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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Russell, Sage.
The Architecture of Light / by Sage Russell.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-9800617-1-0
ISBN-10: 0-9800617-1-7
eBook ISBN: 978-0-9800617-4-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012907632
1. Electric lighting. 2. Lighting, Architectural and decorative. I. Title

ARC007010

2.1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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WELCOME TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Wow!
It is hard to believe it has been four years since the first copies of this book
hit the shelves. I can’t express enough gratitude to all of the instructors,
students, designers and just plain “light aficionados” out there who have
joined The Architecture of Light family. I love your feedback and am
thrilled to have such an enthusiastic audience.

What’s new in the second edition?

Besides new diagrams, design process ideas, sample projects and an
expanded “basic luminaire” family, this second edition addresses the rapid
changes that have affected the lighting design practice.

Lighting design has been moving at a blistering pace over the last few
years, primarily in the realms of code compliance, sustainable design, and
of course light emitting diode (LED) technology.

Energy codes and compliance

The rolling wave of national and local energy compliance regulations has
vastly expanded the responsibilities of the Lighting Designer. Expertise in
these constantly changing codes is absolutely critical not only for
outstanding design, but for efficiency in dealing with the documentation
and third party software that demonstrate compliance. Whether it’s
ASHRAE, DOE or your local codes, expertise is absolutely expected of the
serious Lighting Designer.

Sustainability incentives
Projects of all scale and scope are pursuing the benefits that come from
sustainable design. Between government sponsored incentives, life-cycle
economic benefits and just plain pride of good design, there is no shortage
of programs - well-known and obscure - to guide design direction. The
EPA, DOE, Energy Star and the USGBC’s LEED programs provide

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resources and assistance for all manner of efficient design. Sustainability is
a broad, fast-changing area of expertise that a good designer must stay on
top of.

Resources for researching code compliance and sustainability incentives

can be found in Appendix B at the back of this book.

Light source and Luminaire technologies

The ways we convert electricity to visible light, and deliver that light to the
designed environment have changed dramatically since the first printing of
this text. Back then, LED’s were a work in progress; more useful for color
changing effects than anything task related. HID luminaires were just
beginning to make in-roads in color critical interior environments, and the
incandescent source was not being pushed towards phased extinction.

My how things have changed! Throughout this volume, you will see
evidence of these ever-evolving technologies and best practices for
implementing the latest generation of electric light sources and daylight
technologies.

So let’s get on with it…

This second edition is designed to efficiently and enjoyably deliver a

lighting design education that is immediately useful for the reader. It
includes knowledge that eluded me until well into my professional career. I
believe this text will make you a better designer, regardless of your design
focus.

But first…

My heartfelt thanks to the exceptional people that made The

Architecture of Light possible and assisted in creating this second
edition:

David DiLaura, for inspiring an unfailing interest in the science of

illumination.
Patrick Quigley, the inspiration behind all things choreography
related.

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 Greg Gorman, who taught me that light is responsible for beauty.
Nancy Clanton, a driving force in spreading the word about light and
the environment.
Cynthia Burke, my longtime design colleague who gave me every
opportunity to shine.
Jennifer Luce, who shaped my idea of the design process.
Chad Watters, Diane Borys, and Jenn Doran… The studio crew that
kept lighting design fun.

I would also like to extend special thanks to my editors. Without these

dedicated souls, there is no doubt that the content and legibility of this text
would have suffered greatly. In the same breath, I would like to absolve
them of any responsibility for the information provided here. Any errors or
erroneous content is solely the fault of the author.

Lastly,
This book is still dedicated to anyone who sits through my lectures or
design presentations indulging my discussions about design, art, culture,
food, travel and everything else.

Thanks for being part of the Family,

Sage Russell 2012

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More teaching and learning resources can be found
online at:
WWW.LIGHTINGTEXTBOOK.COM

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Contents
Part I:_The Fundamentals of Light
Chapter 1 The Design Mentality
Chapter 2 The Power and Purpose of Light
Chapter 3 More Impact with Less Light
Chapter 4 Adding Light in Layers
Chapter 5 Physical Basics of Light
Chapter 6 Physiology of Vision
Chapter 7 The Color Science of Light Sources
Chapter 8 Electric Light Sources

Part II: Designing Light

Chapter 9 Textures of Light
Chapter 10 Shapes of Light
Chapter 11 Location of the Light Source
Chapter 12 Building Light from Darkness
Chapter 13 Developing Lighting Ideas
Chapter 14 A Shortcut to Concepts in Light
Chapter 15 Lighting That Works
Chapter 16 Designing with Daylight
Chapter 17 Graphic Tools: Rendering and Light Maps
Chapter 18 Lighting Units and Measurements

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 Chapter 19 Understanding Illuminance Levels
Chapter 20 Lighting Calculations

Part III: Deliverables

Chapter 21 Deciphering Manufacturers’ Literature_and
Luminaire Cut Sheets
Chapter 22 Selecting Luminaires: A Basic Family
Chapter 23 Switching, Dimming and Control Systems
Chapter 24 The Preliminary Lighting Layout “Redline”
Chapter 25 Luminaire Schedules and Cut Sheets
Chapter 26 The Lighting Plan
Chapter 27 Lighting Layouts for Residential Spaces
Chapter 28 Lighting Layouts for Commercial Spaces
Chapter 29 Common Lighting Details
Chapter 30 Daylight and Electric Light Integration Details

Part IV: Final Thoughts on Design

The Fundamental Lighting Design Process
Green Design and Sustainability
Designing with New Eyes

Appendices
Appendix A Glossary of Lighting Terms
Appendix B Professional Organizations and Agencies
Appendix C Descriptive Words for Lighting
Appendix D Directory of Contributors and Other Manufacturers

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The Pitch
Light is truly a designer’s medium. It is among the most powerful tools we
have to affect change in how we perceive and experience the environment
around us. Light belongs as a controllable tool of space design, just as form,
scale, and material do. Light translates vision and it is vision that gives us a
substantial portion of our experiences.
This book delivers a unique training that makes designing with light
an intuitive visual process that can deliver a whole new appreciation for the
capabilities of architecture and design. Here, one will find a procedure for
developing design ideas and the visual tools for translating those ideas. A
designer armed with this type of understanding will be inspired and well-
equipped to enrich the designed environment through the creative
application of lighting design.
This knowledge is for architects, landscape architects, interior
designers, planners and lighting designers aspiring to develop intuition and
confidence in designing with light. It is these people who are responsible
for bringing organization and emotional experience to the environments we
interact with every day. The concepts and processes put forth in this book
are intended to be immediately useful to any designer who wants to include
light as an ally in design.
My goal in assembling this book is to provide information to the
people who are poised to make the most of it. Often times, those who have
the best chance of applying designed light to maximum effect are deprived
of the necessary knowledge. Consequently, lighting decisions often fall by
the wayside, and powerful design opportunities are missed.
Regardless of the reader’s current familiarity with lighting design,
this book will provide a more meaningful understanding of the role of light
in the designed environment. Within these pages, one will find creative
procedures and graphic techniques for generating and communicating
lighting design concepts. The resulting intuition and tool set will help the

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reader make lighting design decisions with confidence and joy. My
intention is not to create technical “lighting-super-experts”, but rather to
provide creative confidence and a working familiarity of the power and
effect of light that will prove useful with any amount of supporting
technical knowledge.

I hope to empower those with the opportunity to design with light to

go forward with confidence, lay claim to light as a design tool, and use it to
add impact and meaning to their design.

∼Sage Russell,
2012

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Part I
The Fundamentals of Light

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Chapter 1
The Design Mentality
“By our very nature, we are all designers”
Before we go on to discuss how to apply light in the designed environment,
we must look at how we consider design and how we come up with ideas.
We must solidify our creative process. As designers, we are idea people.
That is our nature; it is what people expect of us and what our clients ask of
us. We are in the business of generating ideas. This task seems easy enough
as humans are naturally blessed with creative spirit. There is an unfortunate
tendency, however, for that spirit to be stifled in some people and nurtured
in others. At some point, often childhood, a person is told that perhaps
he/she is “just not artistic” or “not a creative person.” In all cases, this claim
is false. Creativity is human nature. When we call ourselves designers, we
are telling the world that we have decided to nurture creativity and dedicate
ourselves to the cultivation of ideas.
There are two procedures that are invaluable to anyone pursuing the
creative capabilities of his/her mind: the common “brainstorm” and the
process of reverse engineering design.

THE BRAINSTORM
Brainstorming is one of the most valuable processes in which an “idea
person” can engage. It is the simple process of writing down any and all
ideas that come to mind when thinking on a specific topic or challenge.
There is one and only one fundamental rule to a brainstorm: there are no
wrong answers in a brainstorm. This simple rule translates well to
creativity and design because there are no wrong answers in design, simply
ideas and possibilities that are more appropriate than others. The designer
cannot afford to become too attached to one seemingly good idea. In the
process of design, ideas are shot down for a number of reasons, and the
designer must possess a head full of other ideas waiting to be expressed.

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 For a designer, the brainstorm is the freedom to conjure and cultivate
any and all ideas that come to mind regarding a specific design challenge.
These ideas are a product of that particular designer’s background,
education, past experiences, values, sources of inspiration, and beliefs about
design. These ideas are as individual as the designer, and it is this
uniqueness that compels people to seek out designers for ideas and
solutions.
The necessary first step of the brainstorm is the process of writing all
of these ideas down. Creating a list or diagram of ideas gets them out of
one’s head and onto paper. Emptying the head creates room for more ideas
to germinate and keeps the same ideas from circulating and cluttering the
mind. Jotting down these ideas also results in a permanent record of them,
so that none will be lost in the dark corridors of the brain.

Figure 1.1 A simple written list of themes and words that come to mind when visualizing a specific
topic. In this example, prominent “big ideas” have been circled.

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 Figure 1.2 A bubble diagram shows the relationship between ideas as they progress.

The products of a brainstorm are proof that we all have great ideas.
The dedicated designer is simply more diligent in cultivating ideas, writing
them down, communicating them, and keeping track of them. If we don’t
allow ourselves free reign to conjure ideas, and get them down on paper, the
ideas are lost forever, victims of the powerful forces of self-censorship and
self-criticism. Let it be said that in the land of design, there is no shortage of
skeptics and critics to tell us that our ideas are too whimsical, too
expensive, too time-consuming, or unrealistic. If we expect that this
refining of ideas will come from outside forces, it becomes very clear that
we don’t need to critique them internally. Thus, we go forward, writing
down ideas, concepts and solutions as fast as we can think of them,
knowing that through the process of developing design, the best ideas will
rise to the top.
The reward of this process is the confidence to propose ideas without
fear of rejection. When we know that we have a long written list of great
ideas, and a brain that can conjure new ones at will, then we are much more
productive when engaged with others in the process of refining them. We
are neither dismayed nor dejected when our ideas are deemed unsuitable.
We see criticism as a challenge, rather than a threat. This welcoming of

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feedback and “thick skin” is one of the most valuable traits of a skilled
designer.
Making a regular habit of brainstorming develops the creative
productivity and flexibility that are the foundation of a designer’s
confidence and skill.

REVERSE ENGINEERING FROM DESIGN

The process of reverse engineering is exactly as its name indicates. It is a
tool of dissecting something to discover what makes it work. Take, for
example, a guitar maker who takes apart a beautiful acoustic guitar to
identify exactly how that guitar gets its woody, slightly hollow sound. Upon
dissection, it is discovered that the sound is the product of a veneer of rare
Sumatran teak wood bonded to the inside. The guitar maker can now
incorporate this simple feature in constructing guitars in the future
whenever the same sound is desired. How, you may ask, does this anecdote
apply to the design mentality? The answer lies in the belief that as designers
dealing in the realm of the built environment, we are responsible for
designing spaces that compel interaction and elicit emotion. Besides the
basic function of the spaces we design, we care most about how people feel
and consequently, how they behave and interact with our design.
We experience designed environments and the natural world around
us every day and thus have the opportunity to reverse engineer design every
day. What we, as designers, can do to make use of this skill is to take the
time to identify how we feel in our environment and what is at work to
make us feel that way. Dissecting our experiences in this way has three
distinct steps:
Step 1: Experience life
Go places, meet people, and put ourselves in as many engaging
situations as possible. This act is really a byproduct of life, and it is
safe to say that nearly everyone does this simply by leaving the house
each day.
Step 2: Assess the emotional effect
This step takes a little more dedication. It is the exercise of taking
stock of your feelings or emotional state in a given situation or

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 environment. This skill is the sort we credit poets, artists and
philosophers as possessing. Assessing how one feels is not automatic,
and there are certainly people who go about their daily lives never
stopping to realize how an environment affects them.
Step 3: Identify the mechanisms responsible for the emotional effect
This step requires taking the time to identify what about the situation
or environment is causing the emotional response we are
experiencing. It is a mental step in which only a few engage.
An example of this thought process might occur as follows:
Anyone can stand at the edge of a slow moving creek in the woods.
An enlightened person might take the time to realize the sense of
peace, calm, tranquility and connection to nature that is present.
It is the designer who takes the time to recognize that these feelings
are the product of the shifting breeze rustling in the reeds; the glint
and flicker of sunlight on the water surface; and the earthy hues of
green, brown and yellows.

With this awareness, when the designer is called upon to create an

environment that delivers a feeling of calm, tranquility and peace, he or she
knows that earthy tones, natural materials, and a specific quality of light
and shade will provide the desired emotional response.
These ingredients do not need to be translated literally, but
knowledge of them will bring us one step closer to a design solution
possessing depth, context and permanence.
To practice this procedure, we can take any piece of imagery, song, or
film and dissect it to figure out why it works. In music, art and film, nothing
is done by accident, and each ingredient contributes to a specific effect.
Watch a favorite film or listen to a favorite song. Study these things
with the intent of identifying the emotions induced and then identifying the
mechanisms responsible for the emotion. What becomes immediately
apparent is that light quantity and quality play a dominant role in how we
visualize an environment.
Try This:

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 After you experiences a piece of art or design with this goal in mind,
make a chart on a piece of paper. On the left side of the paper, start a
column titled “Emotion and Feeling.” Fill this column with the many
identifiable feelings associated with the design. On the right side of this
paper, start a column titled “Mechanism Responsible.” Take the time to
identify what specific ingredients were responsible for the emotions and
feeling. Is it a perspective or a point of view? Is it a tone or tempo or beat?
Is it a specific color, texture, or quality of light? Identifying these
ingredients puts the designer on a path to call on the min the future to create
a predictable effect in his/her own design.

Figure 1.4 Dissecting an environment gives one specific ingredients for use later to create a similar
emotional experience.

If we can adopt the habit of reverse engineering the world around us,
we can quickly hone our skills as creative thinkers and designers. Once we
have taken the time to identify the mechanisms that work in an environment
to create certain feelings, we can use those mechanisms to create the same
effect in our own design. In this manner, the designer builds an ever-
growing toolbox of techniques and ingredients that can be put to use to
elicit a predictable effect. The designer gains the ability to translate the

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feelings of an environment into tangible, tactile ingredients that can be
injected into any setting.
As we move forward and discuss the specific nuances and effects we
can encourage with light, let us keep these two tools as part of our everyday
design process. Our techniques for cultivating and expressing lighting
design ideas are quite specific, but let us always make use of these
fundamental skills. Design starts with the ability to conjure ideas without
self-censure and a constant dedication to figuring out why our favorite
environments work the way they do. If we can incorporate these tools as
habits, we will be much better prepared to provide the constant flow of
ideas and concepts that people expect of us.

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Chapter 2
The Power and Purpose of Light
Because our journey is one of enriching and enhancing our designs with
light, we will first take some time to establish why light is such a useful tool
in creating emotion and altering our perception of the world around us.
There is an indoctrination required so that we move forward with an
unfailing faith in the power of light to affect design.

WHY WE STUDY LIGHT

In the built environment, it is reasonable to say that the majority of our
experiences are visual. Sound, smell, and touch certainly play various roles,
but most people rely on vision to deliver a very large quantity of
information.
Vision, by its very nature, is a product of light. It is the result of the
creation of light, the reflection of light, and, ultimately, the absorption and
translation of light by our visual system. Logic dictates then that if we want
to have maximum control of the designed environment, we must become
intimate with light and learn to make it our ally in translating design.
Light can quickly and powerfully alter the appearance and emotional
effect of our designed spaces. A designer can spend any amount of time
refining the layout of a space, the scale of a space, the materials and
finishes of a space. However with a few simple strokes, lighting can be
applied to truly enhance or utterly destroy the desired effect. A designer
may envision a meditation lodge fashioned from bamboo sheathing with a
natural river rock floor. The lodge may have heavy dark wood furniture and
oiled, bronze hardware and accents. Despite the effort and attention to
detail, we can change the emotional effect in a heartbeat by installing red
strobe lights and a disco ball. An extreme example, to be sure, but the point
is valid: If one wants to change the mood of a space, change the lighting. If
one wants to change the scale of a space, change the lighting. If one wants

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to change the color of a space, change the lighting. Once you recognize how
many aspects there are to light, you start to understand that it serves as an
efficient, effective, and powerful way to accomplish a design goal. With just
a basic understanding of the colors, intensities, and textures of light, a
designer gains an understanding of which types of light will support, and
which will detract from a project’s design goals.

BEYOND ON AND OFF: THREE

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF LIGHT
Light is much more than we give it credit for, and it deserves to be treated
with the care of any design medium. Just as a designer takes care in making
decisions about the nuances and subtleties of color and material, so too,
must he/she take care in making decisions about light. Light can be
controlled to a much higher degree than is commonly considered. To make
the most of light, we must define what we can control about our light. There
are a handful of properties that must be addressed in order to make a well-
thought-out lighting decision. Every piece of light added to an environment
should be considered in terms of three basic properties: Intensity, Color,
and Texture.

Light Intensity: Bright vs. Dark.

Intensity is the most obvious and well understood aspect of light. It is one
step beyond simply on or off: is this light dim, or is it bright? We tend to
associate low light levels with more relaxed, intimate, personal
environments. We translate higher light levels to be more sterile, public,
active, and kinetic. Low light situations often encourage lingering and
relaxing. higher light levels can stimulate activity and movement.

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 Figure 2.1 Higher light levels (left) translate an exposed, public feeling. Low light levels (right)
translate calm and privacy.

Light Color: Warm vs. Cool.

There are a number of ways to alter the color of our light sources, both
subtly and overtly. Lighting sources can exhibit all manner of different
color temperatures, warm or cool, as slight variations of neutral. Our light
sources can also be modified to exhibit very saturated, vivid colors. These
colors have varying effect on mood, depending on a person’s experiences,
culture and conditioning. Color and color temperature can determine
whether a person feels comfortable enough to linger in an environment or
whether he/she is driven away. Color can immediately affect mood and state
of mind. Warm lighting colors; yellows and reds, tend to elicit calm,
relaxation and a slower pace of action. Cool colors; blues and greens, tend
to elicit activity and alertness. Distinctly saturated colors get used in high-
design, themed environments to create visual interest and a unique
emotional experience.

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 Figure 2.2 Warm Light (left ) and cool light (right) should be chosen for the way they reveal the
colors and materials in a space, and the mood desired.

Light Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse.

Texture is perhaps the least
understood or considered
aspect of light. The texture
of the light we introduce
into a space has a dramatic
effect on the overall feeling
and function. When we
speak of light texture, we
are talking about the
physical manner in which
light is delivered from a
source. On one end of the
spectrum we have soft, Figure 2.3 Strongly colored light grabs our attention and
even, diffuse light that is transports us away from the ordinary, neutral environments
we are used to.
often the product of
luminaires that incorporate diffusing materials. On the other end of the
spectrum we have the harsh, directional light that is the product of
luminaires that utilize precision reflectors and lenses that deliver light in a
specific direction. Think of an average glowing globe (diffuse) versus a
directed spot light (directional).
The significant differences between the two textures manifest in the
shadows and the shapes of light created by these sources.

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 Diffuse sources produce light that overlaps to fill in shadows and has
ill-defined borders as the light sprawls from the source. Directional sources
create distinct shapes of light with clear boundaries. Use of directional light
generally results in harsh shadows and contrast as that light is either
delivered or blocked completely by objects and material textures.

Figure 2.4 Diffuse light (left) reduces shadows and encourages long term visual comfort. Directional
light (right) creates contrast and visual interest.

Once we expand our thinking to recognize these three properties, we

start to get a glimpse of the depth of decision-making that is required to
ensure that the light we are adding to a space is working toward our design
goals.
When we refer back to the notion that designers are in charge of
encouraging emotion, we can begin to see that for every emotion that can
be described, there is a corresponding light intensity, light color, and light
texture that successfully encourages that emotion. When we want to create
relaxed, calm, soothing environments, we implement lower light levels,
warmer light colors, and more diffuse sources. When we are designing
more kinetic, active, productive spaces, we apply higher light levels, cooler
light, and more directional sources. Much of what we will be adding to our
knowledge of light revolves around articulating lighting decisions like these
to encourage deeper thought about the light we add. In this manner, we
utilize light to its fullest potential in our design.

MAKING LIGHTING DECISIONS

THROUGHOUT THE DESIGN PROCESS

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An articulated approach to making lighting decisions is most effective when
applied within the framework of one of our favorite maxims: “Make
lighting design decisions at every step of the design process”. Far too often,
architects and designers “design in the dark”. They often embark on a path
of “design, design, design”, and once the space is completely “designed,” it
is then “lit up.”
The thought process that is implemented in this text is nearly the
opposite. A designer should look for every opportunity to think about how
light should be used in a design. Light can certainly be “applied” to an
already-designed space, but the result will never reach the level of greatness
that is possible when light is integrated into a project every step of the way.
For design to transition to greatness, lighting has to be considered at each
significant design juncture. The great design projects that we admire come
from all realms of taste and style, but the one thing they share is thoughtful
lighting integration.

