no ● Gender Differences
legal status and few rights ● Regional Differences in Mortality Risk
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Racial and Ethnic Differences in Mortality to travel rapidly between brain regions
Risk begins to thin
Theories of Aging ● Postmortem examinations of brain tissue
● Senescence - the decline in body have found significant DNA damage in
functioning associated with aging certain genes that affect learning and
● Genetic-Programming Theories - memory in most very old people and some
propose that people’s bodies age middle aged people
according to instructions built into the ● Not all changes in the brain are
genes and that aging is a normal part of destructive
development Sensory and Psychomotor Functioning
● Vision
○ Cataracts - cloudy or opaque
areas in the lens of the eye, are
common in older adults and
eventually cause blurred vision
○ The leading cause of visual
impairment in older adults is
age-related macular
● Hayflick Limit - human cells will divide in degeneration
the laboratory no more than 50 times ○ Glaucoma is irreversible damage
● Variable-Rate Theories - aging is the to the optic nerve caused by
result of random processes that vary from increased pressure in the eye
person to person ● Hearing
○ Free Radicals - a by-product of ● Strength and Balance
metabolic processes ○ Functional Fitness Training
Extending the Human Life-Span refers to exercises or activities that
● A survival curve represents the improve daily activity
percentage of people or animals alive at Sleep
various ages ● A common complaint as people age is that
Physical Changes a good night’s rest can be more difficult to
Organic and Systemic Changes obtain
● Reserve Capacity is the backup capacity ● Despite these changes, the assumption
that helps body systems function to their that sleep problems are normal in old age
utmost limits in times of stress can be dangerous. Poor sleep quality or
The Aging Brain chronic insomnia is associated with
● As people become older, there are loneliness and social isolation—an
declines in the brain’s ability to process association that has been particularly
information rapidly, in executive troublesome given the lockdowns and
functioning, and in episodic memory distancing brought about by COVID-19
● Some areas of the brain compensate by Sexual Functioning
becoming more active with age ● Contrary to stereotypes, a sizable number
● In late adulthood, the brain gradually of adults remain sexually active late into
diminishes in volume and weight, adulthood
particularly in the frontal and temporal ● Sex is different in late adulthood from what
regions it was earlier. Men typically take longer to
● Beginning in the mid fifties, the myelin develop an erection and to ejaculate, may
sheathing that enables neuronal impulses need more manual stimulation, may
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
experience longer intervals between neurofibrillary tangles (twisted
erections, or may have difficult achieving masses of dead neurons) and
an erection. Women report more large waxy clumps of amyloid
difficulties with becoming aroused and plaque (nonfunctioning tissue
experiencing orgasm, breast engorgement formed by beta amyloid in the
and other signs of sexual arousal are less spaces between neurons)
intense than before, and they may ○ Cognitive activity may build
experience issues with lubrication cognitive reserve and thus delay
● Physicians should avoid prescribing drugs the onset of dementia
that interfere with sexual functioning if Cognitive Development
alternatives are available and, when such Cognitive Changes
a drug must be taken, should alert the Intelligence and Processing Abilities
patient to its effects ● The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
● Sexual activity in older people is normal ○ The WAIS is a standardized
and healthy. Thus, housing arrangements measure that allows assessment of
and care providers should consider the a person’s intellectual functioning
sexual needs of elderly people at different ages
Physical and Mental Health ● The Seattle Longitudinal Study
Health Status ● Changes in Processing Abilities
● COVID-19 Risk and Age ● Everyday Problem Solving
Chronic Conditions and Disabilities ● Cognitive Functioning and Mortality Risk
● Common Chronic Conditions Memory
● Disabilities and Functional Limitations ● Short-Term Memory
● Periodontal Disease - is a chronic ○ Sensory Memory involves the
inflammation of the gums caused by the brief storage of sensory
bacteria in plaque information
Lifestyle Influences on Health and Longevity ○ Working Memory involves the
● Physical Activity short-term storage of information
● Nutrition being actively processed, such as
Mental and Behavioral Problems when you calculate the tip on a
● Depression restaurant bill in your head
● Dementia - is the general term for ● Long-Term Memory
physiologically caused cognitive and ○ Episodic Memory - is linked to
behavioral decline sufficient to interfere specific events; you retrieve an
with daily activities item by reconstructing the original
○ Parkinson’s Disease the second experience in your mind
most common disorder involving ○ Semantic Memory consists of
progressive neurological meanings, facts, and concepts
degeneration, is characterized by accumulated over a lifetime of
tremor, stiffness, slowed learning
movement, and unstable posture ○ Procedural Memory includes
● Alzheimer’s Disease - a progressive, motor skills (like riding a bike) and
degenerative brain disorder habits (like taking a particular
○ The brain of a person with AD street home) that, once learned,
contains excessive amounts of take little conscious effort
● The Effect of Aging on Speech
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
● Correlates of Memory System Declines resilience, and only a minority report
Wisdom failing to cope in a meaningful way
● Wisdom has been defined as “exceptional The Effect of Religion and Spirituality on
breadth and depth of knowledge about the Well-Being
conditions of life and human affairs and ● Many studies suggest a positive link
reflective judgment about the application between religion or spirituality and health
of this knowledge and mortality
● Wisdom is not necessarily a property of ● An important factor may be the social
old age—or of any age. Instead, it support provided by church membership
appears to be a rather rare and complex and the religious community
phenomenon that shows relative stability ● For racial and ethnic minorities, who must
or slight growth in certain individuals deal with the continuing influence of
racism and discrimination, religion may
play an even more important role in their
efforts to cope
Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in
● Another reason for the positive links
Late Adulthood
between health and spirituality is because
Personality Development in Late Adulthood people who belong to a church are more
Ego Integrity Versus Despair likely to engage in healthy behaviors
● For Erikson, the crowning achievement of Coping and Mental Health
late adulthood is a sense of ego integrity, ● Coping is adaptive thinking or behavior
or integrity of the self. In the eighth and aimed at reducing or relieving stress that
final stage of the life span, ego arises from harmful, threatening, or
integrity versus despair, older adults challenging conditions
need to evaluate and accept their lives so ● Cognitive-Appraisal Model - people