For every design decision, there is a lighting decision to be made

that can either support or erode the design.
The more comfortable a designer becomes with light, the more likely
that designer is to automatically consider light in the decision-making
process. For every form decision, scale decision, material decision and
color decision, there is a complimentary lighting decision. If these lighting
decisions are made through the design process, the result is a depth of
design that cannot be obtained by simply pouring light onto a completely
designed project.

HOW HUMANS USE LIGHT

To warm ourselves up to the notion of the importance of light, it is useful to
account for some of the ways human beings react and respond to light.
Once we recognize how we use light in our daily lives, we can start to
produce very sophisticated effects through our lighting decisions. Because
of our long-standing relationship with light, it has the power to affect our
subconscious in ways that no other medium can. It this subconscious
relationship that provides our most powerful lighting tools. When we
consider how long humankind has spent experiencing light, we can begin to
appreciate all of the ways that light is utilized beyond simply “seeing.”

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 It is important to recognize that for the vast majority of our history
here on earth we, as humans, have grown accustomed to the sun as our
primary source of light. In all of its incarnations - sunrise, sunset, high-
noon, shaded and diffused - the sun is responsible for most of our responses
to light. This relationship explains why we rely on the light quality in our
environment to inform so many of our behavioral cues.

Light as Mood
We rely on light both consciously and subconsciously to tell us the level of
activity and the type of mood we should carry into a space. These effects
likely relate back to light qualities that we associate with different times of
day, as well as light qualities of different seasons. As discussed earlier, we
all have an innate understanding of the types of light conducive to activity
and excitement, as well as light that encourages calm and relaxation. These
light qualities can be extended to encourage moods of sadness and
melancholy or happiness and joy. Humans rely on light to inform them of
the time of day and consequently, the mood and activities that should
follow. Light quality may remind us of seasons that call for celebration or
seasons that call for work and diligence. There is extensive study of how
specific wavelengths (colors) of light affect our well-being and how light
deficiencies negatively affect our physiology. All of these topics become
critical when implementing modern electric light sources and making use of
daylight.

Light as Instruction
Through experience and conditioning, humans have also developed
movement and location responses that we derive directly from light. We use
light to instruct us where to go, what areas to move toward and what paths
to follow. We read the angle and intensity of sunlight to tell us where we are
geographically. Designers can increase light levels to define areas that
people belong in and subsequently leave dark those areas in which people
do not belong. Colors of light can be used as cues to stop or proceed.
Flashing light can be used to grab attention or warn people away. These
effects all rely on the controllable aspects of light discussed earlier. To
make use of these powerful responses, the designer must also consider
specific shapes, specific patterns, and specific movements of light.

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ATTRACTION TO LIGHT: PHOTOTROPISM
The most powerful human response to light is the most simple: it is the
fundamental attraction that humans have toward light and lighted spaces.
Just like moths to a flame, we drift towards areas of brightness. This
unconscious desire is significant because it is instinctual. It differs from our
response to many other elements of design that are a product of taste, trend
or favor. We are told that the human affinity for light is a mechanism of
survival. This instinct has a name: we call it Phototropism (Latin for light-
attracted). This primal response means that at the most fundamental level of
design, by simply putting light in the right place, we can help direct
people’s path of experience and encourage their interaction with the space.
Many of the lighting effects we will employ rely on this one simple premise
of human behavior.

Figure 2.5 When put to use correctly, lighted surfaces serve to make way-finding intuitive.

In order to appreciate the effectiveness of using light to attract people

and guide their experience, it is helpful to investigate why humans may
have developed this type of response. On a very basic level, it is about

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vision. The human visual system is very finely tuned for translating light.
As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. It is safe to say that
seeing is one of the fastest ways to learn about the world around us. It is
because of this dependency that our brains are always encouraging us to
pursue areas that have more visual information, that is, lighted areas. The
brain believes that the more we see, the better our life experience will be.
No doubt, there is also the residual belief that the more we can see, the
more likely we are to find food, shelter, companionship, and the less likely
we are to be eaten by predators.
When we investigate all of these emotional and behavioral effects
that are unique to light, we see that there is much more to light than just
sufficient quantity. In the realm of architecture and design, we can do much
more than simply add light to a space so that people can function and
perform visual tasks.

Throughout this text, the knowledge that we will be exploring is

based on making decisions about what we want light to do in a space.

Anything we introduce as a design ingredient has to have justification

for being, so we justify light by identifying the many benefits it serves in an
environment. We then study the different types of light over which we have
control. Lighting design then becomes the process of conceptualizing what
light should be accomplishing in a space and how and where that light
should be delivered.

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Chapter 3
More Impact with Less Light
“It’s all about placement.”
The most important awareness for effective lighting design is the focus on
where light is delivered. As we deepen our understanding of how humans
translate light to vision and ultimately experience, we become acutely
aware of how to maximize the desired experience of our design through
careful placement of light.
Sustainable design and a concern for resources are increasing
priorities for architecture and construction. This trend has already led to
significant legislation and implementation of codes that control how much
electricity we dedicate to electric light. This concern for consumption
usually takes the form of recommendations for light levels applied to tasks
and environments. These studies and guidelines for how much light is
appropriate for specific visual tasks are useful, but designers of complex
spaces are likely to deal with far more than simply visual task performance.
Some spaces can be effectively addressed by studying a visual task - like
performing surgery or reading work materials - and determining the exact
amount of light appropriate for that task. A designer concerned with the
overall experience - mood, interaction, and visual impact of a space - must
take a much more holistic approach that involves putting the right intensity,
color and texture of light onto the right surfaces to create maximum effect.

When we place light with care, the result is a more profound

statement likely created with less total light.

This focused application of “specific light on specific surfaces” has

its foundation in four important relationships between light and human
color vision:
1. Adaptation: adapting to bright or dark situations;

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 2. Brightness: contrast between surfaces and their
surroundings;
3. Phototropism: attraction to lighted surfaces and objects;
4. Vertical Vision: tendency to look around us rather than
above or below.

Relying on Adaptation
Adaptation refers to the ability of the human vision system to perform well
under different light levels. All of us have experienced the phenomena of
waiting for our visual system to adjust from one lighting scenario to
another. When we walk from a sunlit parking lot to a darkened movie
theater, our eyes and brains work together to maximize the quantity of light
entering our visual system. When we transition from the dark theater back
to the bright parking lot, our eyes and brains work to limit the amount of
light being translated. Although in both cases, this process takes time,
eventually, our eyes and brains adjust so that we are able to function in both
situations. The light levels that we are dealing with in the two extremes are
drastically different. The variation between light levels under a high noon
sky and a moonlit night are on the order of tens of thousands. It is truly a
feat of physiology that we are capable of reading a book in both of these
situations.
The design implications of this adaptation work tremendously in our
favor. Because our visual system is constantly at work adjust to the
surrounding light levels, we can deduce that excess light introduced into a
space loses effectiveness as our visual system works to adapt and “even-
out” our experience. Thus, we can likely get away with far less light in
many spaces as our visual system will change to make the most of what
light is available.
These effects are most noticeable in evenly-lighted enclosed spaces.
A room filled with flat, evenly distributed light will appear very similar, no
matter the actual light level, as the visual system adapts.
Adaptation also tells us that a space full of surfaces receiving
different amounts of light will always exhibit contrast, no matter what the
actual light levels are.

Brightness through Contrast

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Brightness is a common term used to describe the perceived lighted effect
of the surfaces in our day to day environments. Brightness is not, however,
an absolute property of a surface. Because the human visual system adapts
to each lighted situation, brightness is a subjective judgment made by an
individual in a specific lighting situation. It is valuable to understand that
contrast between objects is what defines vision and drives our brightness
judgments. Our eyes tell us where one object begins, and another ends
because the objects reflect light differently. When we read a book, the dark
ink reflects less light than the white paper, and we can distinguish the
shapes of the letters on the page, even though both materials are receiving
the same quantity of light. As we apply more light to the pages of the book,
the white paper reflects more light and appears brighter, while the dark text
continues to reflect very little light. Another simple example is the corner of
any room: Inevitably, we can tell where one wall meets the other because of
the contrast between the two surfaces. If two intersecting walls exhibited
the same brightness, our perception would be of one continuous surface.
When we apply higher light levels to visual tasks or accented objects, it is
an attempt to improve visibility by increasing the contrast between the
objects or materials. Objects are not visible simply because they have light
cast onto them; they are “visible” because they reflect light differently than
the their surroundings.

Using Phototropism to draw attention

As discussed in Chapter 2, phototropism is the understanding that human
beings are attracted to light as a matter of instinct. This simple instinct can
be relied upon to draw attention to the surfaces and spaces with which we
want people to interact. Phototropism suggests that despite conditioning and
expectation, in a room full of detailed furniture, intricate flooring, wall
coverings and tile mosaics, the object that the casual observer will notice
first is the shaded table lamp glowing in the corner. With this
understanding, we realize that we have predictable control over where a
viewer’s attention is drawn in our designed spaces. Phototropism dictates
that the eye of the observer will move from the brightest surface to the next
brightest surface. It means that we can often convince an observer that a
space is bright by simply drawing his/her attention to a few large, bright
surfaces.

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Lighting Vertical Surfaces
The third tool of human perception on which we rely is the premise that the
human visual system is designed to translate the light reflecting off of the
surfaces in an environment. The eyes aren’t able to do much with the high
levels of light that come directly from a light source. Thus, the perception
of the brightness of a space has more to do with the light detected from the
surrounding surfaces than the brightness of the light sources. This concept
is exemplified by a stage performer under a spot light. This person has a
large amount of light cast onto him/her, but he/she still feels like they are in
the dark. Another example is a simple room with a glowing chandelier in
the middle. The chandelier may attract attention, but it does not necessarily
make a space feel bright.
Because we are upright, standing creatures, we rely on the light
reflecting from the vertical surfaces that make up our surroundings and
define our peripheral vision. In most of our day to day activities, our field
of vision is focused directly in front of us. Even when we look around us,
we are using the upright, vertical surfaces of our surroundings to define our
environment. The feelings of confinement or freedom and overall light
quality are defined by the conditions of the walls, horizons ceilings, and sky
conditions around us. The only time we look down is to assess the safety of
the path in front of us, so the only time we really need to apply light
downward and immediately around us is to illuminate such paths.
Humans do not define brightness by the light level on the ground
around them, nor do they define brightness by the light focused directly
onto them. As upright, mobile creatures geared to learn from reflected light,
humans naturally focus on upright, reflective surfaces around them to
define their impression of an environment. If the goal is to create an
impression of brightness, light applied to vertical surroundings is much
more effective than light directed on the viewer.

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Figure 3.1 Light applied to vertical surfaces (left) increases the perception of brightness compared to
the same amount of light applied to horizontal surfaces (right).

A Summary of Our Lighting Tactics

The vision system will adapt to make the most of low light levels and
to mitigate excessive light.
Brightness is a subjective judgment based on contrast between
neighboring surfaces.
Human beings are instinctively attracted to bright surfaces, areas
and objects.
Humans gain their definition of brightness from the vertical
surfaces around them.
These four elements of human perception work together to form the
foundation of how we purposefully place light into our environments.
With this basis, our design approach becomes a study of how to
create maximum effect by directing light onto a few specific surfaces. This
approach starts with identifying the surfaces that will best respond to light.
Where can we create lighted goals to draw people through spaces? Where
can we enhance the perception of brightness by lighting vertical surfaces
and objects? Where can we rely on contrast of light levels to create visual
interest? By answering these questions, we will create dynamic, visually-
interesting spaces by painting specific pieces of light onto specific surfaces
to accomplish the lighting design goals of a space. This lighting approach is
the very opposite of providing even washes of light to define a space.

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 To accommodate the specific placement of light, many of the lighting
tools available to the designer are discreet, architecturally-integrated
luminaires that deliver a focused pool or plane of light onto a specific
surface. By employing these hidden, directional light sources, we define our
environment as a collection of lighted surfaces, rather than a collection of
overly-bright light sources or a flat field of generic even brightness.
Because we spend so much time in offices and classrooms that
typically employ an even level of light throughout, we come to think that
this design is the correct or safe way to light a space. However, as we learn
to articulate our lighting goals, it becomes clear that the only reason spaces
are treated with these even light levels is so that a person may conceivably
sit down anywhere and perform a visual task for an extended period of
time. Because of this, we launch into our practice with the understanding
that light is our medium or more accurately that lighted surfaces are our
medium. This simple building method of designing specific pieces of light
will guide all of our designs.

THE FUNDAMENTAL TWO-STEP

PROCEDURE FOR LIGHTING DESIGN
This improvement in lighting understanding can be defined by a 2-step
procedure of lighting design that we will adopt: Lighting specifics first and
augmenting the ambience second.

Step 1: Light Specifics First

This step relies on taking time to recognize where we want to put light. We
first identify the tasks, accents and local visual effects that are integral to
our design. We visualize ourselves with the ability to “paint” light onto
these surfaces as if with a paintbrush or spray can.

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 Figure 3.2 An unlighted space (left) with light mentally “painted” onto its surfaces (right).

Figure 3.3 How the lighted effect might look (left), How it might look with an added ambient
ingredient (right).

After lighting these specific surfaces, we step back and look at the
overall lighted effect of our designed space; we assess the effect against our
project or space specific design goals, such as comfort, uniformity, contrast
and visual interest. Every piece of light we direct onto a specific surface
lights not only the intended surface, but goes on to inter-reflect – that is:
bounce from one surface to another – to add a secondary “glow” of
uniformity. Understanding this “inter-reflectance” is crucial to visualizing
how we are building light into our space one ingredient at a time.

Step 2: Augment the Ambience or Perceived

Brightness

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It is only after we have assessed the overall effect of lighting our specific
surfaces that we can determine whether our space needs supplemental
lighting to introduce a different spatial ambience. If we do determine a need
for a greater overall perception of brightness, we now know that light onto
the most visible and appreciated surface; the vertical surfaces will most
efficiently achieve this goal.

YOU CANNOT LIGHT AIR

This two-step procedure is in stark contrast to the idea of first “filling up” a
space with uniform light only to go back attempting to create elements of
visual interest through additional accenting. Our discussion of adaptation
reminds us that vision is based on contrast, not absolute brightness. We
discern detail, not by how much light is on an object, but from contrast
between one object or surface and another. A statue that is twice as bright as
the wall behind it will grab our attention, regardless of the actual measured
light level. Therefore, if we flood our spaces with light first, we will end up
wasting that much more light trying to draw out surfaces and objects within
the already bright space. If we instead identify and paint light onto specific
surfaces and objects first, we succeed in creating the contrast and therefore
“visual interest” and brightness that we intend. This contrast will remain
intact as we augment our design with additional “fill” or “ambient” light.

Figure 3.5 The 2-to-1 accent ratio (left) - and thus the perceived brightness - remains the same when
light is added uniformly (right). Visual interest is only enhanced when the contrast difference in
increased (below).

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 When this 2-step
procedure is implemented,
the result is a designed space
filled with emotional
impact, engaging visual
interest, and logic. We create
design that truly encourages
interaction. This logic can
prove useful even for our
open office spaces and
classrooms, but is
exceptionally effective in our high-design interactive environments where
visual impact and emotional effect are the primary programs.
The magic of this procedure and understanding is that it requires no
knowledge of lighting products and technologies. It uses no calculations or
light level measurement. Lighting in this manner is simply a change in
perspective and understanding that will allow one to assess lighted effect
better and to better define the lighting needs of a space.
We will build off of this procedure by introducing a system of
determining where light belongs and articulating lighting goals. This
simple, two-step process of lighting specifics first and then augmenting
ambience will remain as the foundation.

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Chapter 4
Adding Light in Layers
As with designing anything, lighting design is not nearly as spontaneous a
craft as one would want to believe. Like all good art forms, design is much
less an explosion of sudden creativity and much more a product of procedure
and understanding. As designers concerned with light, we look to enrich our
craft by expanding our possibilities to create room for great ideas. The maxim
“form follows function” is as true in lighting design as in any design
discipline. To truly master lighting is to establish justification for why we add
light to a space. Design must have a reason for being, and to create
opportunity for good design, we elaborate on the reasons for lighting to “be.”
We touched before on the important mental practice of making lighting
decisions throughout the architectural and interior design processes. To
facilitate this goal, we will give ourselves as many opportunities as possible to
stop and look at our design with fresh eyes. If we break up the lighting design
process and focus on one aspect of light at a time, we have more opportunity
to ponder the specific pieces of light that can be used to support our design
goals.
One of the beauties of design is that there are no “wrong” answers,
simply ideas that are not well thought through. If we study our ideas over a
long enough period of time, the great ideas are sure to rise to the top. Great
lighting is a product of assessing design needs at numerous steps of the design
process. Poor lighting is often the product of lighting design ideas applied all
at once, at the end of a project.
To truly get a feel for the importance of light integration, we need only
visualize how powerful light is at changing the effect of a space. The moods
of architecture are often subtle, and light can have a swift and potent effect on
design. We must be keenly aware of what design goals are best fulfilled by
light and what light is responsible for in our designed environment.
To these ends, the lighting procedure that we will implement is a
method of articulating the reasons we add light to a space, and addressing

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each reason individually. This procedure has been refined and laid out here as
a system of adding light in five distinct layers

THE FIVE LAYER APPROACH TO LAYERING

LIGHT
Layer 1: Lighting to choreograph an experience
Use light to create goals, paths and destinations to encourage flow and
movement
Layer 2: Lighting to define mood and ambience
Add intensity, color and texture to elicit emotion and encourage a
specific use in a space
Layer 3: Lighting to accent objects
Create light that draws attention and encourages interaction by making
interesting objects stand out even more.
Layer 4: Lighting to reveal architecture and shape space
Apply light to the features and details of a space to enhance spatial
effects and reveal the mechanics of structure and form
Layer 5: Lighting for tasks.
Apply light to task areas to accommodate the basic functions of space

“Focus attention and thought on one layer at a time”

In a perfect world, the designer has the opportunity to look at each of these
layers individually, with a mental pause in-between. For a lighting designer,
the ideal situation is to become absorbed in the program or “brief” of a project
before even thinking about lighting solutions. The next step is to surround
oneself with the plans, elevations, diagrams and renderings that define the
project. The designer then sets out to generate ideas for added light that might
choreograph an experience through the space (layer 1). After exhausting those
ideas, the designer takes a break. The designer then returns to the design and
thinks of additions of light that contribute to mood and environment (layer 2).
And so the process goes, designing with a specific purpose in mind, looking at

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the project each time with fresh eyes. This ideal is not always realistic, but to
make the most of a layering system of design, each step should be addressed
individually.
If we stare at a designed space and think merely of “lighting it up” in
one fell swoop, we are bound to come up with generic lighting solutions based
on utility, habit and fear. Function is the primary objective of any design
project, and lighting can make or break the functionality of a project.
Just like a chef adds specific ingredients and seasonings throughout the
preparation of a meal, applying our designed light in layers gives us a depth of
design that is not immediately obvious, and certainly not possible if we try to
apply all of these ideas in one pass towards the end of the design process.
These layers will be outlined here to give an impression of just how
much can be accomplished with each of them. The power of each layer will
become evident as we go on to study the nuances of light and how humans
interact with it. With the layer system to guide our thought process, lighting
ideas come easily and with purpose. Our design process is more comfortable,
and results are much more certain.
This system is the single best tool I know of for empowering a designer
of any expertise level to take command of how light is added to the designed
environment.

LAYER 1: LIGHTING TO CHOREOGRAPH AN

EXPERIENCE
To choreograph is to direct movement. In architecture, we find ourselves
responsible for encouraging people to flow through space and interact in a
specific order. Thus, the application of choreography is simply determining
how we want a viewer to move through and interact with our design. Humans
are phototropic. We are instinctively drawn to bright surfaces and objects.
With this knowledge, we use the power of light to subconsciously convince a
person to move toward a specific area just by placing light in that area. When
we want to encourage movement or flow, we can resort to blunt methods like
signage and directional cues, or we can rely on the subtle, but powerful,
human attraction to light.
The practice is as simple as lighting what we want people to move
towards and leaving dark what we want them to move away from. In this
manner, we use lighted end-points or goals to move people through a space.
We place light at the ends of halls or onto the entrance of a building. We light

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the far end of a room and we light the coffee table in a gathering area. We find
ways to use a single, lighted surface to attract attention where we might
previously have illuminated an entire path. In this manner, choreographing
attention and flow is one of the ways we reduce how much light we introduce
into a space. For every directed movement that we want, we identify the one
surface that when lighted, will encourage that movement. When we want to
draw attention and create visual hierarchy, we identify the specific objects that
we can light to accomplish this goal. When we combine this specific light
placement strategy with our knowledge of the upright nature of human vision,
we find that vertical surfaces - walls, partitions, furniture, and art features -
are the most effective surfaces for our choreography purposes. Suddenly, we
find our space already taking form with visual interest created through
identifying which specific vertical surfaces and central elements serve our
choreography goals. Although choreography planning is but one layer of five,
once applied, we already have a space that is intuitively self-guiding and has a
logical flow.

Figure 4.1 Lightin vertical surfaces and objects is an effective means of encouraging people to move
towards a specific goal.

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LAYER 2: LIGHTING TO DEFINE MOOD AND
AMBIENCE
The second layer we study is the application of light into our space for the
sole purpose of altering the emotional state of the viewer. It is easy to
visualize how easily light can change the overall color, scale, or texture of a
space. We first identify the mood we want to create in an area, and then
identify lighting ingredients that will support that mood. Adding light to affect
mood is a study in the controllable aspects of light and requires deliberate
decision making. An easy way to create lighting that successfully affects
mood is to define each lighting effect in terms of the three controllable
attributes of light that we identified previously:
Intensity: Dim vs. Bright.
Color: Warm vs. Cool (Or an obvious color).
Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse.
When we use this awareness to make an intensity decision, color decision and
texture decision for each piece of light we add to a space, we can be sure that
the light is sympathetic to the mood we want to create.
The goal of this layer of thought is to define the project on a room-by-
room or area-by-area basis and describe the mood and emotional effect we
desire for each of these spaces. A good practice is to create a “Mood Map”
that labels the intended mood in each area, space or room of a project. This
map might describe spaces with emotional descriptors such as “cozy”, “harsh”
or “dazzling”. These descriptors serve to inform our decisions about the three
controllable attributes of the light that we apply to the space.
These subtle characteristics must be thought of for every piece of light
that we introduce to avoid applying light that is accidentally in conflict with
the desired mood. When we notice that “cool” sources aren’t conducive to
intimate residential settings, we are simply addressing one aspect (in this case
the color temperature) that has not been considered carefully. When we come
across examples of light that work against the desired emotion in a space, it is
very often only one of these three controllable aspects (intensity, color, or
texture) that has been neglected. Therefore, with only a minor change, the
light could be remedied to contribute positively to the desired feeling.
This second layer will give you the opportunity to make meaningful
decisions about the core qualities of light. It will also encourage you to

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articulate the specific intent of each designed area.

Figure 4.2.1 Intensity, color, and texture of light can greatly affect the mood of a space.

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 Figure 4.2.2 Intensity, color, and texture of light can greatly affect the mood of a space.

LAYER 3: LIGHTING TO ACCENT OBJECTS

The third layer we tackle is
arguably the most intuitive
and readily-recognized. We
are simply applying light to
already-interesting objects
and surfaces solely for the
purpose of making those
things more noticeable. The
phototropic nature of humans
can be used to draw human
movement, but it is also
effective on a small scale by
drawing visual attention. By
placing discreet shapes of
light onto the objects in our
space, we are creating a logic
that will dictate how a viewer’s eye travels over the visual landscape of a

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single space. We can dictate a subconscious visual path from an accented wall
mural, to a crystal chandelier, to a perfectly-appointed dining table. This
organization of visual interest encourages a visitor to experience the
environment in a specific order, taking time to interact with the design; a sort
of choreography on a small scale.
When we accent the objects in our space, we are also making decisions
about what type of light is appropriate for that object. This requires an
understanding of the materials used in our design and whether they respond
better to particular intensities, colors and textures of accenting light. If we are
interested in revealing texture, we want to use more directional light at steeper
angles. If we want to conceal texture, we use more diffuse sources that scatter
light in many directions. We should even be thinking of the shape of the light
that we are casting onto an object.
When we speak of accenting objects to create visual interest and logic,
we are also speaking about the decorative light sources that we use to add
focus and sparkle to a space. Decorative pendants and wall sconces can serve
as points of interest on their own.
The placement of light to accent objects is another way we focus light
onto specific surfaces and reduce the amount of light needed to create visual
clarity and function in our design.

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 Figure 4.3 Distinct pieces and shapes of light add to the interest of existing objects and materials.

LAYER 4: LIGHTING TO REVEAL

ARCHITECTURE
The fourth layer of lighting in our system addresses light which defines,
accentuates, and articulates the architectural forms and details that we have
taken the time to design into our space. Vision is entirely dependent on light,
so it is reasonable to say that the greatest of architectural concepts and spatial
effects can be rendered meaningless without the proper application of light.
With an understanding of the power of light to expand and contract spaces; to
make objects appear closer or farther away, we are equipped to make very
impacting decisions. Revealing architecture also requires us to think about the
shape of the light we are creating. It is also an opportunity to think about
where the light appears to be coming from. Using light to accentuate
architectural decisions takes the form of two disciplines: lighting to define the
architectural character and lighting to accent architectural details.

Lighting to define spatial character

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The first step to affecting
architectural perception is to
decide on a room-by-room
basis just how we want a
space to be considered. We
must decide whether we want
a space to feel tall and
expansive, confining and
intimate, wide and sweeping,
etcetera. After we go to
lengths to place our
boundaries and objects in a
manner that delivers a
particular feeling of space,
we can apply light to
appropriate surfaces to
enhance the desired effect.
We can wash light
onto ceilings to define the height of a space. We can light the walls of a space
to reveal the boundaries, or we can leave them dark to eliminate the
perception of confinement. The application of light onto a specific set of
architectural boundaries and surfaces carries a distinct spatial impact. We
must take care and put purpose into our decision of how we treat each area. It
is important to recognize that where light originates from has a significant
impact on how people perceive a space and how they feel in a space. Humans
are comfortably conditioned to the idea of light streaming down onto the
world from the sky above. The advent of architectural lighting tools means
that we can trump expectation and create light that emanates from the ground,
wall, furniture; any object or surface we choose.

Lighting to accent architectural details and features

The second element of revealing architecture is to identify the nuances and
architectural features that help define the structure and logic of a space. We
are looking for the expressions of structure; the columns and soffits that define
a space or the coves, coffers and vertices that define shape. Most of these
architectural features will jump out at us from our plans and sketches. We treat
them much the same as we treat other “accentable” objects. The only
difference is that in addition to lighting them just to draw attention, we are

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helping to express the forms and structural logic of a space and how the space
is supported.

Figure 4.4 A few well-placed pieces of light add dimension and depth to architecture.

LAYER 5: LIGHTING FOR TASKS

The last layer that we discuss in our course of five layers is the light that we
introduce to a space strictly for the sake of performing visual tasks. These
tasks can be as specific as reading paperwork or as subtle as navigating a
lobby. We save this thought process for last because as we apply light to
address all of the previous layers, it is likely that the light will interact with
our space to deliver the light necessary for our visual tasks as well. If we
design with consideration to all of our other layers of light, we will have a
rich, dynamic emotional experience. If our design has failed to accommodate
for our tasks, we can augment by adding additional luminaires or localized
task lighting. However, if we neglect the more ethereal layers, like
choreography and mood, it is unlikely that we will ever be able to regain those
subtle aspects of functionality.

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 Lighting for tasks also
happens to have an enormous
wealth of precedent and
information available to help
a designer determine what
light levels are appropriate
for specific tasks. There are
reference books full of charts
and tables that can be used by
anyone for solving task
lighting problems.
What should be
avoided is task lighting
serving as the only type of
light considered for a space.
In a good design approach, it is merely one of five layers, and the last one at
that.
We will investigate the specifics of providing light for tasks as it is a
critical component of the functionality of a space. But it must never
overshadow the thought and design of the other layers that truly infuse unique
experience into our environments.

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 Figure 4.5 Task illuminance should consider visual comfort and performance.

To become comfortable and confident with the layer system, we must remind
ourselves that none of the layers are complete solutions on their own.
Knowing this, we can free ourselves to address light how and where we want
it. If we isolate each of these layers as a unique thought process, we can stand
back and watch our space nearly build itself as a collection of well thought-
out applications of light onto specific surfaces.
Our success with this method relies on reminding ourselves, once
again, that lighted surfaces are our medium. All of the light ingredients we
add through this layered approach are pieces of light painted onto specific
objects and architectural elements
Additionally, our understanding of perception tells us that the most
efficient use of our lighting resources is light applied to vertical surfaces and
the upright accented objects that we place throughout our designed spaces.
If we spend our efforts designing the right light on the right surface, the
more technical task of choosing how to deliver that light will be easier and
can be executed with confidence.

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Chapter 5
Physical Basics of Light
When we dedicate ourselves to incorporating light into our spaces, and
claim it as a familiar medium, we also dedicate ourselves to understanding
how light works. For our purposes, we will sail through a relatively succinct
definition of what light is, how it interacts with the surfaces of our
environment and how this affects our use of it. An understanding of light
from a physical perspective will empower us to make good design decisions
and avoid the perils and pitfalls of misapplied light.
Light is a member of a much larger family of physical phenomenon
called Electromagnetic Radiation. In our discussion, we will simply call it
“radiation.” Radiation is responsible for many phenomena we encounter in
our daily lives. It is all around us all of the time. X-Rays, Microwaves,
Radio Transmission waves and even heat are all forms of radiation. “Light”
is merely a name we have decided to give to the types of radiation that we
are able to detect with our eyes.

LIGHT AS RADIATION
Radiation is essentially power and, as such, has no mass, no color, no taste,
and no smell. All of the different types of radiation travel around our planet,
and the universe, at the very same speed. We call this speed “the speed of
light,” but it is, in fact, the speed of every type of radiation. Light just
happens to be our favorite type.
The only difference between one form of radiation and another is
how fast that radiation vibrates as it travels. Thus the light we use to see
differs from the microwaves used to for cooking only in how fast it is
vibrating as it travels through space. Because this rate of vibration is the
only discernible property of radiation, we symbolize radiation as little,
squiggly lines flying around us. This allows us to describe radiation by the
distance between peaks and troughs in our squiggly lines. The length from

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peak to peak or trough to trough is called the “wavelength” of the radiation,
and it is the only sure way to distinguish one type of radiation from another.
In the case of visible light, these lengths are very, very small, so they are
often described in Nano-meters. A nanometer is so short that it takes one
billion of them make a meter.

Figure 5.1 Radiation, including light, is best imagined as squiggly lines vibrating at different rates as
they travel through space.

We don’t need to visualize these units. We need only to know that in

scientific circles, wavelength, often expressed in Nano-meters, is a perfectly
appropriate way to describe radiation, including visible light. Figure 5.2
shows the entire known spectrum of radiation and the corresponding range
of wavelengths for the different types. You can see that “light” is a family
of radiation at the “short” end of the spectrum, that is to say radiation which
has shorter wavelengths and vibrates relatively fast.

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Figure 5.2 The complete spectrum of electro-magnetic radiation including the portion we call visible
light.

Generally, we say that human color vision can detect radiation with
wavelengths as short as 380 Nano-meters and wavelengths as long as 770
Nano-meters. So it is within this range that we have the “visible spectrum”
or radiation we call “light.” Anything vibrating faster, or vibrating slower,
we no longer “see.” The radiation is still there; we simply can no longer
detect it with our eyes.
Humans do have mechanisms for detecting other types of radiation,
but certainly not with the acuity of the “visible spectrum.” Infra-red

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radiation, which lies just beyond the visible spectrum, is a good example.
Humans don’t detect it with their eyes, but they do detect it with their
nerves as various levels of radiant heat. We are commonly told that heat
rises, but, more accurately, heated air rises. Heat, itself, can be directed
with reflectors just like other forms of radiation.

Figure 5.3 An articulation of the wavelengths of radiation that constitute the visible spectrum.

Most humans have an amazing ability to distinguish between

different types and combinations of visible light. The articulation of our
visual system is evident in the plethora of names that we have given to all

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of these light experiences. We name them as colors, and there is no shortage
of subtle variation in our color experiences. It is important, however, to
remind ourselves that “color” is simply a name for an experience. Light
itself has no color. It is only when different wavelengths of radiation reflect
off of surfaces in our environment and enter our eye that we have an
experience that we can name as a “color.” Hence every wavelength of
radiation in the visible spectrum will cause a fairly predictable color
experience. And so, rather than argue about whether an object is perceived
as yellowish-orange or “canary yellow”, we could simply describe the
radiation by its wavelength in Nano-meters to end the debate. It is also
worth noting that the acuity of color vision varies from person to person
depending on his / her physiological make-up. Various forms of color
deficiency can drastically reduce the number of unique color experiences of
which a person is capable. Studies show that about eight percent of males
and less than one percent of females suffer some form of color deficiency.

EVOLUTION OF COLOR VISION

Describing radiation, light and color in this manner begs an explanation of
why humans have come to “see” this radiation in the first place and why we
are so good at discerning one type from the next. The explanation lies in the
logic of life on earth. Historically, the sun has been the primary source of
radiation here on earth. The sun exhibits a seemingly endless cycle of
nuclear fusion, which emits a very elaborate spectrum of radiation:
essentially, the complete spectrum as we know it, from x-rays to radio
waves. The atmosphere that blankets our earth, however, blocks the vast
majority of this radiation. Some of this radiation slips through, and as far as
we can guess, has always slipped through. This band of sneaky radiation
that actually makes it to earth’s surface is a band that includes our visible
spectrum and some of the ultra-violet and infra-red radiation just beyond
the end of the “visible spectrum”. Color vision is an adaptation that humans
have developed in response to radiation that has always been here. We have
had a long time on earth’s surface to refine our ability to not only detect this
radiation, but to articulate very minute differences, just as we can with
smells and tastes.
This logic also explains why we do not readily detect or use all of the
other forms of radiation; they were simply never on the earth’s surface for
us to care about. It is only the advent of modern science that has introduced

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many of these other forms of radiation – micro-waves, x-rays, and radio
waves - to our lives.

Figure 5.4 Humans have evolved to detect and use the small band of radiation that slips through the
earth’s atmosphere: visible light, ultra-violet, and infra-red.

Radiation that reaches the earth interacts with the surfaces around us in
three ways:
Radiation can be “reflected” or bounce off of a surface.
Radiation can be absorbed by a surface.
Radiation can “transmit” or pass through a surface.

It is through these reactions that the complex spectrums from sunlight

and electric light sources become different combinations of visible radiation
that we translate into different color experiences.
Despite the complexity that can be attributed to the physics of
radiation plays, the lessons are fairly basic:
“Light” is the name for a group of specific wavelengths of radiation
that happen to be detected by our eyes.

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 Color is not a property of an object. Color is our brain’s translation
of the radiation being reflected from an object to our eyes.

BASIC LIGHTING INTERACTION

TERMINOLOGY
To move forward and speak with clarity about the ways light interacts with
our environment and our visual system, it is important to point out that in
all cases of light, we are talking about the fundamental piece of light: The
Lumen. Lighting science makes the task of talking about light a little bit
tricky by lending different names to the phenomena of lumens of light
interacting in different ways. The specifics of measuring lumens of light
will be discussed later in chapter 18. For now, the critical knowledge is
merely a bit of vocabulary.
Illuminance is an expression of the quantity of light falling onto or
“striking” an object. The Illuminance onto a surface does not
necessarily tell us what that surface will look like, as it does not
define the amount of light that will reflect off of that surface.
Knowing the illuminance level onto an object does, however, allow us
to predict the contrast that will be created between materials of
different reflectances.
Exitance is an expression of the total quantity of light leaving a
surface. Exitance is easy to understand because it is simply a matter
of counting up the number of lumens of light that leave a source or
surface. This simplicity is also what limits the usefulness of exitance
as a description. Exitance tells us how much light is leaving a source
or surface, but it doesn’t tell us in what direction or where that light
ends up.
Luminance is the phenomena of light leaving a surface at a specific
density in a specific direction. Although luminance is difficult to
measure, it is extremely useful because it describes light coming off of
a surface just as a viewer would experience it. Describing the
luminance levels of a particular situation allows us to visualize the
lighted effect of the space.

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The safest way to use these terms properly is to get used to the prepositions
related to each. It is appropriate to talk about Illuminance “on to” a surface.
We generally speak of the Exitance “off of” a surface. We generally talk
about the luminance “coming from” a surface.

Figure 5.5 The interactions of light are always about the basic unit of light: The Lumen.

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Chapter 6
Physiology of Vision
The human eye, with all of its mechanics, deserves a heavy book of its own.
But, for our purposes we will focus on the components of the eye that detect
and translate light. These components initiate the chemical process that
transmits information to our brain, where it is processed into visual
experience. To study these mechanics as designers, we must understand
what the eye and brain need to perform and feel comfortable in an
environment.
To better understand the needs of our visual system, we start by
studying some mechanical basics that we touched on earlier.

Adaptation
This term is the name we
give to the mechanics of the
eye and brain working to
control the amount of light
that enters the eye and is
translated by the brain. We
“dark adapt” when we walk
into a dark room, as the
mechanics of our eyes and
brains work to make the
most of what little light is
available. “Bright
adaptation” occurs when we
transition into a brighter
Figure 6.1 The major components of the human
space and our eyes and
brains work to limit the
amount of light entering the visual system. Adaptation occurs

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unconsciously. It is worth knowing that bright adaptation happens rather
quickly. Dark adaptation can take a few minutes to occur completely. For
this reason, we give extra thought to light levels when we transition people
from bright spaces to dark spaces.

Accommodation
This is a fancy name for the ability of the eye to focus on objects at
different distances. The eye has flexible refracting components that change
shape to bend light differently when we shift focus from a close object to an
object far away.

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

The human eye consists of a number of impressive components that
perform all of these complex tasks. Nearly all of these functions can be
understood by finding analogy with a camera.
The outermost
component of the eyeball is
the cornea, a fluid-filled
bulge at the front of our eye
that does a fair amount of
gathering and focusing of
light towards the back of the
eyeball. The cornea also
does a wonderful job of
protecting the other
components of the eye and
filtering out harmful
radiation. Figure 6.2 The flexible “crystalline lens” changes shape to
Behind the cornea is refract light differently as the eye focuses on objects that are
the iris. The iris is the far away (left) or near (right).
component of the eye that
carries “eye color” and acts as a shutter device, opening and closing to
control the quantity of light that enters the eyeball. It is the iris that is first
to act when the visual system “adapts” to different light levels. The pupil is
the name for the aperture that the iris creates. So we see our pupil change in
size to admit more or less light as conditions change.

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 Behind the pupil is the flexible, shape-changing lens that is
responsible for a small, but critical, portion of our accommodation
(focusing). This lens is attached to muscles that contract and relax to
optimize the shape of the lens to refract light from far away or from nearby
as we focus on objects at different distances.
All of these components are working in harmony at all times to
deliver the ideal quantity of light to the elements at the back of our eyeball.
These elements make up the retina. The retina is home to all of our light-
detecting photoreceptors called rods and cones. The different types of
photoreceptors are distributed in a very purposeful way that can be broken
down into three areas of interest.
The periphery of our retina is home to photoreceptors called “rods”
that detect low levels of light.
The central area of our retina is called the macula and is home to a
mix of rods and our more detail oriented photoreceptors called
“cones.”
The very center of our retina is called the fovea, and it is home
exclusively to cones. Because cones are so critical for translating
detail and color, the fovea is slightly concave to maximize the surface
area available. The density of cones at the fovea allows for greater
detail and color perception at the center of the field of vision. It is
this center most area of the retina towards which all of the other
mechanics of the eyeball are working to direct light.

The cones and rods are the critical light detecting components of the
eye. To understand how the two different systems work to contribute to
vision in different light situations, we will expand on them here.

Rods
Rods are the photoreceptors that populate the outer perimeter of the retina
and are responsible for our so-called “peripheral vision”
Rods are very large and very sensitive to subtle light changes and
motion.

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 Rods are active in low light levels. We call these “scotopic”
situations.
Rods populate the periphery of the retina and parts of the macula.
The Fovea (center area) of the retina contains no Rods.
There is only one class of rods, and they all contain the same photo-
pigment. This photo-pigment is called Rhodopsin and is most sensitive to
radiation with a wavelength of 504 Nanometers. This wavelength of
radiation would translate to the color experience “blue-green” to normal
color vision. Because all of our rods have the same sensitivity and respond
to light the same, they only translate value information. Thus in low light
level, “scotopic” situations, our rods translate only a judgment of bright or
dark to the brain. Scotopic vision situations, therefore, appear
monochromatic (one-colored).

Cones
Cones are the photoreceptors that populate the central areas of our eye and
are responsible for all of our high detail and color vision functions. Cones
are organized into three distinct classes, and each class contains a different
chemical photopigment. The different peak sensitivities of the different
classes of cones make color distinction possible. Understanding how light is
detected by the different types of cones and translated to the brain is
necessary to understanding color science and making appropriate light
source decisions.
Cones are active in high light levels. We call these “photopic”
situations.
Cones populate the central parts of the retina. The macula is
primarily made up of cones, and the fovea at the center of our
retina is exclusively made up of cones.
Cones are responsible for our color vision and are small in size in
order to translate detail.

There are three different classes of cones, each named for the photo-
pigment chemical that it contains. These three photo-pigments each have a
peak sensitivity to a different wavelength of light and are named for the

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wavelength to which they are most sensitive. These unique sensitivities are
what make discerning color possible.
Our “R” or Red Cones contain the photo-pigment “erythrolabe,”
which is most sensitive to radiation of wavelength 580 Nanometers.
Not surprisingly, this wavelength on its own would elicit the color
experience we call “red.”
Our “G” or Green Cones contain “chlorolabe,” which is most
sensitive to radiation of wavelength 540 Nanometers.
Our “B” or Blue Cones contain the photo-pigment “cyanolabe,”
which is most sensitive to radiation of wavelength 450 nanometers.

Photopic Color Vision from our Cones

The key to understanding cones and rods is in visualizing how these
photoreceptors work together to transmit information to our brain, where it
is then translated into vision.

Figure 6.3 Approximate sensitivities of the three classes of cones.

Figure 6.3 shows the entire spectrum of visible radiation (on its side).
You may remember that on the short end of the spectrum (380 Nanometers
in wavelength), we have radiation that elicits the color experience “violet.”
On the right side of the diagram is the long end of the visible spectrum

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(radiation of wavelength 780 Nanometers) which is radiation that translates
we perceive as the color experience “red.” On the left-hand axis of the chart
is a simple measurement of quantity or intensity. The three sensitivity
spectrums of the three types of cones are overlaid onto the diagram. As
expected, the peak sensitivities of each class coincide with radiation types
that deliver the color experience we would expect. The most effective way
to visualize the workings of the cones is to picture each class of cones as an
individual person or group that casts a vote of intensity based on how much
of their favorite radiation they detect.
As an example, if we could isolate a specific wavelength of radiation,
in this case 520 nanometers, we could predict how each class of cones
would vote based on where the line of the wavelength intersects each of the
three sensitivity curves (see figure 6.4). We see that the Red cones vote 4,
the Green cones vote 7, and the Blue cones vote 1. These three votes form
the three digit number that is transmitted to the brain for processing; in this
case “4-7-1”. The brain translates each unique 3 digit code as a unique
experience. To keep them straight, we name the experiences as colors. In
the event that our classes of cones all detect the same quantity of their
favorite light, they all vote the same, and the number sent to the brain looks
like “3-3-3” or “5-5-5”. In this case, the brain’s translation is a neutral
value, some shade of gray or black or white.

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 Figure 6.4 The effect of an isolated wavelength of visible light can be determined by identifying
where it intersects the sensitivity curves.