as to accept death respond to stressful or challenging
Personality Traits in Old Age situations on the basis of two types of
● Personality Stability and Change in Late analyses. In primary appraisal, people
Adulthood analyze a situation and decide, at some
● The Influence of Personality on Health level, whether or not the situation is a
and Well-Being threat to their well-being. In secondary
Well-Being in Late Adulthood appraisal, people evaluate what can be
Well-Being in Sexual Minorities done to prevent harm and choose a
● Those adults who are members of any coping strategy to handle the situation
marginalized group are subject to ● Problem-focused Coping involves the
increased stressors that exert a negative use of instrumental, or action-oriented,
effect on health and well-being strategies to eliminate, manage, or
● Sexual-minority adults report higher rates improve a stressful condition
of depression and are more likely to ● Emotion-focused Coping - by contrast,
smoke and drink excessively than involves attempting to manage the
heterosexual adults emotional response to a stressful situation
● Although all LGBTQ+ adults are at higher to relieve its physical or psychological
risk than the general population, transgen impact
der adults appear to be at even higher risk
● However, not all the news is bad. Most
LGBTQ+ adults are able to show
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)
Models of Successful Aging
● Disengagement Theory versus Activity Elder Abuse
Theory ● Elder abuse is a global issue
○ According to disengagement ● Elder abuse can include physical abuse,
theory, a normal part of aging sexual abuse, emotional or psychological
involves a gradual reduction in abuse, and neglect. Elder abuse can also
social involvement and greater include financial abuse or exploitation,
preoccupation with the self which involves the use of an older
○ According to activity theory, the person’s resources, such as savings
more active older people remain, accounts or Social Security payments, for
the better they age personal gain
● Continuity Theory - activity is viewed as ● A number of factors increase the risk of
important, not for its own sake but elder abuse, including being female,
because it represents continuation of a having difficulty with activities of daily
previous lifestyle living, poor health, poverty, and having
● The Role of Productivity previously been victimized
● Selective Optimization with ● Abuse can also occur within the context of
Compensation - older adults allocate nursing homes or residential care
these resources communities
Practical and Social Issues Related to Aging Personal Relationships in Late Life
Work and Retirement Theories of Social Contact and Support
● Aging and Job Performance ● According to social convoy theory, aging
● Trends in Retirement adults maintain their level of social support
● Life after Retirement by identifying members of their social
Financial Concerns network who can help them and avoiding
● Women—especially if they are single, those who are not supportive
widowed, separated, or divorced or if they ● A somewhat different explanation of
were previously poor or worked only changes in social contact comes from
part-time in middle age—are more likely socio emotional selectivity theory. As
than men to live in poverty in old age remaining time becomes short, older
Living Arrangements adults tend to become more selective
● Aging in Place - prefer to stay in their about social contacts, keeping up with
own homes and communities friends and relatives who can best meet
● Living Alone their current needs for emotional
● Living with Adult Children satisfaction
● Living in Institutions ● Thus, even though older adults may have
● Alternative Housing Options smaller social networks than younger
adults do, they tend to have as many very
close relationships, and they report
greater satisfaction with their relationships
than do younger adults
● Moreover, despite their smaller social
networks, older adults retain a close circle
of confidants
Relationships and Health
● Most of us want and need the support and
love of others around us, and we are
happier when part of a social community.
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Because of this need, social isolation—or men, are disadvantaged. They do not
loneliness— is an important outcome benefit from the protective effects of
variable that affects both psychological marriage on morbidity and mortality
and physical health discussed earlier, and they are as likely to
● People who are socially isolated and have poor health and be at higher risk of
lonely tend to show more rapid physical death as divorced or widowed adults
and cognitive declines than those who are ● Approximately 14 percent of single adults
not, even very late in life age 57 to 85 years are in a dating
● Over time, depressed people with poor relationship
social support are likely to become even ● Some adults classified as “single” in
more depressed and to report even traditional studies are nonetheless in
greater loneliness committed relationships
The Multigenerational Family Cohabitation
● Historically, families rarely spanned more ● Generally, cohabitating relationships tend
than three generations to be quite stable in older adults, a finding
● The presence of so many family members that is especially true for women 65 years
can be enriching, but it also can create and older
special pressures ● In younger adults, cohabitation is often the
● The ways families deal with these issues result of economic concerns
often have cultural roots. People from Friendships
cultures that strongly focus on familial ● Maintaining friendships is important for
bonds are, not surprisingly, more receptive well-being
to the needs of their aging parents and ● Although friends cannot replace a spouse
more likely to offer support than are or partner, they can help compensate for
people from more individualistic cultures the lack of one
Marital and Long-Term Relationships ● In line with social convoy and
Marriage socioemotional selectivity theories,
● LGBTQ+ Relationships longtime friendships often persist into very
Widowhood old age
● With increasing age, death of a spouse Nonmarital Kinship Ties
becomes more common and more so in Relationships with Adult Children
women than in men ● Most older people have living children but,
● Widowhood has been repeatedly because of global trends toward smaller
associated with increased mortality, with families, have fewer of them than in
the sharpest declines seen in the first 6 previous generations
months following the death of a spouse ● Co-residence can result from economic
and in rural rather than urban areas pressures and is thus less common in
Divorce and Marriage countries with strong welfare services
● Divorce in middle-aged and older adults, ● The balance of mutual aid between
although rare, has risen parents and their adult children tends to
Nonmarital Lifestyles and Relationships shift as parents age, with children
Single Life providing a greater share of support
● In most countries, 5 percent or less of ● Older parents who can do so often
older men and 10 percent or less of older continue to provide financial support to
women have never married children
● However, when compared to married ● In some cases, older people have children
adults, never-married people, especially who cannot live independently, such as
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