Far more likely than a few isolated wavelengths of light is a group of

many different wavelengths that may be reflecting off of an object or
coming from a light source. In the case of a broad spectrum like this, we
find the intersections of all of the different wavelengths and consider an
average value that represents them (see figure 6.5). In this fashion, every
imaginable combination of light can be boiled down to a vote from each of
the classes of photoreceptors and transmitted as a three-digit number to the
brain. The three digits are what make color space a three-dimensional place
with so many possible color experiences.

Figure 6.5 Even a very complex spectrum is translated by the photoreceptors as a single 3-digit
number.

Although the wavelength characteristics of light are absolute, the

detection of light and translation of color are far more subjective. Every
person’s visual system has slightly different peak sensitivities and different
ranges of detection. There are individuals who detect certain wavelengths of
light that other people do not. They, therefore, have color experiences that
some people may never have.

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 This model of color vision leads to the understanding that the
sensation of “color” is merely the brains translation of the retina’s detection
of different quantities of different wavelengths of light. This has important
ramifications in that we can artificially create any color experience we want
through an engineered combination of many different wavelengths of light.

Scotopic Vision from our Rods

If we can visualize the interaction of our cones, understanding how rods
work is very simple. In the case of our rods, there is only one class, one
photo-pigment, and, therefore, only one vote. The information that is
transmitted to the brain is a single number. Because of this, low-level
“Scotopic” vision is a monochromatic experience. The brain is being
furnished with only enough information to make a value judgment: simply
dark or light.

Figure 6.6 All rods are sensitive to light in the same manner. Thus, they translate only a value
judgment.

THE TROUBLE WITH WHITE LIGHT

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This science needs to be most thoroughly considered as it relates to so-
called “white light.” With the advent of modern, highly-engineered electric
light sources, we have harnessed technology that allows us to create light
sources that can appear as a pleasing version of neutral when viewed
directly, yet render colors very poorly.
Figure 6.7 shows that if we create a light source that emits just the
right wavelength of “blue” light and just the right wavelength of “orange”
light, our cones will send a three-digit number to our brain that will be
translated as neutral.

Figure 6.7 The perception of neutral from a light source can be created through a combination of as
few as two wavelengths of light.

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Figure 6.8 The perception of neutral light is more commonly the product of a wide variety of visible
wavelengths.

What is inherently dangerous is that when our brain detects a “neutral” light
source, we are tempted to believe that this light source will accurately
render all of the potential colors in the environment around us. But if we
created the light source illustrated in figure 6.7, it would accurately render
only two colors; the rest would be muddled and gray. We would
successfully have created a source that appears perfectly neutral to the eye,
but renders only oranges and blues. For this reason, a designer should avoid
describing light as simply “white.” To speak accurately of light sources, we
must discuss two distinct properties:
1. The completeness of the spectrum of a light source or
“Color Rendering Index,”
2. The balance of spectrum of light source or “Color
Temperature.”

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Chapter 7
The Color Science of Light Sources
Like all color experiences, “white” or neutral, is relatively subjective, and
people may experience it slightly differently. In addition to the variation in
individual color sense, there are two other factors that contribute to “white”
being a dangerous term to label a light source.
The first of these factors is a simple physical shortcoming of
photoreceptors. Our cones rely on chemical photo-pigments to cause the
chemical reaction that translates vision. When we exhaust the supply of
photo-pigments the cones can no longer “vote.” This temporary exhaustion
is called “bleaching” of the photoreceptors and is the reason that after
staring at a saturated color for a long period of time, we see the “inverse” of
a color when we look away.
The second shortcoming is based on our brains’ habit of ignoring
repetitive information that it deems of little use. Your brain is a device of
efficiency, and if it feels that a repetitive signal is being ignored, it will stop
sending it. In this manner, as you stare at an object, your brain grows bored
of telling you that the object is colored. The brain starts to ignore the signals
sent by your eye, and your perception of the object’s color begins to shift
towards neutral. More appropriately, your brain is deciding that the color of
that object is the “new white,” and, thus, every other color is judged from it.
These factors together mean that an object appears to be most
saturated with color the instant we look at it, and fades as our cones run out
of photo-pigment. This subjectivity also means that we can do much
arguing about the color of an object or light source. We have already
pointed out that we can eliminate argument about color by labeling
individual colors by their corresponding wavelength. Here we are interested
in applying this simplicity to light sources. We specifically care about the
light sources that we rely on to reveal the colors of the world around us. In
an attempt to limit confusion and argument, we insist on describing two

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unique properties of every light source: Color Rendering Index and Color
Temperature.
Color Rendering Index:
This term describes the complexity or completeness of the spectral
output of a light source.
Color Temperature:
This term describes the color that a light source appears to the eye
due to an imbalanced spectral output.

COLOR RENDERING INDEX

Color rendering index is rather simple in principle and expression. The
color rendering index, or CRI, of a light source is expressed as a number
ranging from 0 to 100, where 100 is a spectral output that contains the
entire visible spectrum and, therefore, renders all colors accurately. If a light
source emits every wavelength in the visible spectrum, then the materials in
an environment have the opportunity to reflect all of those wavelengths to
the eye, and, thus, express all of the potential color in the environment.
The lower the CRI value, the fewer distinct wavelengths the source
emits. Therefore, fewer potential color expressions can be reflected from
materials in the environment. When we go on to investigate various
electrical light sources, we will see that color rendering capabilities (and
corresponding CRI values) vary greatly from source to source. This variety
is of huge significance to the designer. Since designers are responsible for
making many critical material and color decisions, it is imperative that they
are aware of the possible shortcomings of the light source under which they
are making their decisions. Many a person has been shocked to find that
two materials that look to be the same color under a specific electric light
source look utterly different under daylight. Daylight represents a complete
spectrum and, therefore, has a Color Rendering Index (CRI) of 100.
Incandescing sources like the common “light bulb” and halogen
sources are engineered to also emit the entire visible spectrum, so they also
have a CRI of 100. A bad fluorescent source may have a CRI of 60. We will
discuss the specific CRI values of various electric light sources in chapter
eight when we investigate each source individually. Suffice it to say for

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general understanding that
the following guidelines can
get us through the system:
Color Rendering
Indices (CRI) in the
60’s and 70’s are
relatively incomplete
and are unacceptable
for making critical
color decisions.
CRI values in the 80’s
do a reasonable job
of revealing colors
CRI values in the 90’s
render colors very
accurately and are
appropriate for color
critical environments.

CORRELATED
COLOR
TEMPERATURE Figure 7.1 Color Rendering Index (CRI) of different light
This is a method of sources expressed from 0 to 100.
describing the apparent
color of a light source that is very nearly neutral. When a light source
appears colored to our eye, it is due to an unbalanced spectral output. If a
source emits little or no green light, it may appear reddish or “warm.” A
source may also appear “warm” or reddish if it emits every color, but emits
a higher proportion of red.
Color Temperatures are expressed in Degrees Kelvin or simply
Kelvins (because The Kelvin scale is absolute, it needs no units).
The reason that we express this color appearance as a temperature is a
result of the experimenting that led to the scale. The color temperature scale
is expressed as the colors that a black body radiator exhibits as it is heated

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to extreme temperatures. A black body radiator is akin to a fancy block of
iron that won’t melt. As this fancy block of iron is heated to high
temperatures, it begins to glow. The first color that the iron block will glow
is a dull, deep red. If heated further, the same block of iron will begin to
glow orange and then yellow. Experiments show that if heated even higher,
the color exhibited by this block of iron will travel all the way through the
color spectrum. Thus, the next stop is green, onward to blue. The path that
this color transition makes is not linear, so the green happens to be very,
very pale and is, for our purposes, considered a colorless neutral.
The glowing red color of the iron occurs at a temperature of about
1800 Kelvins. With this logic, when a light source exhibits this reddish
color, rather than call it reddish, we describe the light source as having a
Color Temperature of 1800 Kelvins. In this system, orange occurs at about
2500 Kelvins, followed by yellow at about 2800 Kelvins. Following the
progression of temperature and the color spectrum, keeping in mind that we
use the pale green as our neutral, the Color Temperature translations follow
the table in Figure 7.2.

We most often use this system of color description for our engineered
light sources like fluorescent lamps, Light Emitting Diodes, and High
Intensity Discharge lamps. These color associations are only
approximations and differ in meaning from source to source and even brand
to brand. This leaves plenty of room for discrepancy, but the basics of Color
Temperature to describe the slight color of engineered sources like
fluorescent remains useful.
2500 Kelvins: warm
3000 Kelvins: neutral
4100 Kelvins: cool

It is worth noting that with these engineered sources, the color

temperature description has no relationship to the operating temperature of
the source itself. However, when we discuss incandescent or halogen
incandescent sources, color temperature has more meaning. Because these
light sources are the product of heating a metal filament, the color
temperature exhibited is related to the temperature of the filament. When
we heat an incandescent filament to 2800 degrees Kelvin, we get light that

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we would describe as the
“color” 2800 Kelvins
(warm).
Where our engineered
sources cause difficulty is
when they are not labeled
nor described by their Color
Rendering Index, or numeric
Color Temperature.
Unfortunately, many
consumer grade fluorescent
light sources and LED’s are
labeled with marketable
names like “daylight white”
or “designer white.” These
names give no real hint as to
the color temperature to
expect and certainly tell
nothing of the color
rendering index. Thus, these
products should be avoided
when color rendering and
source color are critical.
Knowing the Color
Rendering Index and Color Figure 7.2 The range of color temperatures used to describe
common electric light sources
Temperature properties of a
light source is necessary for
gaining a full understanding of a light source’s capability. It is reasonable to
say Color Rendering Index is the more impacting of the two. If a source
emits a complete spectrum of visible light and reveals every color
accurately, it is really a matter of preference as to whether that source needs
to appear warm or cool. This is just like daylight which changes color
drastically from pale sunrise to deep sunset, but is always useful for
revealing color. Conversely, if a light source reveals colors poorly, it is of
little significance whether the source itself appears warm or cool to the eye.
Many unsatisfactory lighting situations can be remedied by implementing
light sources with a better color rendering index. Very few lighting

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problems can be solved just by addressing color temperature.
To make complete lighting decisions, it is necessary to understand
and specify both the Color Temperature and Color Rendering Index of a
light source.

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Chapter 8
Electric Light Sources
At the core of every electric luminaire is the lamp that actually converts
electricity into radiant light energy. Since the commercial success of the
standard Incandescent lamp in 1879, modern science has developed a
number of ways to electrically create light. Each technology has pros and
cons that should be understood by the designer interested in making lighting
decisions. Just as it is important to understand the priorities and program of
the design job, it is necessary to know which light sources are going to
serve those priorities. The topic of light source technology has become
more complex as technologies have progressed. When we consider how
long humans have relied on the sun as the primary source of illumination, it
is easy to understand why electric light source selection is so critical and
why our visual system struggles with the color rendering, color temperature
and glare issues presented by many of our newer, technologically advanced
sources.
We will discuss each of these technologies with the intent of
understanding how each performs, and where each should be used or not
used. “Lamp” is the proper name for what most people call a “light bulb.”
In our discussion we care about vocabulary as much as anything else, so we
will refer to our sources as lamps.
Let’s summarize our working knowledge of the different light source
technologies by identifying and discussing the properties that define their
suitability for a specific lighting challenge:
Initial Cost: How expensive is this type of source to purchase?
Operating Cost: The expense of providing electricity, maintaining
and replacing the source.
Color Rendering Index: CRI (on our scale of 1 to 100.) A
representation of “completeness” of visible spectrum provided by the

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source, and thus how well is will render colors in the designed
environment.
Color Temperature: Expressed in degrees Kelvin or Kelvins;
indicates the perceived color of the source itself as a product of an
imbalanced spectral output. Roughly categorized as warm, neutral or
cool
Ballast, Transformer and Driver Requirements: Many sources rely
on specialized electronic or magnetic equipment to convert standard
line voltage electricity to something more suitable for the source.
These devices are often built integral to the lamp, integral to the
luminaire, or are remotely mounted within a specific distance of the
source. Often they must be installed such that they are accessible for
maintenance or replacement.
Dimming: Many sources can be simply dimmed. Others require a
careful matching of dimming controllers specific to the source type.
Some electric light sources cannot be dimmed at all.
Instant on / off: Many sources require time to “warm-up” to present
full light output. Some sources, when turned off, must be left off for a
“re-strike” time period before they can again be switched on.
“Directability”: An indication of how focused the light leaves the
source. Some lamps have optical reflectors built into them. Other
sources rely on luminaires to optically control and direct light. The
ability to focus light from a source is related to the size of the source.
The smaller the light source, the easier to harness, control and direct
it.
Efficacy: A fancy word for efficiency; this is an indication of how
well the technology converts electricity to visible light. Most
electricity “wasted” in an electric light source is converted to heat,
which must be considered in its own right. Efficacy is expressed as
lumens of light “out” for watts of electricity “in” or simply “lumens
per watt”
Lamp Life: indicates how long a light source provides a working
percentage of its initial light output. This is helpful for selecting and

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 planning as the labor to replace a lamp is often more costly than the
lamp itself. It is good practice to replace lamps in bulk before they
actually fail. Lamp life is commonly expressed in thousands of hours.
A common assumption is that 1000 hours translates to roughly 1 year
of typical use residentially and 3000 hours translates to a year of
commercial use. These assumptions assume about three hours or nine
hours of use per day (respectively). Adjustments should be made
accordingly.
Temperature requirement: Some electric light sources have
particular temperature concerns. Many fluorescent sources function
poorly in cold environments and more efficiently in warm
environments.
Heat Generated: Electricity in a light source not converted to visible
light is often converted to heat, which must be considered for safety
concerns and for additional cooling load needs.
Noise Generated: Beware that many electric light sources and their
accompanying equipment (drivers, ballast, transformer) can generate
unwanted noise. This awareness and consideration is crucial for
interior environments.

STANDARD INCANDESCENT SOURCES

Cheap, hot and inefficient;
standard incandescent
lamps are used for soft,
diffuse blobs of warm light
that render colors well.
Standard Incandescent
sources represent a very
basic technology that has
changed little in the 100-
plus years since its
refinement. Figure 8.1
illustrates the basic working
components that enable
these sources to function.

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 Figure 8.1 The working components of standard Very simply, electricity is
incandescent light sources
passed through an
engineered metal filament.
As with many materials, the metal filament “resists” the flow of electricity.
This resistance causes friction, which, in turn, becomes heat. Once this
resistance and subsequent heat become great enough, the metal filament
“incandesces”; it gives off radiant energy in a broad spectrum that includes
the visible spectrum. Understanding that the radiant energy given off also
includes a huge quantity of heat (infra-red radiation) explains many of the
undesirable properties and inefficiencies of incandescent sources. It is worth
noting that many countries have introduced legislation to phase out the use
of incandescent light sources: The European Union in 2009, Russia and
Canada in 2012, The US and China in 2014. Check with local and national
regulations before considering these sources for use on your project.

The Properties of Incandescent Sources:

Initial Cost: cheap!
…Dirt cheap. This is the primary reason incandescent sources
are so common. The small price tag compels us to reach for
incandescent lamps despite our knowledge or their inefficiency
and short lamp life.
Operating Cost: Expensive;
Incandescent sources are inefficient and short-lived. They
convert only about 1/3rd of the quantity of input electricity into
visible light. The remaining 2/3rds leaves as heat. Incandescent
sources are expensive to electrify and require frequent, costly,
labor-intensive relamping.
Color Rendering Index: 100 (great);
The filament of the incandescent source is engineered to
incandesce in a manner that delivers every wavelength of visible
radiation. This complete output spectrum can reveal all of the
colors that the surfaces in an environment have to offer. This
desirable color-rendering ability is another reason we are so
reluctant to move away from these sources.

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Color Temperature: warm;
Incandescent sources actually operate at the temperature that
corresponds to their color temperature. Standard incandescent
filaments are heated to about 2800 degrees Kelvin, so the warm,
yellow-orange light given off by the source can be described as
2800 Kelvins. This warmth is another reason we seem to be
attracted to these sources. The warm color temperature
translates well in intimate, relaxed environments.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: None;
Incandescent sources require no special components to operate.
Line voltage electricity is simply driven through the filament,
which heats to a point of incandescing.
Dimming: Cheap and Easy;
Incandescent sources can be dimmed simply by lowering the
amperage (quantity) of electricity that is pushed through them.
This can be accomplished with a simple wall box dimmer that
can be installed in place of most common light switches.
Instant on / off: Yes;
Incandescent filaments heat up to incandescence very rapidly as
electricity is applied to them. For our purposes, we will consider
it as instant.
Directability: Poor;
Incandescent sources are very large to accommodate the
relatively large filament within. Generally, the larger the source,
the more inefficient it is to gather up the light and drive it out in
a specific direction through the use of optical control. Think of
building a reflector around a common “light bulb” to accent a
sculpture, and you begin to get the picture.
Efficacy: Very Poor (10 Lumens per Watt);
Incandescent sources do much more to deliver heat than they do
light. This results in a large quantity of wasted electricity.
Incandescent sources create about 10 lumens of light for every
watt of electricity put into them.
Lamp Life: Poor;

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 Another significant drawback of standard incandescent sources
is the frequency with which we replace them. Incandescent
sources are expected to have a lamp life of about 1000 hours.
Using our estimates, this translates to anywhere from three
months to one year of regular use before the source “burns out.”
As incandescent lamps operate, the metal filament is heated so
that is literally boils away. As the filament boils away, it
becomes thin and brittle and, ultimately breaks, causing failure.
Temperature requirements: None;
Incandescent sources operate equally well in any reasonable
temperature condition.
Heat Generated: Lots;
Incandescent sources emit more infra-red radiation than visible
light. They are truly heat lamps by nature. They can be
exceptionally hot to the touch and must be considered for the
heat damage thy can do to neighboring materials as well as the
additional heating load they represent in the designed space.
Noise Generated: Some;
Incandescent sources have a tendency to “buzz” when they are
dimmed down. This generally comes from the filament buzzing
due to vibration as electricity flows through. Incandescent
sources are fairly silent under full-power operation.
Incandescent lamps are inexpensive to purchase, render colors well, have a
pleasing warm color cast, and are easy to dim. They are, however, wildly
inefficient, produce a tremendous amount of heat, and are short-lived.
We use incandescent sources when we are trying to create soft,
diffuse, warm floods of light. Incandescent sources are good for distributing
an even quantity of warm light in all directions. Occasionally, we build
reflectors around incandescent lamps to create downlights and accent
luminaires, but the large nature of the source makes them ill-suited for this
task. Incandescent lamps are often the heart of diffusing luminaires like
floor lamps, table lamps, and decorative sconces. The limit in size and
wattage of incandescent sources also limits the size of application. These
lamps are usually suited to smaller environments and low (10’-0” and
under) ceilings. Considering the scheduled phasing out of incandescent

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sources and the emergence
of suitable alternatives in the
form of compact fluorescent
and LED technology, there
is dwindling justification for
specifying incandescent
sources on a project.

HALOGEN
INCANDESCENT
SOURCES
Small and hot, Halogen sources
deliver clean, crisp, easily-directed Figure 8.2 Common shapes of standard incandescent light
light that is useful for creating sources.
focused shapes of light, accent
surfaces and objects or for twinkling use as bare lamps for visual interest.
Called by many names, Halogen, Quartz Halogen, Tungsten Halogen, we are talking about a light
source that is essentially a refined version of the basic incandescent lamp. Halogen incandescent
sources are named for the halogen gas that they contain and the quartz outer bulb that surrounds their
filament. Both of these advancements allow the filament in these sources to operate at a higher
temperature. This has the surprising benefit of allowing the source to run more efficiently and also
extends the life of the lamp. The other benefit these advancements provide to the designer is a
smaller source package which can more easily be focused and directed via optics and reflectors.
Figure 8.3 shows the working components with the expected similarities to standard incandescent
sources.
Halogen Incandescent
sources are basically a
refined version of standard
incandescent; they offer
higher color temperatures
described as nearly neutral
pale yellow. These lamps
offer longer lamp life,
greater efficacy, and a
smaller package that can be
better directed to accent and
light specific objects.
Halogen incandescent
sources are still relatively

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inefficient. It is worth Figure 8.3 The working components of halogen
incandescent light sources.
investigating contemporary
ceramic metal halide (CMH)
and LED sources, which have been fashioned into similar lamp shapes to
provide similar, “directable” effects at much greater efficacy.

The Properties of Halogen Incandescent Sources:

Initial Cost: Moderate;
Halogen sources are moderately expensive to purchase. This
expense comes from the cost of the technology and because they
are less common than the standard “light bulb.”
Operating Cost: Expensive;
Although more efficient than standard incandescent, Halogen
sources are still wasteful and still short-lived when compared to
sources like fluorescent, LED and High Intensity Discharge
(HID).
Color Rendering Index: 100 (great);
Halogen sources also rely on heating filaments to a point of
incandescing. These filaments are designed to emit a spectrum
that includes all of the visible wavelengths that objects in our
environment may reflect to our eye.
Color Temperature: warm to neutral;
The higher operating temperature of halogen incandescent
sources creates light that exhibits a higher color temperature.
The filament is heated to about 3000 degrees Kelvin and,
therefore, creates a pale yellowish light that we can describe as
3000 Kelvins.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Some;
Many halogen incandescent sources are engineered to operate at
a lower voltage than is commonly delivered to electrical circuits.
These “low voltage” sources require a transformer to
“transform” the electricity from standard line voltage (120 volts
in the U.S., 220 volts in much of Europe) to a lower voltage
(commonly 12 volts or 24 volts). These transformers can be as

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 small as a candy bar, but must always be considered as they
must be installed nearby and must be accessible.
Dimming: Cheap and Easy;
Just like standard incandescent sources, halogen incandescent
sources can be dimmed with simple wall box dimmers, which
regulate the quantity of electricity delivered through the
filament. It is important however to match the dimming
equipment to the specific transformer type (electronic or
magnetic) if a transformer is in use
Instant on / off: Yes;
Halogen Incandescent filaments heat up to incandescence, and
thus give off light nearly instantaneously.
Directability: good to excellent;
One of the most notable by-products of Halogen technology is
the ability to build a smaller lamp around a smaller filament.
These small lamps are ideal for building into precision reflectors
that drive out light in a single direction. The small size is the
reason halogen incandescent lamps are so commonly used for
accenting, stage lighting, and precision flood lighting. Many
halogen incandescent lamps are built with integral optics and
reflectors.
Efficacy: Poor (15 Lumens per Watt);
When first developed, Halogen incandescent sources were
heralded for being fifty percent more efficient than standard
incandescent. Compared to sources like LED and ceramic metal
halide, which both offer similar lamp shapes, this number is now
less than impressive.
Lamp Life: medium to good;
The higher temperature of Halogen Incandescent lamps creates a
situation in which the metal of the filament recycles within the
lamp, thus, extending lamp life significantly. Halogen sources
generally last about 3000 hours, but can be engineered to last as
long as 10,000 hours (as long as 10 years by our residential
assumption of 1000 hours per year)

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 Temperature requirements: None;
Halogen incandescent sources will operate well in any
reasonable temperature condition.
Heat Generated: Lots;
Halogen incandescent sources create a significant amount of
heat that must be considered for safety as well as added heat
load to a space.
Noise Generated: Some;
Halogen incandescent sources “buzz” when they are dimmed
down. In addition to the buzz of the filament, some halogen
sources rely on magnetic transformers which can also create
noise.
Halogen incandescent lamps
are moderately expensive
lamps that, like
incandescent, are rather
inefficient and create excess
heat. We use halogen
sources where we want the
excellent color-rendering
capabilities and the nearly
neutral color. Halogen
sources are very small, so
they can be incorporated
into smaller luminaires and
into precision accenting
luminaires that drive out a
directional beam of light for Figure 8.4 Common shapes of halogen incandescent lamps.
accenting specific surfaces
and objects. Advancements in LED and ceramic metal halide technology
have resulted in lamp shapes that provide the same directable light as
halogen incandescent sources with much greater efficacies, increased lamp
life and suitable color rendering indices (CRI).

FLUORESCENT LAMPS

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 Efficient and versatile, fluorescent lamps create diffuse light that
can have many different color temperatures and different color-
rendering capabilities.
Fluorescent technology has come a long way since the days of flickering,
humming, blue light. The most significant aspect of fluorescent lamp
technology is the vast range of color temperatures and color rendering
capabilities. Consequently, care must be taken in specifying them. If a
designer does not specify the particular color temperature and desired color-
rendering index of a fluorescent source, the product delivered can be very
surprising and less than desirable.
Fluorescent lamps work through a very novel management of
technology based on phosphorescence. Figure 8.5 shows the components
that are at work in all fluorescent lamps. Long, linear fluorescent lamps and
twisty, compact fluorescent lamps are all basically hollow glass tubes filled
with vaporized metal. When this “cloud” of metal vapor is excited by a
bombardment of free electrons, it gives off a limited spectrum of mostly
ultra-violet radiation. The magic of the technology is the white powdery
coating of mineral phosphors that line the inside of the glass tube. These
phosphors glow by translating the limited-spectrum, ultra-violet radiation
into a much broader spectrum of visible light. The quality and make-up of
the phosphor coating is what determines the color-rendering properties and
color temperature of the lamp. This phosphor coating can be engineered to
deliver light that exhibits any version of cool or warm: bluish, violet,
pinkish, orange-ish, yellowish, etc. Using electricity to excite the metal
vapor and the translation made by the phosphor coating are efficient
processes that create very little heat.
Fluorescent lamps also require a device called a ballast that starts the
lamp and stabilizes the electricity delivered to the lamp. These electronic or
magnetic devices range in size and must be located in or near the
fluorescent luminaire.

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 Figure 8.5 The working components of fluorescent light sources.

The Properties of Fluorescent Light Sources:

Initial Cost: Moderate;
Fluorescent lamps get less expensive to purchase as they
become more commonplace. There are also many government
funded programs that subsidize fluorescent lamps to encourage
their use. Commodity lamps like the T-8 can be quite
inexpensive. Though desirable color temperatures and color
rendering properties will drive the cost up.
Operating Cost: Cheap;
Between the high efficiency and long time between re-lamping,
these sources are among the most economical to operate.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 95 (moderate to good);
The variations in phosphor technology allow fluorescent lamps
to be engineered to render colors well. Unfortunately, far more
common are versions that don’t. Generally, better color
rendering index (CRI) will mean a more costly lamp. It is
always advisable to see a working sample of a specific
fluorescent lamp when considering it for use on a project.
Color Temperature: Variable. Warm to cool and everything in
between;
Fluorescent lamps can be engineered to exhibit any color
desired. What is critical to understand is that the color a lamp

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 appears to our eye does necessarily indicate how well that lamp
will render colors. Fluorescent sources generally have a slight
color cast that may look odd when compared to incandescent
and halogen sources. It is always advisable to see a sample prior
to consideration on a project.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
All fluorescent lamps require a ballast to operate. The ballast
can be built into the luminaire or mounted remotely. Some
fluorescent lamps, like those intended to replace screw-in
incandescent lamps, have the ballast built in to them. Ballasts
operate either magnetically or electronically, and it is
worthwhile to specify electronic ballasts for most uses.
Magnetic ballasts are responsible for the flickering, humming,
and buzzing that are associated with fluorescent lamps.
Electronic ballasts are small, light, quiet, start nearly instantly,
and are more efficient.
Dimming: yes …but costly;
Many fluorescent sources can be dimmed, but this requires a
lamp-specific dimming ballast and, often times, a specific type
of dimming switch. It is advisable to get a controls specialist or
lamp manufacturer’s representative involved when designing
dimmable fluorescent lighting.
Instant on / off: Yes (with an electronic ballast);
An electronic ballast will allow a fluorescent lamp to start nearly
instantly. Magnetically ballasted lamps tend to flicker and stutter
when turned on.
Directability: Poor;
Because of their large size, fluorescent lamps are best used for a
diffuse glow of light and are hard to direct as accents.
Fluorescent luminaires tend to be quite large to accommodate
the larger reflectors and optics.
Efficacy: Excellent (70 Lumens per watt average);
Fluorescent lamps have been refined to be exceptionally
efficient. Ranging from 50 to 100 lumens per watt, these lamps

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 consume as little as 1/10th the electricity of incandescent lamps
while providing the same quantity of light. Beware that high-
efficacy lamps may compromise other features such as color
rendering index (CRI) or lamp life.
Lamp Life: Excellent;
Fluorescent lamps are designed to last anywhere from 10,000 to
hours to 30,000 hours - anywhere from 10 to 30 years - between
re-lamping. It is worth noting that a luminaire may fail due to
ballasts failure rather than lamp failure; Check both.
Temperature requirements: Prefer warmth;
Fluorescent lamps operate better in warm environments and
actually get brighter as they warm themselves up. Fluorescent
lamps often don’t work in cold environments, so care should be
taken when specifying them for such.
Heat Generated: Very little;
Efficient technology means that very little electricity is
converted to heat, but these lamps still become warm to the
touch.
Noise Generated: Some;
Lamps with magnetic ballasts can click and buzz. Electronic
ballasts can also hum slightly. Lamps labeled as “high-output”
can also give off a significant amount of noise.

Figure 8.6 Common shapes of compact fluorescent lamps.

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Figure 8.6.5 Common shapes of linear fluorescent lamps. T-12’s are older technology, T-8’s are the
most common, and T-5’s are newer technology.

Fluorescent sources represent an efficient way to produce soft, glowing

light akin to the diffuse texture we would get from an incandescent source.
They are good for the same diffuse blobs of light and “general” area
illuminance. These lamps last an exceptionally long time. Fluorescent
lamps require care in specifying because of the variety of color
temperatures and color-rendering index values available. It is necessary to
specify both CRI and color temperature when using fluorescent lamps.
We most commonly use fluorescent lamps for large, open areas like
classrooms and open office workspaces that need a consistent level of
diffuse light throughout. We use fluorescent light to wash up onto ceilings
or in slots and coves to wash down walls. Like incandescent lamps, it is
difficult to harness the light of these large lamps and focus it as accent light.
With the increasing popularity of fluorescent sources, their disposal is
coming under scrutiny. Fluorescent lamps contain a very small amount of
liquid mercury. Check with your local agencies for any special regulations
governing purchase, specification or disposal of fluorescent lamps.

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HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE (HID) LAMPS
This high wattage, high output, efficient source ranges in use from
streetlights to retail accent. Most notably, they all require some warm- up
time and are not easily dimmable.
High intensity discharge
lamps represent a large
family that includes sources
like High Pressure Sodium,
Metal Halide, and Ceramic
Metal Halide. We will focus
our discussion on the
Ceramic Metal Halide
family, as this technology
produces relatively complete
color spectrums that are
suitable for color critical
environments. The
technology behind HID
sources relies on creating an Figure 8.7 The working components of high-intensity
arc of electricity in an discharge (HID) light sources.
environment of metal vapor.
It is fair to consider HID sources as a compressed version of fluorescent
technology just as halogen sources are a compressed version of standard
incandescent. Light from HID sources does not rely on phosphors to
translate light, so the light color and rendering capability are products of the
blend of metals that make up the vapor in the lamp. All of this occurs in the
arc tube of the lamp, as electricity is passed between electrodes. Figure 8.7
shows the components.

The Properties of Metal Halide, Ceramic Metal

Halide (CMH) and other High Intensity Discharge
(HID) lamps:
Initial Cost: High;

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 These lamps represent a lot of technology packed into a small
package. They are also fairly uncommon and therefore are
relatively expensive.
Operating Cost: Cheap;
Like fluorescent, these lamps are efficient so they consume
relatively little electricity and have long lamp lives requiring
less-frequent maintenance and relamping.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 90 (moderate to good);
Standard metal halide lamps have CRI values in the 70’s or 80’s.
Ceramic metal halide can have CRI values in the 90’s and can
provide pleasing color rendering properties. Other HID sources,
like high pressure sodium and mercury vapor, have notoriously
poor color rendering properties represented by CRI values of 30
to 50.
Color Temperature: warm to cool (pink to green);
Metal halide lamps tend to have a greenish or bluish cast
regardless of the color temperature rating. Ceramic metal Halide
lamps tend to have a pinkish or violet cast. All HID sources
should be sampled prior to specification on a project, especially
where color rendering is critical.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
HID sources all require an electronic or magnetic ballast to
operate. Electronic ballasts have desirable features like
improved efficiency and less noise.
Dimming: seldom;
The dimming of HID sources is available, but can be quite
costly. A lamp manufacturer’s representative should be
consulted if dimming of HID sources is being considered for a
project.
Instant on / off: No!
The most notable downside of HID sources is that they all
require time to warm up. This time is shrinking as technology
advances, but can be anywhere from 30 seconds to five minutes.
For this reason, these lamps are primarily used where they will

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 be left on for
long time
periods. When
specifying HID
sources, they
should generally
not be relied
upon for instant-
on operation.
Directability: Good to
great;
HID sources are
compact by
nature (relative
to their light
output). Many of
these sources are
put into lamp Figure 8.8 Common shapes of high-intensity discharge
(HID) lamps
shapes similar to
halogen sources.
The HID arc tube core - where the light is actually generated - is
quite small and so can be effectively focused and directed.
Efficacy: Excellent (70-100 Lumens per watt);
HID covers a broad array of source types, but all of them have
very good efficacies. Sources with good color rendering
capabilities like ceramic metal halide have efficacies on the
lower end (70 lumens per watt), but less color-considerate
sources like high-pressure sodium have efficacies as high as 120
lumens per watt.
Lamp Life: Good;
HID sources are rated to last anywhere from 10,000 hours to
30,000 hours; anywhere from 10 to 30 years between re-
lamping.
Temperature requirements: none;

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 HID sources will work equally well in most any temperature
condition.
Heat Generated: Relatively little;
HID sources are efficient and don’t create much infra-red
radiation, but the large wattages available mean that the little bit
can add up to be quite hot. HID lamps also produce a fair
amount of UV radiation. HID lamps implement an outer shield
to contain this, but lamps should be discarded if this outer glass
is ever compromised. HID sources should also be scrutinized if
they are to be used to illuminate UV-sensitive materials or
products.
Noise Generated: Some;
Larger HID lamps have ballasts that can click and buzz. Even
newer, smaller HID sources that use electronic ballasts can have
a slight hum. It is safest not to consider HID sources in spaces
where extreme quiet is required.

HID sources are undergoing constant refinement. The current generation of

HID sources is focused on ceramic metal halide technology, which offers
great color-rendering capabilities. These sources are engineered to come in
small packages like the PAR lamps, MR lamps, and “T” lamps, usually
associated with halogen sources. HID sources are finding their way into
hotels, casinos, and retail operations. They still, however, require warm-up
time and are rarely ever silent. A working sample of any HID source should
be sampled or mocked-up prior to inclusion on a project.

LED SOURCES
LED’s, or Light Emitting Diodes, have truly come of age and are rapidly
being refined to replace many previously popular electric light sources.
Applications formally the territory of halogen and incandescent sources can
now be solved with LED’s. What was once used as the indicator light on
home appliances has evolved into a nearly full spectrum source used for
Red-Green-Blue Color mixing capabilities and as a neutral source - both
directable and diffuse - for tasks and accents. LED technology is based on
electrifying a diode that emits a single wavelength (color) of radiation
depending on the compound of the diode. To gain a broader spectral output,

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these diodes are mated with
phosphor technology in the
same manner as fluorescent
lamps. These diodes are tiny
so that in a cluster of many
diodes, each diode can have
unique optical and color
properties. LED source
advancements are leading to
LED sources that are larger,
more efficient and possess
more desirable color Figure 8.9 The working components of light emitting diode
(LED) light sources
rendering properties. LED
sources are very heat sensitive and commonly fail due to heat buildup. LED
source applications should always be considered for their ability to dissipate
heat.

The General Properties of Light Emitting Diode

Sources:
Initial Cost: Very High;
LED sources are the cutting edge of technology, and, as such,
they are expensive to buy. Like all things economic, prices have
dropped and will grow. continue to do so as volume and
popularity
Operating Cost: Cheap / moderate;
LED sources are gaining ground as very efficacious means of
creating electric light. Pair this with amazing lamp life, and you
have a very low operating cost. The catch is still the cost of
replacement when the product does fail. Because many LED
sources are integrated into lamp modules, arrays or nearly
complete luminaires, replacement cost and effort are often
similar to replacing an entire luminaire.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 90 (moderate to good);
LED’s have now made the leap to usefulness as neutral sources
with good color rendering properties. Generally, costs increase

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 with increased
color rendering
indices (CRI),
but suitable
commodity
products are
increasingly
available. LED
sources are also
commonly used
for saturated
colors and color
mixing
applications.
LED sources do
require careful
scrutiny when
intended for
color critical
situations. It is
advisable to view
a working
sample of a
particular
product before
specifying it for
a project. Figure 8.10 Common shapes and configurations of light
emitting diodes (LED’s).
Color Temperature:
Variable (Cool to neutral to warm)
LED products claim to provide color temperature from 2800K
up to 5000K. To have faith in the color temperature, it is
important to actually see samples of LED products before
specifying them.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
LED sources run at odd voltages, and most require a proprietary
transformer (often referred to as a driver) that may be built

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 integral to the source or may need to be remotely mounted in an
accessible location.
Dimming: Yes;
LED’s can be dimmed. The dimming properties are generally a
product of the driver or transformer technology and must be
specified as such from the manufacturer.
Instant on / off: Yes;
LED sources are truly on or off, with no warming up time.
Directability: Great;
LED sources are directional by nature, so they can be controlled
with lenses and small scale optics. A trickier task is getting LED
sources to diffuse evenly, but this too can be accomplished via
lenses and diffusing materials.
Efficacy: Good (50-90 Lumens per watt as of this printing);
LED’s undergo so much development that their true efficacy is a
moving target and should be confirmed prior to each job. Be
mindful of specifying products just because they are LED
sources without confirming the efficacy as LED’s may not
always be the most efficacious solution.
Lamp Life: Great
As of this printing, LED source are marketed as having
conservative lamp lives in the 50,000 to 80,000 hour range. This
translates to 50 to 80 years depending on use. Of note: LED’s
tend to “fade away” rather than simply “burn out” so they
should be replaced on a schedule rather than on instinct. LED’s
are also very heat sensitive. Exposure to excess heat or improper
heat dissipation situations can significantly reduce lamp life.
Temperature requirements: Avoid heat
LED sources are commonly mated to significant heat dissipating
technology. Care must be taken to allow space for ventilation
and heat dissipation (manufacturers may even specify
ventilation requirements). Excess heat will significantly reduce
the lamp life and reliability of an LED source.

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 Heat Generated: Relatively little
LED sources convert most input electricity into visible light, but
the small amount of heat can add up, akin to fluorescent.
Dissipating the heat is critical, regardless of the quantity.
Noise Generated: None
Both LED sources and the electronic components that drive
them operate very quietly.

LED’s are everywhere and gaining ground fast. This has resulted in
standardized lamp shapes, connection types and more availability. Ubiquity
also results in lower costs. LED’s are suitable candidates for directable
accent applications, area lighting, and small and medium scale diffuse
applications. LED light sources are also useful as continuous linear sources
for coves and slots and for colored or color-changing applications. Many
suitable LED products are available for retrofitting existing incandescent,
halogen and fluorescent installations. It is advisable to take care in
researching and sampling LED’s to find products suitable for a project. The
major drawbacks are the initial cost and sensitivity to heat as well as the
lack of standardization across different brands. LED’s are available as
retrofit lamps, dedicated modules, continuous arrays and complete
luminaires. It is advisable to source LED products from manufacturers with
a track-record, who can be relied upon to stand behind the product. It is also
advisable to seek products that follow some form of standardization and
have a lamp module that can be replaced without replacing an entire
luminaire. Beware of novelty products from mysterious manufacturers and
be aware of the hidden inefficiencies of module replacement and disposal.

LAMP NAMING LOGIC

One of the more helpful elements of lamp technology comes in
understanding the naming convention that is used to describe the shape and
sizes of common electric lamps.
Most lamps are given a description code of 2 or 3 letters followed by
2 or 3 numbers. In most cases, the letters are some manner of describing the
lamp shape, and the numbers are a manner of describing the size.

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 Figure 8.11 Most lamp names describe the lamp diameter in 1/8” increments.

Lamp Size
The sizing of lamps is very simple, if not utterly logical. Common electric
lamps sizes are indicated by a two-number code that describes their size in
⅛” increments. By this logic, our common light bulb, which in lighting
circles is referred to as an A-19 lamp, is ” in diameter or 2-⅜” in
diameter. This measurement turns out to be accurate as we go down the line
from small lamps like MR-16 lamps ( ” or 2” in diameter), to larger
PAR-38 lamps ( ” or 4-¾” in diameter). Figures 8.11 and 8.12 illustrate a
few examples of these size codes.

Lamp Shape
The system for describing the shape as a code is a little more varied.
Inevitably, the two or three letters leading a lamp code are meant to give
some literal indication of the shape of the lamp. A stroll through the family
illustrates some examples.
A-lamps, which include the A-19 (common light bulb), A-21, and A-
23, are named such that “A” stands for “arbitrary.” This is presumably due
to its irregular shape.
Next in the lineage of directionality are so-called “R” lamps, like R-
20, R-30, and R-40. In all of these cases, R stands for “reflector,”
presumably to describe the generic silver backing common of these lamps.

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 Figure 8.12 Common sizes of the arbitrary shaped “A” lamp (left) and reflector “R” lamps (right).

We then encounter our PAR lamps, like our PAR-20, PAR-30, and
PAR-38. PAR stands for Parabolic Aluminized Reflector and refers to the
engineered parabolic reflecting surface built into each of these lamps.

Figure 8.14 Common sizes of parabolic aluminized reflector “PAR” lamps.

When we discuss MR lamps, like the ubiquitous MR-16 and the

smaller MR-11 and MR-8, the MR stands for Multifaceted Reflector; a very
highly-engineered reflecting device.

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 Figure 8.15 Common sizes of multifaceted reflector ‘’ MR” lamps.

T-lamps tend to be “tubular” in shape, as is the case with our linear

fluorescent T-8 and T-5 lamps. T-lamps can refer to smaller, tubular halogen
or HID lamps as well.

Figure 8.16 Common sizes of tubular (T) lamps.

The parade of names and codes goes on, but the lamps mentioned
above represent most of what we run into in the world of architectural
lighting.

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LAMP CODES FOR COLOR RENDERING
INDEX (CRI) AND COLOR TEMPERATURE
It is important to point out that lamps truly are the core of all of our light
creating devices. The design industry puts much focus on luminaires and
their behaviors and aesthetic appeal, but at the heart of every electric light
creating device is a lamp of some sort. It is perhaps more valuable to
dedicate brain space to knowing about lamp technologies and properties
than to clutter one’s head with the glut of luminaire literature that circulates.
Lamp technology tends to change slower than luminaire technology, and
there is an inherent logic to the way lamps are designed, marketed, and
manufactured.
The key to successfully specifying the right lamp is caring
tremendously about Color Temperature and Color Rendering Index
properties of the lamp. Remember that once we step outside of standard
incandescent and halogen incandescent sources, science can cook up any
color and color rendering properties desired. As per our earlier discussion, it
is imperative to boil lamps down to their two primary properties of concern:
Color Rendering Index or CRI (from 1-100)
Color Temperature (in Degrees Kelvin or Kelvins)

Luckily for us, most engineered electric light sources like HID and
fluorescent are described by a three digit code that is stamped right on the
lamp or lamp packaging. This three digit code contains information
indicative of both the Color Rendering Index and Color Temperature.
The first number in the series indicates the Color Rendering Index or
CRI. If the 3-digit product code starts with a 7, the CRI of that product is in
the 70’s. If the code starts with an 8, the CRI is in the 80’s. A 9 indicates a
CRI in the 90’s. We tend to give more merit to the color-rendering
capabilities of our fluorescent and HID sources, and so we can assess the
CRI code like this:
7 = CRI in the 70’s: This is acceptable, but should be used only in
non-color critical environments.
8 = CRI in the 80’s: This is typical and reasonable to use in most
day-to-day applications.