when adult children are mentally ill, educational programs have been
cognitively or physically disabled, or established to help people deal with death
stricken with serious illnesses Facing Death and Loss
● Macrosystem variables also affect the Factors Preceding Death
outcomes of childlessness ● Terminal Drop - or terminal decline, refers
Relationships with Siblings specifically to a widely observed decline in
● Brother and sisters play an important role cognitive abilities shortly before death,
in older people’s support networks. even when factors such as demographics
Relationships with siblings tend to be and health are controlled for
among the longest lasting of all ● Near-Death Experiences
relationships ● Care of the Dying
● Sibling commitment, meaning the ○ Hospice care is personal, patient-
degree to which siblings keepin contact and family-centered,
with and help each other out, is relatively compassionate care for the
stable across the life span terminally ill
● Sibling relationship are important for ○ Palliative Care - which includes
well-being. When adults are close to their relief of pain and suffering, control
siblings, they report fewer symptoms of of symptoms, alleviation of stress,
depression, anxiety, hostility, and and attempts to maintain a
loneliness satisfactory quality of life
● Although the death of a sibling in old age Confronting One’s Own Death
may be understood as normative and ● The Five Stages of Grief
becomes increasingly common with
○ Denial (“This can’t be happening
advanced age, survivors may grieve
to me!”)
intensely and become lonely or depressed
○ Anger (“Why me?”)
○ Bargaining for extra time (“If I can
only live to see my daughter
Chapter 19: Dealing with Death and married, I won’t ask for anything
Bereavement more”)
The Meaning of Death and Dying ○ Depression
The Cultural Context ○ Acceptance
● Customs concerning the disposal and ● Terror Management Theory
remembrance of the dead, transfer of Patterns of Grieving
possessions, and even expression of grief ● Grief - the emotional response that
vary greatly from culture to culture and generally follows closely on the heels of
often are governed by religious or legal death
prescriptions that reflect a society’s view ● Bereavement is a response to the loss of
of what death is and what happens someone to whom a person feels close
afterward ● The Classic Grief Work Model
● Although there are wide variations in ○ Grief Work - the working out of
customs surrounding death, there are psychological issues connected
nonetheless some commonalities in the with grief, often takes the following
experience across cultures path—though, as with
The Mortality Revolution Kübler-Ross’s stages, it may vary
● Thanatology - the study of death and ■ Shock and disbelief
dying, is arousing interest, and
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