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 9 = CRI in the 90’s: This is very desirable for color critical
environments, but also relatively expensive.

The second component of the code lies in the last two digits. These
two numbers are indicative of the Color Temperature in degrees Kelvin.
The system breaks down like this:
28 = Color Temperature of 2800K = warm (imitating the color of
incandescent sources);
30 = Color temperature of 3000K = neutral (imitating the color of
halogen sources);
35 = Color Temperature of 3500K = slightly-cool;
41 = Color Temperature of 4100K = cool;
50 = Color Temperature of 5000K = very-cool;

Figure 8.17 Most fluorescent and HID products are labeled with a three digit code expressing color
rendering index and color temperature.

Keep in mind that color temperatures are really meaningful only as

guidelines within a family of products. One brand of 2800K fluorescent
lamp may not look like another brand of 2800K fluorescent lamp and will
certainly not look like a 2800K Metal halide lamp nor the incandescent
lamp it is trying to imitate.

Source Efficacy Estimates

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Identifying source technologies with their general efficacies or efficiencies
is a useful and often neglected piece of information. In some lighting design
guides, it is a recommended practice to design appropriate light levels for
spaces based on a watts-per-square-foot density of installed luminaires. This
practice tends to be tactically deficient. Designing light on a power density
basis is ignorant of the different efficacies of the different source
technologies. It can lead to uninspired designs of flat, even illuminance
levels where they may not be welcome. The closest thing to designing to a
density is the Lumen Method Calculation which recommends light density
based on lumens per square foot (we will discuss calculation methods in
Chapter 20). For the time being, we will introduce a basic set of numbers
that will paint an approximate but useful picture of how the most common
electric light sources compare to one another in terms of efficacy (light out
compared to electricity in). As design progresses, it is advisable to know the
efficacy of the specific product being considered. For schematic planning
phases and basic comparisons, the rough approximations for the source
types below can be used:
Standard incandescent efficacy = 10 lumens per watt (lpw);
Halogen incandescent efficacy = 15 lumens per watt (lpw);
Fluorescent and HID efficacy = 70 lumens per watt (lpw);
LED efficacy = 50-90 lumens per watt (lpw);

This simple table shows why we tend to group all of our high-
efficacy sources together. It also illustrates why fluorescent, HID and LED
sources are so desirable when compared to the efficacies of incandescent
and halogen products that they can replace. If you can make a mental note
of these four numbers, you will have an invaluable foundation for
visualizing, estimating, and calculating lighting effects.
All of these properties together give the user fairly good insight into
making lamp decisions. Lamp literature is also, thankfully, more straight-
forward than that of luminaires. By grasping the basic concepts of color
rendering, color temperature and efficiency, one is much better prepared to
make decisions about suitable sources for accomplishing lighting goals.

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Part II
Designing Light

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Chapter 9
Textures of Light
Texture is one of the most neglected concepts of light. It also happens to be
one of the most useful for designers desiring a quick intuitive knowledge
base for making lighting decisions. This understanding allows one to
visualize and describe the various textures of light that we might paint onto
our surfaces. You will recall that the basic spectrum of light texture includes
“soft”, diffuse light on the one end, and directional, focused light on the
other end. Once we can identify how our various lamp and luminaire
technologies deliver these various textures, we can make informed
decisions from the start of the design process.

DIFFUSE LIGHT
When we talk about diffuse light, we are talking about light that leaves a
source equally at all angles and, as such, reflects off of the surfaces of an
environment at all angles.

Figure 9.1 Diffuse sources deliver light evenly in many directions.

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 This light is usually the product of large glowing sources like
incandescent globes and fluorescent tubes. We can diffuse light even further
by placing diffusing lenses like frosted glass and acrylic on our light source,
as in the case of decorative pendants and sconces.
Diffuse light fills in shadows and, therefore, reduces the appearance
of texture changes. We use this light to render people as it is flattering and
forgiving of textural imperfections. We use soft, diffuse light to create
comfortable, intimate environments where we want long-term visual
comfort. Diffuse light tends to be even light, which reduces eye strain that
comes from high-contrast environments. Diffuse light also works well for
task environments by eliminating shadows and, again, reducing contrast
that causes eye strain.

Figure 9.2 Diffuse sources can be further diffused to deliver even softer light.

Diffuse light applied as the only ingredient can become boring and
visually un-interesting. When a space is filled with even, diffuse light, there
is little visual interest to direct the order that you experience a space.
Diffuse light can also cause a unique type of eye strain that comes from
having too little contrast. Over long periods of time in purely diffuse
environments, the eye tends to strain to pull out detail and find visual
acuity; often described as an “under-water” feeling.

DIRECTIONAL LIGHT
Directional light is the product of lamps and luminaires that have purpose-
built reflectors that harness light from a source and push it out in a single

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direction.

Figure 9.3 Directional lamps (left) and directional luminaires (right) utilize reflectors and optics to
deliver light in a controlled manner.

This effect is often accomplished with an engineered luminaire, or

simply within the lamp itself. Directional light is notably delivered in a
shape that has distinct boundaries. Our directional light sources create pools
and beams and scallops of light that tend to be brightest in the center, and
fade to a clear-cut border. These sources are commonly the first ingredient
considered in our design process, as they are able to deliver specific pieces
of light to specific surfaces and objects in our space. The light arrives from
one direction and has a tendency to reflect off of objects in one direction.
Hence, directional light creates distinct shadows between light and dark
and, therefore, introduces contrast that shows off material texture.

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 Figure 9.4 Diffuse light sources (top) hide texture and limit contrast. Directional sources (bottom)
create shadows, contrast, and visual interest.

We use directional light sources to cast accent onto art, objects and
unique architectural features. Directional light makes objects glow and
makes metals and glass shimmer and sparkle. It is these sources that add
visual interest and hierarchy to environments by creating objects and
surfaces that are distinctly brighter than their surroundings. The contrast
created by directional light can, however, become uncomfortable over long
time periods. Excessive contrast causes the eye to constantly re-adapt when
looking from bright elements to dark elements. Directional light is also
undesirable for many tasks since excessive shadows (often from a person or
his / her own hand) can obscure the task on which you are trying to focus.

DESIGNING WITH DIFFERENT LIGHT

TEXTURES

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The fundamentals of making good luminaire and lamp decisions are as
simple as identifying light sources by the type of light they deliver. The
diagram below exhibits what we will consider as the four levels of light
texture, ranging from directional to diffuse.

Very Directional Light

At the directional end of the spectrum, we have reflector driven lamps like
halogen MR lamps that have precision engineered reflectors that drive light
out. This light is perfect for accenting art and decorative objects, but creates
glare and contrast that may be unsuitable for lighting a social gathering
space. We can also create this directional light with accent luminaires that
have precise reflectors around a small halogen or HID source. Many LED
sources also provide very directional light. We can compare this light to the
harshness of direct sunlight.

Figure 9.5 Effects of very directional light (left) are often the product of lamps and luminaires that
incorporate engineered reflectors and small sources (right).

Directional Light
Slightly-softer directional light can be created with PAR type lamps. These
lamps also have a reflector, but incorporate diffusing lenses and less-precise
optics that create a slightly more diffuse quality of light. PAR lamps are
built around small Halogen or HID sources. We can also create this quality
of light by placing diffusing filters in front of MR type lamps. This light is
perfectly functional for painting light onto art, gathering areas and

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architectural features; it is acceptable to some for creating even levels of
task light. It is similar to the quality of unfiltered skylight.

Figure 9.6 Effects of directional light (left) are often the product of lamps or luminaires that
incorporate less precise optics and reflectors.

Diffuse Light
Towards the softer end of the spectrum are luminaires that use reflectors to
harness the light of diffuse lamps. When we take an otherwise diffuse
incandescent lamp or fluorescent lamp and build a large reflector around it,
the product is a subtle wash or pool of slightly diffuse light. We also get this
light from our family of incandescent “R” lamps that are little more than a
common light bulb with a generic reflecting surface built into the back.
Diffuse light is unsuited for making an accent statement, but delivers a nice
quality of light for gathering areas and task situations. We might liken this
effect to the soft light of daylight diffused through sheer curtains.

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 Figure 9.7 The effects of diffuse light (left) are often the product of diffuse lamps (right) and
luminaires with engineered reflectors and larger sources (right).

Very Diffuse
On the very diffuse end of the spectrum, we consider glowing sources that
put out light in every direction and often include diffusing materials to
encourage the spread of light. We get this light from bare incandescent and
fluorescent lamps. We also create this light with diffusing sources like
shaded table lamps, floor lamps, diffusing pendants and sconces. This is
like the light we get on a cloudy, overcast gray day. Diffuse light is suitable
for filling an entire room with a homogenous glow, but is certainly not
useful for accenting objects.

Figure 9.8 Effects of very diffuse light (left) are often the product of luminaires with diffusers and
diffuse sources (right).

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 With these four textures committed to our intuitive knowledge base, a
designer is well-prepared to articulate the quality of light envisioned for a
space. Once you get used to the idea of making a texture decision about
light, you will wonder how you ever got by without doing so. The designer
who can visualize and describe different textures of diffuse and directional
light can also identify light sources, lamps and luminaires that are not going
to meet the needs of the design.

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Chapter 10
Shapes of Light
The next ingredient in our intuitive understanding of light is the articulation
of shapes of light that we add to our designed spaces. It is impossible to
deliver visual interest in a space without making distinct statements through
the shape of light and lighted surfaces. The easiest way to understand the
different shapes of light is to identify the following three categories: pools
of light, planes of light and glowing objects.

POOLS AND PIECES OF LIGHT

Most of our directional sources – lamps and luminaires with engineered
reflectors and optics - emit beams of light that deliver some well-defined
shape of light onto the objects we illuminate. These shapes of light can have
relatively soft borders or well defined boundaries between light and dark.
We use these shapes to “spotlight” or cast shapes of light onto specific
objects like art, sculpture, furniture pieces, and convening areas. Creating
distinct pieces of light certainly adds visual interest, but care must be taken
to not overuse the treatment. Light shapes tend to come across as artificial
and contrived, as they are rare in the natural world. Pools and distinct pieces
of light can also break up otherwise homogenous surfaces. Walls and large
rectilinear shapes can become visually chaotic with too many applied pieces
of light. When not used with restraint, these defined pieces of light can give
galleries, restaurants and other environments an “over-done” appearance.

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Figure 10.1 Distinct pools of light add visual interest and contrast, but can become overwhelming or
visually “noisy.”

PLANES AND LINES OF LIGHT

We have a vast array of continuous linear sources that are useful for
creating long lines of light that follow the long lines of our architecture and
materials. Linear sources, used properly, allow an entire geometric surface
to glow evenly and can enhance the way textures and materials are
perceived. Slots and washes of light bleed across surfaces and create shapes
of light very similar to what we might encounter from daylight devices like
skylights, light wells and windows. We tend to have an affinity for these
shapes because they deliver a sense of connection to the natural skylight
and sunlight to which we are accustomed. Geometric shapes of light can
reinforce the shape and form of rectilinear architectural surfaces. Uniform
shapes are also good candidates for mitigating the high-contrast effect of
strong accent lighting. They are a good tool for balancing ambient glow in a
“too-contrasty” space.

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Figure 10.2 Planes and lines of light can harmonize with architecture and are reminiscent of natural
daylight.

GLOWING OBJECTS
Glowing objects like pendants, sconces and shaded lamps make up the last
shape we consider. We call these self-contained pieces of light art “self-
luminous” sources, and we distinguish them from the architecturally-
integrated light sources that we use to create pools and planes of light. The
most certain thing that we can say of self-luminous sources is that we must
use them with care. When we combine decorative intrigue with brightness,
the result is an object that draws immediate attention to itself. These
glowing objects can be useful for instructing visual flow and encouraging
way finding, but if we try to use them as our primary sources of light, we
end up with overly bright decoration that works against our lighting goals.
Once these glowing sources have attracting one’s gaze, the eyes adapt to the
brightness, so the space, as a whole, is consequently perceived as darker. It
is good practice to use these sources in conjunction with luminaires that
direct light onto surfaces. This combination of effects allows us to use our

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decorative luminaires at
lower levels for the visual
effect we truly desire
without having to rely on
them to create brightness in
a space.
Adding a concern for shape
to our lighting decisions
gives us one more specific
ingredient for matching light
application to the function
of our space, and the shape
of our space. We can now
identify how we want to add
light so that it harmonizes
and emphasizes the
geometry, scale and
materials of our design.
Designing with shapes of
light also has a profound
effect on the mood and
feeling that a space
translates.

Figure 10.3 Glowing sources serve as visual interest, but

can overpower a space and be a source of glare.

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Chapter 11
Location of the Light Source
The last frontier of decision making about adding light is designing where
the light appears to be coming from. It is important to ponder this decision
because recent trends and technologies have led to the misconception that
all lighting devices belong in the ceiling, washing light down onto the
ground below. To make the most of our lighting resources, we must take
time to investigate all of the other ways of delivering light that we can
conceive. Many successful lighting designs are, indeed, based on ceiling-
mounted downlights as they are certainly a versatile way to deliver pieces
of architectural light. We will strive for innovation, however, by opening
our mind to the variety of methods for delivering light. It is a good practice
to investigate uncommon techniques, first, to avoid the tendency to migrate
back towards the generic means of recessed downlights.

LIGHT FROM THE CEILING ONTO WALLS

The quickest change we can make to the generic downlighting tactic is to
use light sources that can be aimed to direct light onto the vertical surfaces
of a space, rather than simply straight down. These pieces of light go a long
way to increase the overall perception of brightness in a space. Vertical
lighting also expands a space and shows off the architectural boundaries.

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 Figure 11.1 Lighting vertical surfaces creates a distinct impression of brightness.

LIGHTING FROM THE GROUND UPWARD

We can implement light sources that recess into the ground or floor plane
and create beams of light that wash the walls and cast pools of light up onto
ceilings and canopies overhead. This tactic delivers a unique light quality
that is rare in the natural world, where daylight from above is the norm.
Upward directed light can contribute to the perception of height and
verticality. It can also create a more intimate feeling if the light further
reveals the ceiling above.

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Figure 11.2 Lighting upward from the ground is at once unusual and creates a unique environment.

LIGHTING FROM THE WALL UPWARD

These sources are mounted to the surface of a wall or regressed into a wall
and cast light up onto the ceiling plane above them. Light onto the ceiling
plane opens up a space and increases the perception of volume. A bright
ceiling lends a feeling of openness by mimicking a bright sky above. The
even light from a glowing ceiling is sometimes all the light needed for a
simple environment where little task or accent lighting is necessary.

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 Figure 11.3 Lighting from the wall to the ceiling adds volume and height to a space.

LIGHTING FROM THE WALL BACK ONTO

THE WALL
We have a vast array of
decorative and functional
luminaires with shielded
sources that paint light back
onto the wall to which they
are mounted. These differ
from our purely-decorative
sconces in that they wash
light onto the wall, rather
than simply glow. This
treatment of light is useful
where ceiling or floor
mounted luminaires are not Figure 11.4 Lighting back onto the wall creates brightness
without glare.
an option. These luminaires
can be mounted in rows and
patterns to help the flow of a long space or corridor.

LIGHT FROM SLOTS AND COVES ONTO

WALLS AND CEILINGS
These are the architecturally integrated lines of light that create even
washes and unique glows onto entire surfaces of a space. These shapes of

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light go a long way to enhance the geometry of space. The long, clean lines
can show off the joints and connections of structure. Lines of light also do a
good job of mimicking the clean light we receive from daylight openings
like skylights and light shelves.

Figure 11.5 Slots of light from above create brightness onto vertical surfaces and are reminiscent of
daylight.

SUSPENDED GLOWING SOURCES

Glowing sources add a haze of light to our spaces and a distinct focal point.
They must be applied with care to avoid glare and generic floods of light.
These sources are often the crowning elements of visual interest that we
apply after our other lighting needs have been met. There are environments
where a single, well-placed glowing source can solve most of our lighting
needs, but they are more often misused to draw attention and leave a space
feeling dark.

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Figure 11.6 Glowing pendants act as focal points, but can also deliver controlled light up and down.

LOW LIGHTING ONTO THE FLOOR

Localizing light onto the floor plane can be accomplished with luminaires
that mount low on the wall. These so-called “step lights” are usually
considered for lighting stairs, but they are just as effective in delivering
light onto the floor plane. These luminaires typically recess into the wall
and work to get the light source closer to the surface being lighted.

Figure 11.7 Low, wall-mounted area lights keep light down where it is needed.

The goal of considering a simple list of lighting applications like this

is to avoid the repetitive and static environment that is the product of over-
using recessed lighting. Certainly, a complex space can be lighted entirely
with the right adjustable, ceiling-mounted luminaire, but if we start by
experimenting with ideas of unusual light application, we are much more
likely to innovate. The result can be a space with a truly special and unique
design character. There are certainly numerous ways to deliver light other
than the manners we have listed, but if we can add these distinct methods to
our intuition, we will be much more likely to consider them as we design.

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Chapter 12
Building Light from Darkness
With our new-found intuition for the texture, shape and origin of light, we
can further expand on our decision-making process to make sure that we are
considering all of our options when adding light to a space. If we consider
each of these aspects every time we look to add light to our design, we can
be sure that the light will support what we are attempting to convey through
the design. The convenient aspect of this intuitive knowledge is that it
doesn’t yet require knowledge of light levels, calculations, or luminaire
technologies. We are still simply addressing the light itself and how that
light will interact with the surfaces of our designed environment.
As long as we can visualize light and communicate design ideas for it, we
can find a way to implement it.
Our expanded list of the controllable aspects of light now looks like this:
Light intensity: Bright vs. Dark;
Light Color: Warm vs. Cool;
Light Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse;
We now have a visual understanding of what texture means and
what types of sources create these textures.
Light shape: Pools of light, Planes of light, Points of light;
We can now make decisions about how we match the shape of
light to the shape of our architecture, surfaces and objects within
a space.
Light origin: Where is the light coming from?
Thinking beyond basic downlighting, we are more likely to come
up with lighting systems that are truly complementary of the
designed space.

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BUILDING LIGHT FROM DARKNESS
An effective mental exercise for enhancing the design process is to step back
and approach a space as a collection of surfaces that can receive light. This
process can be broken down into two steps: seeing an environment as a
collection of surfaces and seeing those surfaces for the materials of which
they are made.

Seeing our environment as a collection of surfaces

Once we have adopted all of the subtleties of lighting design decisions into
our intuition, we are ready to start placing light with meaning, conviction,
and true relation to the design goals of our project. The helpful process for
making lighting additions to our environment is to take what we know about
our architecture and surroundings and visualize this environment as a
collection of surfaces in darkness. From this starting point, we picture
ourselves with the ability to paint light onto the specific surfaces that make
up the space.

The more we know about the use and layout of a space, the better, but
this visualization can be done with only the walls, floor and ceiling in our
mind. We picture ourselves placing light onto each surface because this is
exactly what all of our architectural luminaires are designed to do. All of the
engineered reflectors and precision lamps have been tweaked and refined to

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give us total control of
delivering light exactly
where we want it. We can
place light onto a wall, onto
a table, onto a piece of art,
up onto the ceiling,
anywhere we feel the light
belongs. A space visualized
in total darkness is a blank
canvas waiting for lighting
design. The designer can
imagine painting light onto
surfaces as if with a brush or
spray can. One-by-one,
surfaces are lighted in this
manner until the desired Figure 12.1 The mental progression of visualizing a space as
a collection of surfaces and painting light onto surfaces one
lighting effect begins to by one.
emerge. Figure 12.1
illustrates the mental process of visualizing darkness and adding light one
surface at a time.

Seeing surfaces for the materials that make them

Once we have established the mental picture of our environment as the
surfaces that make it up, we take the next step and visualize the materials
that make up these surfaces. This is where we implement our intuitive
knowledge of matching light texture, color and intensity to the specific
materials with which we are building.
Texture: Think of the material texture and whether it should be
revealed our concealed. Organic stone, concrete and wood may
benefit from directional sources that show off the subtle textures by
creating shadow through grazing and steep aiming angles. Imperfect
walls or materials intended to appear smooth and flawless may benefit
from diffuse sources located far from the material.
Color: Think of material color and what color light source will
complement it. Cool-colored materials can be emphasized by cool
sources like cool fluorescent, metal halide and LED’s. Warmer, richer

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 materials, like wood and warm stone, benefit from warm sources like
Incandescent. Keep in mind that warm fluorescent sources often
appear warm to the eye, but actually do a poor job of rendering warm
materials. Mock up any critical situations where the source needs to
complement the color of the material.
Intensity: Think of material finish and what light intensity is suitable.
Often times, light colored surfaces need very little additional light to
make them stand out as bright surfaces and focal elements. Darker
materials may require considerably more light to serve as focal points.
Some dark surfaces reflect so little light that they may not be worth
lighting at all.
Shininess or specularity of a material should always be considered.
Shiny materials respond to light by reflecting an exact image of the
source that is lighting them. This can be desirable as in the case of
accenting jewelry, glassware and other shiny products. Large
architectural surfaces of glass or metal may, however, reflect
undesirable glare or reflect the light source. Such surfaces may be
better off applied with little or no light.
This mental process of visualizing a space in-depth effectively draws out
lighting concepts and ideas that will enhance an environment. Taking just a
few moments to break a space down into its constituent materials and
surfaces makes it easier to address the specific nuances of each lighting
addition. This thoughtfulness leads to a designed environment with lighting
applications that respond to each surface and perfectly support the design
intent.

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Chapter 13
Developing Lighting Ideas
When we consider the process and decision-making that we can now apply
to our lighting design, we begin to see the steps in a more articulate manner.
If abused, this can lead to lighting design that is overly complicated. If we
make decisions carefully, however, the result will be a unique synergy of
light and material in space that meets the goals of our program and becomes
the framework of truly great design.
Take, for instance, a
common residential
bedroom. If we use our
knowledge to determine
where light actually belongs
in the space, we can very
quickly establish a number
of appropriate applications.
We can consider any or all
of the “Five Layer”
approach that guides our
design. We may think of
choreography, mood, and
accent, or we may think
only of visual tasks.
Consider the
following
applications of light
in this space: Figure 13.1 A typical residential bedroom.

Accenting art on the bed wall to provide a visual focus;

Light onto the vanity for tasks and rendering faces;

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 Light onto book shelves to read text and highlight the objects;
Light at the bench at the foot of the bed to accommodate dressing.

Figure 13.2 One way the space might be rendered to show numerous lighting options.

Now consider all of the applications of light that we have articulated

and consider the most commonly seen method to solve all of these
problems: a single luminaire in the center of the room.

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 Figure 13.3 A typical economy-minded lighting solution.

Suppose this luminaire is a simple recessed downlight. Which of

these goals are being addressed? Nearly none, as the light is simply pushed
down to the dark surface of the floor in the middle of the room.
Suppose this luminaire is a surface mounted decorative dish. Now
which of our identified applications are we addressing? Perhaps none
directly, but it could be argued that we are creating some amount of light on
nearly every surface. Hence in a very generic manner, it may be a suitable
solution.
Now, what if we articulate and place luminaires to specifically
address all that we have identified?
We begin to see what lighting design can look like, though such a
solution may be overly complex and a bit self-indulgent. The effort and
expense required to install, electrify and maintain such a solution would be
excessive. Additionally, the lighting solution may be too specific and
customized to the current layout and use of the space. In spaces of this type
our lighting solutions may need to be more universal and flexible.
It is easy enough to select from among the solutions that we have
identified to come up with a reasonable blend of function and versatility.

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 If we start
experimenting with
combinations of the effects
and applications we have
identified, we are bound to
refine our options into the
exceptional solutions that
will support the rest of our
design.

Figure 13.4 An example of an over-developed solution for

the space.

Figure 13.5 Examples of a few prudent lighting solutions.

The process we have just walked through is one for a very common
and misunderstood space. This same methodology can be applied to all of
the environments, large and small, that we will design. We have allowed
ourselves to rely on our intuition and brainstorm in a fashion to identify

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lighting goals and then the methods for implementing them. No matter how
complex our spaces and environments become, lighting design is simply a
matter of using design knowledge to determine where light goes, what kind
of light it is, and how to get it there.
If we look carefully at the steps above, we will see that we are giving
ourselves the opportunity to apply all of our procedure:
We think spatially and see our room as a collection of surfaces.
We identify specific objects first and visualize light on those
specifics.
We consider the five layers of light (choreography, mood, accenting,
architecture and tasks.)
We consider the controllable aspects of light (intensity, color,
texture, shape, origin)
We consider all of the ways we can deliver the light we are after.
All the while, we are considering the real world aspects of efficiency,
economy, maintenance, flexibility, and any other factors that may be a
reality for this type of space. We may go on to solve lighting challenges
with cost effective luminaries or high-efficiency sources, but since we have
already identified where light will go, the integrity of the design solution
will stay intact. By designing with light, rather than attaching ourselves to
specific luminaries or a specific layout or tactic, we can respond to the
changing program of the project. Deciding where light belongs affords us
the confidence to deal with changes in budget or schedule that might
otherwise derail a developed lighting design.
With a thorough knowledge of our design requirements, and an
intimacy with the environment we are designing, all we need is the
willingness to be thoughtful with light, and our intuition will do the rest.
This gives us great confidence to explore all of our ideas and lighting
design goals without an extensive knowledge of specific luminaires,
specific light levels or complex lighting calculations.

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Chapter 14
A Shortcut to Concepts in Light
Before delving into specific applications of light in typical spaces, it is well
worth exploring lighting application concepts in a broader sense. The
strength of lighting design lies in how the individual designer applies his or
her knowledge of lighting cause and effect. Rather than present a collection
of generic lighting solutions for generic spaces, the following chapter
represents a portfolio of lighting concepts that can be applied to many
spaces. Confidence in making design decisions comes from experience and
familiarity or from the genuine belief that every option has been considered.
There are no shortcuts to familiarity and experience, but the following
visual concepts can help lay a foundation that will strengthen a designer’s
ability to conceptualize and investigate numerous lighting options.
For the majority of designers, the goal is not to grasp every shred of
lighting knowledge possible. The goals are more practical and focused:
visualization and communication.

A designer must be able to visualize lighting effects.

(This is the reason we present light as visual concepts.)

A designer must be able to communicate and describe the light that

he/she desires.

(This is why we emphasize lighting vocabulary and graphic

communication.)

If a designer can visualize light and successfully communicate

lighting goals to others, there are consultants and experts who can assist the
designer in bringing those lighting ideas to reality.

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 The images and descriptions presented here are targeted towards this
hypothesis. By providing visual concepts of what light can do, the designer
is left to decide where these ingredients are best put to use in the design.

“LIGHT A WALL AND LIGHT AN OBJECT”

This basic concept can be implemented in even the simplest spaces. It is
applicable at any scale for any architecture. The large vertical surface to
which you apply light will define the bright character of your space. It will
contribute to your mood and the architectural effect of the space. The object
that you focus light on will create visual interest, likely accommodate tasks,
and will organize and choreograph your space. Figures 14.1 and 14.2 show
spaces lighted generically beside the same space with this tactic applied.

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 Figure 14.1 A generic layout (top) yields a flat quality of light in a seating area. Lighting a vertical
surface and a focal object (bottom) creates perceived brightness and visual interest.

Figure 14.2 A generic layout applied to a dining area (top). A more focused
approach (bottom) creates contrast and mood.

MOVE LIGHT TO THE PERIMETER

One of the simplest ways to transform a space is to apply light to the walls
and other vertical surfaces. When we consider the bare-bones lighting tactic
of placing a group of recessed downlights in the center of a room, we need
only change our tactic slightly to get greater effect. Thoughtlessly placing
luminaires in the center of a space is a poor use of light resources. By
simply shifting the location of these luminaires, light is painted onto the
high vertical surfaces that deliver the perception of brightness. This simple

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shift is an effective example of using the same luminaires in a different way
to make an impacting difference on how a space feels. Observe how
different these basic spaces feel as a result of this shift.

Figure 14.3 Light directed downward (left) can create a cave-like effect. The same amount of light
applied to vertical surfaces (right) adds to the perceived brightness.

CHOREOGRAPH HALLS AND CORRIDORS

Passageways are often treated with the same thoughtless application of
regularly-spaced luminaires marching down the center of the space. These
luminaires lose most of their light into the dark floor surface and do little to
organize the space or create brightness. If we use our light to address the
vertical surfaces, we can create both visual interest and definite way-finding
by creating lighted goals. We can experiment to identify the lighted surfaces
that create the mood and effect we are after, but, invariably, the best use of

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our light will not be on the floor. A single piece of light at the end of a
hallway is often more compelling than an entire row of recessed
downlights. Consider also what happens when we implement asymmetric
lighting or even a linear slot of light down one side. Lighting the wall of a
hallway creates a continuous light shape that encourages flow.

Figure 14.4 A lighted goal and a lighted surface are all that are needed to make a corridor attractive
and functional.

UPLIGHT OVERHANGS AND CANOPIES

Walls and vertical surfaces
aren’t the only surfaces that
have a profound effect on
our spaces. We can create a
dominating presence and
alter mood by washing light
up onto the ceilings and
canopies in our space.
Lighting the ceiling
overhead can make people
feel safer, can expand space, Figure 14.5 Light directed upward onto an overhang or
and can lend a sense of ceiling creates an encompassing environment of light.
lightness to an environment.

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Using our lighting resources in this manner can often deliver dramatic
effect with very little light used.

SLOTS, COVES AND LIGHT SHELVES

The last two decades have truly seemed “the era of the recessed downlight”.
Because of this trend we have gotten very used to the idea that scallops of
light and pools of light are the proper shapes to add to our space. More and
more, the geometry of contemporary architecture seems to pair better with
linear planes of light. Spaces that tend to become visually cluttered can be
organized by applying light as large geometric statements.
Large clean geometric shapes of light lend our designs the same
clean, efficient feeling as our contemporary architecture. Slots, coves, and
light shelves are all examples of architectural features that can conceal light
sources that create the large, glowing shapes that define our perception of
brightness in a space.

Figure 14.6 Spaces usually treated with pools of light take on new feeling when lighted with lines
and planes.

LIGHTING THROUGH GLASS

Lighting glass can be understood by recognizing that as a transparent
material, we cannot light glass itself. Light directed toward glass either

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passes through or reflects directly back. Because of this property, if there is
nothing to see beyond a piece of glass, the glass will simply act as a mirror.
This has two important design consequences.
First, it is worth noting that luminaires placed close to windows tend
to reflect a direct image of the bright source right back at us. For this reason
it is good practice to avoid placing interior luminaires right next to glass
and windows. Secondly, it means that our best chance of drawing attention
through glass is to create bright surfaces and objects beyond the glass. This
leads us to light exterior features to draw attention through glass openings.
It also leads us to wash light onto exterior eves and overhangs just beyond
our windows.

SUPPLEMENTING DECORATIVE
LUMINAIRES
Hopefully, it is clear through all of our discussions that glowing decorative
sources of light are not ideal stand-alone tools for our version of integrated
architectural lighting design. Decorative luminaires do have an important
place in our lighting tool vocabulary, but, on their own, they tend to be
sources of glare and leave a room gloomy. To make better use of these
decorative luminaires, we need to support them with more directional
luminaires nearby. When we have concealed sources that we can use to
place specific pieces of light where we want, we are free to use our
decorative sources at lower light levels for the subtle visual effects and
mood effects we desire.

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 Figure 14.8 Providing directed accent light frees up glowing sources to serve as decoration.

DIRECTIONAL DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES

In order to avoid tiptoeing around decorative lighting elements, it helps to
be deliberate in the types of decorative luminaires specified. It is useful to
draw a clear distinction between self-luminous glowing sources and
shielded decorative luminaires that direct light back onto nearby surfaces.
Luminaires that appear as glowing bright spots tend to be overly self-
serving and don’t always support the space as a whole. Decorative
luminaires that direct light can be used like our other architectural light
sources for lighting surfaces. For every glowing decorative pendant, wall
sconce and floor lamp, there is probably a version of the luminaire that
shields the source and directs the light onto the surfaces of the space.

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 Figure 14.9 Decorative luminaires like the linear pendant shown here can be designed to provide
functional light for tasks and ambience.

The ideas presented here are just a head-start toward familiarity of

the ways light can be effectively delivered to add emotion and experience to
our designed environments. With a dedication to dissecting designed
environments, the designer will steadily build a repertoire of lighting ideas
and concepts that will work for him/her. As this knowledge base grows, it is
a helpful practice for a designer to pinpoint what works and what could be
changed to improve the interaction of light in the spaces he/she visits.
There are few absolutes in design, and even fewer in lighting design,
but the images and concepts discussed in this chapter should encourage you
to think a bit deeper about what options are available and should get you to
question the status-quo solutions that get applied to so many spaces.

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Chapter 15
Lighting That Works
The deeper our familiarity with the basics of lighting science and design,
the more we can learn from lighted, designed environments all around us.
Take time to investigate design and articulate what elements of design are
responsible for the way things are functioning. Each of the following
images has identifiable lighting elements that play a strong role in the
design as a whole. There is a saying in lighting design that “Good lighting
gets a space noticed, and bad lighting gets itself noticed.” This speaks to the
power of architecturally-integrated light and warns us to be cautious with
our decorative lighting elements and strongly-themed lighting statements.
The surest way to create a predictable effect is to integrate something
that has been successfully implemented before. But a designer must be sure
that he/she is implementing something because it works and is desired, not
simply because it is a commonly-used solution.
The following images are accompanied by numbered items that point
out the key lighting elements in each scenario. The scenarios focus on
integrated lighting that is well thought-out and supports the needs and goals
of each space.

Daylight Responsive Office Space

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 1. Localized direct task / accent luminaires at each work station for
targeted task lighting
2. Subtle direct linear lighting cast downward provides uniform, low-
level glow onto horizontal surfaces
3. Indirect, linear uplight cast onto highly reflective suspended ceiling
surface provides perceived brightness and inter-reflected glow onto
horizontal and vertical surfaces throughout.
4. Daylight responsive mechanical shading to balance direct and diffused
daylight contribution

High-end Retail Showroom

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 1. Continuous linear sources illuminate vertical perimeter to define
boundary and create perceived brightness
2. Concealed, adjustable accent luminaires cast light onto specific
exhibit objects and choreograph path through space.

Museum / Gallery Space

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 1. Pools of increased light levels move the eye from one important object
to the next
2. Slender, indirect sources fill the ceiling volume with diffuse ambient
light
3. Directional luminaires provide accent light on art and vertical
surfaces
4. Indirect uplight reveals the volumes and shapes of the vaulted ceiling
system
5. The combination of directional, accent light and diffuse light provide
for long-term visual comfort

High-End Retail Display

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1. Combination luminaires in the room center provide both comfortable
diffuse light and aimable accent light for visual interest
2. Adjustable accent luminaires in running slots provide punch onto the
displayed objects
3. Planes of light in each display niche define the space and create the
perception of brightness
4. Glowing lines of light in the display niches define the depth and form
of the space

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Contemporary High-end Dining

1. Continuous linear LED lighting to cast ambient glow and vertical

brightness
2. Adjustable halogen accent luminaires to cast distinct pools of light on
dining tables
3. Adjustable halogen accent luminaires to accent wall paneling, provide
additional vertical brightness, and depth of space.

Contemporary, Casual Lounge

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1. Uplight and reflective surfaces define the entry of the space, while
darker materials and light directed downward provide more intimacy
and a lower scale in the dining area.
2. Recessed decorative downlights provide a twinkle on the ceiling and a
pool of light for mood and accent down at the task.
3. The bright vertical surfaces keep the space bright, so the lighting is
free to be applied only where necessary.

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Chapter 16
Designing with Daylight
Sustainability and energy concerns have brought daylight design and
integration to the forefront of the lighting design practice. Local codes and
incentive programs have significantly opened up the daylight discussion. A
lighting designer is now expected to have a much broader understanding not
only of good daylighting practices, but of specific code and incentive
compliance requirements. This trend drives projects to consider daylighting
factors - building orientation, glazing, shading structures and landscaping -
far earlier in the design process. This leads to earlier lighting designer
involvement, making daylighting yet another topic in which the lighting
designer should become an expert.
When we talk about the importance of making decisions about where
light will go and how light will interact with architecture, we are talking
about the controllable aspects of daylighting, as well as electric light. The
most critical component of daylight to remember is that as a source, it is
hugely intense. As such, the misuse of daylight can be amazingly
detrimental to a project. For this reason, daylight design is primarily a study
in control.
There are numerous texts discussing the fine, technical aspects as
well as the more philosophical side of the sun as a light source.
We will focus here on basics that can prove useful as intuitive
knowledge. Also presented here is a fundamental procedure that will
encourage you to think through all of the factors and decisions that will lead
to successful use of daylight.
Daylight can be assessed and controlled, and, as such, it deserves the
same type of design scrutiny that we apply to electric light. We should
approach our spaces with the intent to visualize our effects and determine
what surfaces and objects will benefit from the addition of daylight, just as
we do with electric light.

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OBVIOUS BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHT
A primary aspect of daylight systems is to consider the benefits that may
serve your design. In order to actually make use of these benefits, the
daylight systems we integrate must be as well-conceived as our electric
light systems.
First and foremost, daylight is a means of producing light without the
consumption of electricity or other fossil fuels. This is a huge benefit to all
manner of projects where sustainability, minimal maintenance and
environmental concern are part of the program. Daylight consumes no
electricity and also eliminates the need for changing lamps. Daylight can
also be harvested with relatively little heat gain, which means that we can
reduce our need for the electricity associated with air conditioning and
cooling that offsets heat contributed by electric light.
Daylight is also a special source of light because of our long standing
relationship with it. When we consider how long humankind has had only
daylight (and occasional firelight) as a light source, it is easy to imagine
why we have a special fondness for it. Daylight connects us to the natural
world and brings us into contact with a way of life for which we are readily
equipped. Small quantities of daylight stave off depression, allow us to
synthesize Vitamin D, and can invigorate our spirit and energy level.
Certain forms of daylight also have the uncanny ability to deeply relax us.
Daylight is inherently dynamic and changes throughout the course of
the day and the year. This factor benefits our natural rhythms and stimulates
our active mind. One of the most depressing aspects of poorly-executed
electric light is the static, unchanging nature. Daylight is dynamic by
nature, so even a small amount can have a huge impact on the interest and
stimulating effect of an environment. The changes in daylight quality are so
effective in encouraging different mental states that many electric light
systems strive to mimic similar changes in texture and color over the course
of a day.

FLAVORS OF DAYLIGHT
In order to visualize and implement the integration of daylight into design,
it is helpful to categorize two types of daylight systems: Functional
Daylight and Daylight Accenting.

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 Functional Daylight is the careful introduction of daylight into a
space to serve task and spatial-defining functions. This is generally
diffuse, even light that can accommodate long term visual comfort.

Figure 16.1 Controlling daylight through diffusion or shading (left) turns it into a tool for solving
lighting challenges. Direct sunlight components (right) are useful for impact and interest.

Daylight Accenting is a more dramatic and obvious use of daylight

to inspire certain moods and create distinct visual interest. These
features may be integrated into high-design spaces where emotional
impact is the priority.

These two types of daylight are accomplished through distinctly

different types of systems and have very different effects on our
environments. There are systems that introduce both simultaneously, but
when we visualize a design effect, it is important to identify our target and
distinguish between the two.

COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT (TEXTURES)

The other basic intuition that a designer should carry is the distinct
difference in light quality that is obtained from the different components of
daylight. Daylight enters our spaces in a number of different ways and takes

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on different texture accordingly. Just as we distinguish between the
directional beam of an accent luminaire and the soft diffuse light of a
glowing globe, we break down the components of daylight into three
textures: Direct Sunlight, Skylight and Diffused Sunlight
Direct sunlight is, arguably, the least useful as a functional light
source and most hazardous to design. Light received directly from the
sun is excessively bright and leads to situations of glare and
unacceptable contrast. Direct sunlight can also introduce heat and
UV radiation that can damage materials and fabrics. As creatures of
reflected light, sunlight into our eyes or off of a bright surface into
our eyes is simply too bright for our visual system.
Skylight is the product of sunlight diffusing and scattering through
various states of our atmosphere. Skylight takes on many different
qualities depending on time of day, time of year, weather and
atmospheric conditions. From clear blue skylight to soft, diffuse
cloudy daylight, most forms of skylight suit our visual system well as
a sustained light quality for long durations. (This is no surprise,
given our long history with skylight).
Diffused sunlight is the product of introducing sunlight into our
spaces after it has interacted with some sort of diffusing material.
Once we have passed sunlight through tinted or frosted materials, we
gain a much more manageable source of light.

SITE LAYOUT AND MASSING

The dynamic nature of the sun and sky demand that we consider the
daylight-harvesting goals for a project very early. The first step in
recognizing how to make use of daylight is to identify the opportunities
based on the project’s orientation and proportions.
There are a few quick rules of solar geometry that will have
significant impact on the potential uses of daylight on a design job.
Daylight is simple at its heart, and the relationship created by project
orientation is equally simple.
Architectural layout and massing must be considered with daylight
implications in mind. Height and width of forms and facades greatly affect
the surface area available for daylighting opportunities. Glazing must be

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considered for its daylight implications and not simply for its view
considerations. Solar orientation, sight lines and solar shadow lines should
also be investigated in deciding how and where to locate a project.

Figure16.2 The massing of a structure will determine the opportunities for various forms of daylight
harvesting

Latitude
The closer you are to the North and South Pole of the earth, the lower the
sun will be in your sky throughout the year. Without burdening ourselves
with solar geometry, we can safely say that a project on the equator has the
potential for the sun to be directly overhead much of the year, while a
project in the Arctic will never see the sun high in the sky.

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 Figure 16.3 High Latitudes and summer months (left) mean a high sun angle and short shadows.
Low latitudes and winter months (right) mean a low sun and long shadows.

Cardinal Orientation
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Spaces facing these directions
have the potential for direct sunlight exposure in the mornings and evenings
of every day.

Figure16.4 In the northern hemisphere, the sun will reliably arc across the south sky, casting
shadows to the north.

Seasonal Sun Angles

Daylight also has a predictable dynamic behavior over the course of the
seasons in a year. The sun will ride higher in the sky in the summer months
and will ride lower in sky over the winter months. This means that with a
little studying, we can design physical overhangs and shading devices that
affect daylight differently throughout the year.

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Figure 16.5 A well designed overhang can shade high summer sun (left) and allow in low winter sun
(right)

North Light / South Light

Living in the northern hemisphere means that the sun will always arc across
the sky to the south. This means that south facing spaces have the potential
for direct sunlight all day, while north facing spaces will receive exclusively
skylight. (This principle is obviously reversed for those living in the
southern hemisphere.)
It is good practice to create a simple diagram of the project site in
reference to the cardinal directions. This will give the designer guidance as
to where he/she can use certain techniques and where to watch out for
potential problems.
It is also helpful to draw the elevations of the project site in reference
to solar angles and the structures that may shade daylighting opportunities.
Do some research on the solar angles that occur at the project latitude
through the year to gain a specific understanding of the sunlight variance.

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 Figure16.6 A simple map of what types of daylight can be expected on a project in the northern
hemisphere.

When it comes to actually implementing and designing daylight systems

into a space, it pays to think the solutions and concepts through all sun
positions. Visualize not just the ideal situations, but every potential sun
angle condition to which the design will be subjected. Think the project
through morning and night, sunny and cloudy, and winter to summer. Far
too many daylight ideas are conceived in one dimension and are successful
only on the one day a year when the sun and the project are perfectly
aligned.