■ Preoccupation with the Losing a Parent in Adulthood

memory of the dead person ● The loss of a parent at any time is difficult,
■ Resolution even in adulthood. The majority of
● Variations in Grieving bereaved adult children still show an
Responses to Death Across the Life Span impact on their well being and experience
● Infancy and Childhood emotional distress after 1 to 5 years,
especially following loss of a mother and
most strongly in daughters
● Still, the road may not be easy. Families
with a history of conflict are more likely to
engage in conflict when a parent is
approaching death and important
decisions must be made
● The impact of a parent’s death on siblings
● Adolescence is equivocal. Some research suggests that
● Adulthood following the death of a parent, siblings
Significant Losses tend to grow less close. This may be
Surviving a Spouse because the link that bound them together
in their adult life—a parent—is gone
● Because women tend to live longer than
Losing a Child
men and to be younger than their
husbands, they are more likely to be ● A parent is rarely prepared for the death of
widowed a child. Such a death, no matter at what
● The stress of widowhood often affects age, comes as a cruel, unnatural shock
physical and mental health. Bereavement ● Parents who have lost a child are at
has been associated with cognitive heightened risk of being depressed or
declines and depression and anxiety hospitalized for mental illness and show
● Death, too, becomes more likely after poorer health-related quality of life
widowhood ● If a marriage is strong, the couple may
● Higher relationship quality during the draw closer, supporting each other in their
marriage has been associated with an shared loss
increased risk of cognitive decline, greater ● The impact of parental bereavement may
anger, more anxiety and depression, and vary depending on a variety of factors
feelings of yearning after the death of a ● Many parents hesitate to discuss a
spouse, presumably because those terminally ill child’s impending death with
people happiest in their marriages had the the child, but those who do so tend to
most to lose achieve a sense of closure that helps
● For women, the main consequences of them cope after the loss
widowhood are likely to be economic ● When asked what most helped them cope
● Widowed men are more likely to become with the end of their child’s life, 73 percent
socially isolated after the death of a of parents whose children died in
spouse than are widows, in part because intensive-care units gave religious or
older widows are more likely than older spiritual responses. They mentioned
widowers to stay in touch with friends from prayer, faith, discussions with clergy, or a
whom they receive social support belief that the parent-child relationship
endures beyond death
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

Mourning a Miscarriage feelings of guilt, shame, rejection, and

● Estimates are that somewhere around 1 in isolation
3 pregnancies ends in miscarriage Hastening Death
● How do prospective parents cope with the ● Euthanasia - means “good death” and is
loss of a child they never knew? Common intended to end suffering or to allow a
responses, which are generally reported terminally ill person to die with dignity
with greater intensity in women, include ○ Passive Euthanasia involves
grief, depression, guilt, isolation, and withholding or discontinuing
sadness treatment that might extend the life
● Whether married or living together, of a terminally ill patient, such as
couples who experience a miscarriage medication, life support systems,
prior to 20 weeks of gestation are 22 or feeding tubes
percent more likely to break up than ○ Active Euthanasia (sometimes
couples who have a successful pregnancy called mercy killing) involves action
Medical, Legal, and Ethical Issues taken directly or deliberately to
Suicide shorten a life, and it is generally
● Although suicide is no longer a crime in illegal
most societies, there is still a stigma ● Advance Directives - which contains
against it, based in part on religious instructions for when and how to
prohibitions and in part on society’s discontinue futile medical care
interest in preserving life ○ Durable Power of Attorney -
● Suicide is a global issue. More than which appoints another person to
703,000 people are lost to suicide every make decisions if the maker of the
year, and more than 1 in every 100 deaths document becomes incompetent to
in 2019 was due to suicide. The most do so
common methods used were ingestion of ● Assisted Suicide - in which a physician
pesticides, hanging, and firearms. Men or someone else helps a person bring
commit suicide at higher rates than do about a self-inflicted death by, for
women. Suicide rates are also higher in example, prescribing or obtaining drugs or
stigmatized groups such as refugees, enabling a patient to inhale a deadly
migrants, LBGTQ+ people, and prisoners gas—commonly refers to situations in
● Statistics probably understate the number which people with incurable, terminal
of suicides; many go unreported, and illnesses request help in ending their lives
some (such as traffic “accidents” and ● International Variations in End-of-Life
“accidental” medicinal overdoses) are not Decisions
recognized as such ● End-of-Life Options and Diversity
● More than half of completed suicides are Concerns
by gunshot, and gun deaths via suicide Finding Meaning and Purpose in Life and
outnumber those by homicide Death
● Suicide rates also vary along ethnic and Life Review
racial lines
● Life Review is a process of reminiscence
● While the death of a loved one is always
that enables a person to see the
difficult, survivors of people who take their
significance of their life
own lives often walk an even more difficult
Development: A Lifelong Process
road. Many blame themselves for failing to
● Time is relative. When we are young, the
recognize the signs, and they suffer from
wide swath of the future stretches ahead.
Near death, the end contracts and
Experience Human Development 15th ed
Diane E. Papalia, Gabriela Martorell
Notes by: Anne, RPm (@gyuscoupsych)

narrows. Within a limited life span, no

person can realize all capabilities, gratify
all desires, explore all interests, or
experience all the richness that life has to
offer. The tension between the possibilities
for growth and a finite time in which to do
the growing defines human life. By
choosing which possibilities to pursue and
by continuing to follow them as far as
possible, each person contributes to the
unfinished story of human development

Congratulations, future mental health

professionals, for making it to the end of this
summarized notes. I’m so proud of you.
Pagbutihin mo, and I'll see you soon on the field.
<33
- Anne, RPm °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･