DAYLIGHT SYSTEMS
The next step in making daylight decisions is to determine what types of
light character will serve the design intent. The controllable aspects of
intensity, color, texture, shape and origin are just as valid with daylight as
they are with electric light. Daylight systems can be lumped into two basic
categories: side-light and top-light. We then identify the technologies and
geometries that we use to control, modify and enhance each.

Side-light Systems
Common wall windows are the clearest example of side-light entering a
space. Side-light systems are unique in the many ways that they can
transform daylight into a useful form. If we receive direct sun sidelight, we
must consider diffusing techniques like tinting, frosting, and fritting. Side-
lighting systems are effective high up on vertical surfaces to impart a glow
that lights up ceilings and walls to translate volume. Side-light systems can
also be designed with geometry in mind so that different components of
sunlight and skylight are delivered differently through the year. These
systems can incorporate overhangs and shelves to shade direct sunlight.
Figures 16.7 through 16.11 illustrate various systems for harvesting and
controlling side-light.

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Figure 16.7 Side-lighting daylight systems: Overhanging soffit.

Figure 16.8 Side-lighting daylight systems: Light shelf.

Figure 16.9 Side-lighting daylight systems: Light monitor.

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 Figure 16.10 Side-lighting daylight systems: Clerestory window.

Figure 16.11 Side-lighting daylight systems: Vertical shading.

Top-light Systems
Most designed spaces have access to high angled downward daylight,
regardless of orientation and neighboring structures. Daylight from above
can be shaped much like the recessed luminaires we use so much. High
daylight is easy to incorporate into long, linear slots and clean planes. The
guidelines for such systems are the same as any daylight:
Direct sunlight should be diffused and controlled;
Skylight is welcomed and easier to put to use;
Study of solar geometry and diffusing materials are the key to good
daylight textures.

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Figures 16.12 through 16.14 illustrate various systems for harvesting and
controlling Top-light.

Figure 16.12 Top lighting daylight systems: Skylight.

Figure 16.13 Top lighting daylight systems: Bounced skylight.

Figure 16.14 Top lighting daylight systems: Shielded skylight.

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LIGHT CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The last ingredient to making use of daylight is an understanding of the
technologies that we use to alter the light textures we receive.

Diffusing
Diffusing daylight can be accomplished through the use of translucent
acrylic, frosted glass and a host of other slightly opaque materials. This
treatment tends to create a soft, even texture similar to skylight on a cloudy
day.

Tinting
Tinting is the simple act of reducing the transmittance of a transparent
substrate. Tinting films and laminates come in a variety of colors and are
often mirrored. In many cases they receive mixed reviews as they impart a
strange sort of gloomy or dark perception of the outside world.

Fritting
Fritted materials are otherwise transparent materials with lines etched or
embedded in them. Good fritting can act like a series of miniature light
shelves or louvers, using geometry to reduce the transmission of light at
certain angles. Bad fritting behaves similar to diffusing materials or
prismatic lenses.

Daylight at Work
There are, of course, situations where the raw, unbridled effects of natural
daylight are exactly what a space needs. When daylight is used as an accent
feature, the challenge is often in studying exactly what type of system is
most effective. Daylight for the sake of energy conservation is a noble
cause, but there are just as many valid emotional and experiential reasons to
work daylight into your design. Many of the most amazing natural and
designed spaces hang much of their greatness on the inclusion of daylight.
The ethereal connection we hold with daylight makes it a powerful
ingredient that can turn an otherwise sterile environment into a truly
moving experience.

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INTEGRATING WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT
Whether our daylighting ingredients are functional or aesthetic, it is
necessary to consider how they can substitute or work in harmony with
electric light. In design applications it is worth investigating how a
particular daylight effect can be recreated with electric light, or vice-versa.
It allows a space to have similar light textures in varying sky conditions
throughout the day and the year. Consider how shelves, slots, coves and
coffers can be fitted with components of both electric light and daylight.
Consider also the decisions that help the two systems work in harmony:
intensity, color and shape.
Intensity:
Technology allows us to respond to the daylight we are receiving by
automatically reducing the intensity of the complementary electric
light system. Photocells can send signals to dim or step down the
output level of the electric light system. Photocells can also activate
shading systems in the case of excess daylight. If your goal is to use
daylight to reduce or replace electric light, a thorough study of
technologies like photocells, dimmers, and time clocks is in order.
Color:
Coordinating daylight use with electric light also demands careful
consideration of the color temperatures of light that are being
introduced to the space. The color of both skylight and sunlight are
entirely variable. Skylight can range from the pale blue of a clear
morning to the murky cool of a cloudy day to the violets and pinks of
a sunset. Direct sunlight can vary from a warm glow to a brilliant
orange. Both, however, seem to have an uncanny knack for showing
off the unnatural look of the colors of our electric sources. Because
daylight components by nature have perfect color-rendering
capabilities, they tend to show off the deficiencies of our electric
systems. Electric light can look very un-natural when it is shown up
by daylight. Because of the great variance of daylight, it is not
suggested that your electric light sources necessarily try to match the
color temperature of your daylighting ingredients; it is simply one
more facet of light to consider.

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 Shape:
Integrating daylight and electric elements together also requires
consideration of the shape of light. Daylight tends to be delivered in
long, clean pieces and planes. Our long, linear electric sources can do
a good job of harmonizing with these elements. Daylight can also be
delivered in clean directional beams and pools when produced by
small apertures and devices like solar light tubes.

The point is to take control of daylight and expand concepts of what can be
accomplished with it. Almost any source of electric light has a proper
daylight counterpart. The responsibility is simply to investigate the
possibilities and think through every design decision.
Some common daylight integration details can be found in chapter
30

HAZARDS OF DAYLIGHT
For all of its power and charm, it is important to remember that there are
distinct hazards of daylight applied improperly. Keep at the forefront of
your mind the perils that can befall a space with poorly-controlled daylight
contributions.

Heat Gains
Unmitigated direct sunlight generally contributes a fair amount of heat, in
addition to excessive light. There are low-emissivity glasses and coatings
that can transmit visible light without the heat contribution, but these are
not commonplace. If you want direct sunlight, you get heat, or you make
use of these expensive glazing technologies.

Glare and Contrast

Sunlight is an obvious culprit, creating light hundreds of times brighter than
our brightest electric sources. As a task light, direct daylight is simply too
bright. As an accent light, sunlight can still cause glare and contrast to
which the human visual system simply cannot adapt. Skylight and diffused
sunlight can also present problems when not carefully considered with the
material reflectances, colors, and visual criteria of a space.

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Damage to Art, Fabrics and Other Materials
Sunlight and daylight contain a quantity of ultra violet radiation that will
deteriorate dyes, inks, pigments and the integrity of organic materials.
Glazing blocks all but a small quantity of UV radiation, but even this small
quantity has damaging effects over time.

Excessive Window Light

Daylight windows are not necessarily view windows. Windows placed for
clear views of the exterior environment should always be considered for the
daylight that they will receive. Far too often, glazing is designed for views
with no consideration for the intrusion of daylight that will result. Daylight
systems should be designed independent of view windows and vice versa.
Simple wall glazing can certainly serve both purposes, but careful study and
consideration are necessary.

DAYLIGHT AS A CONTROLLABLE
ELEMENT
The bottom line is that sunlight and skylight are controllable, predictable
sources of light that can be used to satisfy the needs of all of our five layers
when implemented properly. There are daylight ingredients to serve the
needs of way finding, mood, accenting, spatial revelation and tasks.
The key is to take control of daylight and design systems that use it.
Even simple wall windows deserve the consideration of diffusing curtains,
blinds and shading devices. Daylight should never be an accident, nor
should it be neglected. Like many other aspects of light, fear keeps
designers from confidently implementing daylight. Daylight is such an
elemental material that there are numerous simple ways to successfully put
it to use.
Unlike electric light devices, there are few product catalogs that
illustrate daylight systems. Good daylight use is often the product of unique
situations and a fair amount of experimenting. If you come across an
application that you like, take note, sketch it, and start a collection of
daylight systems that you can draw from the next time you need to lean on
the sublime character of sunlight and skylight.

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 I am a strong believer in the unique mood and visual attraction of
daylight. I go to great lengths to study the opportunities for introducing
skylight and diffuse sunlight into my environments. I think this affinity is so
strong that I tend to design my electrical lighting systems to mimic the
intensity, shape and texture of controlled daylight systems. This also offers
the advantage of seamless integration between electric light and daylight.
Despite all of the caution encouraged regarding daylight integration,
remember that a little bit of daylight can go a long way towards a positive
effect in the designed environment.

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Chapter 17
Graphic Tools: Rendering and Light
Maps
We mentioned earlier that
the designer’s ability to
visualize lighting ideas is
only one of the necessary
skills. In order to implement
lighting design, the designer
must also be able to translate
those ideas to other
designers and ultimately
back to themselves.
Communicating ideas is
necessary for working
through challenges, getting
feedback and assistance,
thinking innovatively, and,
foremost, being free to think
creatively. For a designer,
representing ideas visually is Figure 17.1 Lighting symbols on a construction document
do very little to describe how the space will look, feel, or
the fastest, clearest way to function.
get those ideas out of one’s
head and into the design process. The credo that a lighting designer should
adopt can be stated as simply as this:

“DRAW YOUR LIGHT.”

Far too often, people see light as a product of luminaires, and they,
therefore, design by staring at a space plan and placing symbols that

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represent luminaires. This process inevitably yields repetitious, static
solutions of habit. The little circles and square symbols do little to explain
to us or anyone else how light is behaving in the space. In our design
process we should vow never to design by drawing lighting symbols straight
away.
The first step in expressing light ideas is to graphically represent light
as light. We draw this light how we envision it, and where we envision it.
We identify the surfaces and objects that we want bright, and we draw
brightness onto them. Remember: lighting design is nothing more than the
successful application of the most appropriate type of light onto the most
appropriate surface. If we can make a habit of expressing our ideas through
drawing light, we can head down a more thoughtful and program
responsive path of designing that will yield more inspired and innovative
designs.
Drawing light onto surfaces, object and spaces requires only the
simplest of tools. A yellow colored pencil can represent “light” in its most
generic form. With this single colored pencil, we can sketch light onto
architectural elevations, sections, plans and perspectives. We can print out
images and sketch onto them. We can sketch light onto our own hand-
drawn scribbles. I make a habit of carrying around a small army of yellow,
colored pencils so that as soon as a lighting idea comes to mind, I can
communicate it immediately without a lot of big words and hand waving.
When one draws light onto plans and sketches the eyes of fellow designers,
clients and peers light up with comprehension and understanding. I know of
no easier tool for communicating light ideas, and so this will be our first. I
call this process of expressing light through graphics “Light Mapping”

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Figure 17.2 A light map detail example of a contemporary residence.

Figure 17.3 A light map example of an entire floor of a residence.

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 Figure 17.4 A light map example of an elevation of a central bar area in a casino.

Our design process should always revolve around a dimensional

understanding of our environments as a whole. A recommended practice is
to commit to is pinning up, displaying, and surrounding oneself with all that
can be known about the program, surfaces forms and spaces of a project
before starting to design lighting for it. Being surrounded by visual
representations of material concept boards, elevations, section, plans and
dimensional models allows the designer to render lighting ideas in all
dimensions and to understand the ramifications of lighting decisions and
concepts.

CREATING LIGHT MAPS

The most basic form of a light map is simply whatever architectural or
environmental information the designer has available with lighting graphics
applied on top. After we have exhausted all of the information we have
available and have made light maps of all of the elevations, sections and

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perspectives, we set our sights on creating a light mapped plan. The light
mapped plan can be based on a floor plan, furniture plan or ceiling plan.
This simple, graphic tool will help to communicate light ideas and will
serve as a roadmap when we move forward and lay out our lighting
equipment. When we go to solve lighting challenges and identify locations
and types of luminaires, a good, light-mapped plan will solve itself. In an
ideal design world, there is time enough to create light maps to address
separately each of the Five Layers of Light that we have identified.

The Keys to Success in Creating a Light Map:

Think only in terms of light. Don’t worry about practicality,
constructibility, luminaire location, or even the luminaire itself.
Think about the quality of light and where it goes
Focus on surfaces and objects and how they receive light.

Adding to the Impact of a Light Map

When we set out to translate lighting information on plan in two
dimensions, it is imperative that we keep our mind open and our ideas fresh.
We can add rendering techniques like additional colors and patterns to
represent different lighting techniques. It is often helpful to graphically
distinguish between directional accent lighting, diffuse lighting, light cast
up onto ceilings and lids, as well as variation in desired color casts. Figure
17.5 illustrates a few ideas for ways to represent lighting. It is often helpful
to create a legend on the light map that helps translate the different
applications of light.

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 Figure 17.5 an example of a legend (left) used to clarify colors and patterns used on a light map
(right).

With these simple tools: A yellow pencil, an orange pencil, and some
imaginative patterns, a designer can translate a wealth of lighting concepts
in plan.
As one can see from the preceding figures, the goal is to truly
represent light where it ends up. More to the point, we represent the
surfaces that receive the light. Our Light Map plan becomes a map of
specific “lighting events,” one specific lighting concept after another clearly
identified.

Describing Light
In order to create Light Maps that can truly stand on their own to
translate information to others, we add articulate descriptions to the
graphics of our lighting “events”. Describing light doesn’t need to be a
study in poetics and superlatives. We are simply clarifying what it is that
light is doing. The better our descriptions, the less we have to rely on
specialized graphics to get our ideas across. Lighting descriptions are like
architectural notes; they need be detailed only enough to get information
across clearly. However, even a brief description is better than the
ambiguity of no description at all. Take pride in descriptions of light and

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dole them out generously. There is a rule in design that says: “When in
doubt, create a note.” We will translate this guideline to be one of our
mottos in graphics and creating light maps: “When in doubt, add a
description”.
To help forge the right level of information into a lighting
description, I recommend considering the following elements that are
included in a good description:
Color, texture, and intensity of the light;
How the light affects mood;
How the light interacts with the surface.

If a lighting description includes these elements, it will be that much

easier for other designers to understand the intent of the design. It will also
be easier to solve lighting ideas and select the luminaires that will bring the
idea to life. A list of useful lighting descriptors is included in appendix C.

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 Figure 17.6 Descriptions of lighting intent are a crucial step towards defining lighting challenges.

It is good visual practice to study environments that feature good

lighting design and imagine how one would represent them graphically as a
Light Map. This analysis really shows off the idea that it is the surfaces
receiving light that define a space. Figure 17.7 and 17.8 show images of
lighted spaces and how they might have looked as Light Maps during the
design process.

Figure 17.7 A contemporary kitchen (below) can be quickly represented in a light map (above).

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Figure 17.8 A living room (below) can be quickly represented in a light map (above).

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CREATING LIGHT MAPS FOR ALL 5
LAYERS
In the “5-layer Process” we have a tool that creates maximum opportunity
for germinating lighting concepts. In the “Light Map”, we have the ultimate
tool for efficiently and clearly translating lighting concepts and goals. The
combination of the two can result in the ultimate program specific,
thoroughly-articulated, well-communicated lighting design.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the ideal design process involves thinking in
terms of one lighting layer at a time. The Light Map process can be broken
down to accommodate this. A good practice is to render Light Maps for
each of the five layers on separate sheets of translucent velum or trace paper
that can be overlaid on one-another for comparison and coordination.
Let’s review the Five Layers of Light as we addressed them in Chapter 4:
1. Light to choreograph an experience;

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 2. Light to affect mood;
3. Light to accent objects;
4. Light to reveal architecture;
5. Light for tasks.

As lighting ideas evolve on a series of Light Maps, particular lighting

events will serve many purposes across our five layers. This will point out
lighting events that are absolutely critical and will also help identify
lighting that is perhaps expendable or not as necessary for the overall
success of a project. Light Mapping in layers allows each light ingredient to
be assessed and re-assessed as the design evolves.

Layer 1: Light Mapping Choreography

A good first step to implement when creating a light mapped plan is to
show light for the sake of choreographing a path of experience for a visitor
(the first of our five layers from chapter three). Choreography benefits
greatly from the light mapping process because it requires a large scale
overview of the project. The choreography step is a quick and simple
application of light on just a few large surfaces or objects in space to create
distinct destinations that serve as lighted goals for people to move towards.
The choreography intent can be further clarified by adding symbols to
represent the location of a person interacting with the space. Figure 17.9
shows these symbols as blue cones indicating goals for directing the
attention and motion of a visitor. This process of creating a path helps to
identify what it is that should be lighted in order to draw a person through
the space. Light can be rendered onto one surface after another in sequence
to map how the lighted surfaces encourage a person to flow through the
space.

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Figure 17.9 Cones of view and descriptions explain how we intend to use light to lead a visitor from
one space to the next.

The addition of descriptions to further articulate the goals of the

choreography lighting ingredients rounds out this first phase of Light
Mapping.

Layer 2: Light Mapping Mood and Emotional

Effect
Creating a light map of desired mood and emotion in a space can be
as simple as identifying descriptive mood words for each space or area of a
project. This “Mood Map” can be created by drawing borders to define
spaces of unique use and labeling each with a few descriptive terms. Think
in terms of the overarching project mood as well each individual space.
Project goals may call for spaces to impart a variety of moods; calm,
welcoming, relaxed, professional, sterile, cold, etc. The goal is to then
translate these mood descriptors into various effects or characteristics of

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light. The mood descriptors will inform decisions about intensity, color,
texture, shape and origin of the light.

As with each of the Five Layers, it is advisable to apply each light

map as a separate sheet of translucent velum or trace paper over the
previous Light Maps in a stacking manner, so a designer can see where
different lighting goals overlap and support one-another.

Layers 3, 4 and 5: Light Mapping Visual Interest,

Architectural Definition and Task Lighting
Once Light Maps have been created to successfully represent
choreography and mood, the Light Map process is implemented for the
remainder of the lighting thought layers. The third, fourth and fifth layers
identified in the Five Layer Process should ideally be studied and rendered
onto a light map individually. As a designer gains experience with the
processes and tools, it may become second nature to tackle many layers at
once.
However the process is articulated, the discipline is always focused
on the two core habits of visualizing lighted surfaces and objects - not
luminaires and lamps - and drawing light to create visual representations of
concepts. The Light Map process can be implemented many different ways,
but the final result should be a visual representation of a project showing all
of the light that will be added.
A well-executed Light Map process will create a visual road map to
which lamps, luminaires, controls and other lighting solutions can be easily
applied to “solve” the desired lighting events. Before moving on, take time
to review all of the aspects of the project program and whether they have
been thoroughly addressed by these concept and graphic processes. Effort
spent on the Light Map process will pay off in spades as design
development rapidly moves into the “solution” phase of lighting
calculations and equipment selection and placement.

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 Figure 17.10 A completed light map of a residential floor.

The goal of the light map is to communicate ideas to others and to

create a visual map of light that will help to make luminaire decisions
easier. If the light map is thorough, with bold, clear graphics to represent
light, it sets the designer up nicely to move forward and make quick work
of laying out the luminaires that will create the lighting events.

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Chapter 18
Lighting Units and Measurements
Up to this point, we have managed to explore the depths of lighting design
concept and application without having to burden ourselves with the
specifics of lighting science and the systems of units and measurements that
go with it. In order to speak knowledgeably about lighting effects and
lighting solutions, it is necessary to have a basic understanding of light
levels and how they translate visually. In order to engage in this discussion,
we must first take a look at lighting science and some of the fundamental
building blocks of lighting metrics. This will help us not only communicate
our lighting ideas more precisely, but will also allow us to recognize
appropriate tools and tactics as they are presented by others.
When we go on to discuss light levels in design, we almost always
refer to the lighting unit of the foot-candle. A foot-candle is a measurement
of Illuminance cast onto a surface in a space. The unit of the foot-candle is,
indeed, based on the light produced onto an object a “foot” away from a
very special candle. We however are not really concerned with what a foot-
candle is, but rather what different illuminance levels, expressed in foot-
candles, look like. Let’s start with the basics.

IT’S ALL ABOUT THE LUMEN

Light comes in pieces, or at least we consider that it does for most of our
science and study. Scientists call these tiny pieces of light photons, and they
exhaustively study all of the ways that photons interact with the physical
world.
In lighting science, we are not just concerned with light generically;
we are concerned with how these pieces of light affect human vision. Our
visual system is more sensitive to some types of light than others, so we
measure a unit of light energy as it affects the sensitivity of the cones and
rods in the human eye. We call these modified pieces of light “lumens.” The

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lumen is the basis of all lighting study, and we can always be safe talking
about light in terms of lumens. We study three common ways that lumens
interact with the environment:
We study the number of lumens onto or “striking” a surface; called
illuminance
We study the number of lumens off of or leaving a surface; called
exitance
We study lumens of light leaving a surface or source in a specific
direction with a specific density; called luminance

When we talk about lighting effects, we generally talk about light

density, and, therefore we talk about how many lumens are acting per area.
An unfortunate part of lighting science is that we have come up with
different names for the measurements of light interacting in different ways.
Figure 18.1 shows the three interactions as lumens of light strike and reflect
off of a surface.
Figure 18.1 shows that illuminance and exitance are both
measurements of light density; specifically, a measure of lumens per
square-foot. The difference between the two phenomena is simply whether
the light is striking a surface (illuminance), or leaving a surface (exitance).
Luminance, however, is a more thorough measurement of how
densely light is leaving in a specific direction.
To completely understand the nuances of these three methods of
measuring light, we will elaborate on them here.

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 Figure 18.1 The two common ways we consider light interacting with simple surfaces.

Illuminance:
Illuminance is the measurement of lumens of light striking onto a
surface.
Illuminance is measured and expressed in foot-candles (FC).
1 foot-candle is the equivalent of 1 lumen of light distributed evenly
onto a 1 square foot surface.

Figure 18.2 Diagram of one foot-candle (density of light onto a simple surface).

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Exitance:
Exitance is the measurement of lumens of light leaving a surface or
source.
Exitance simply accounts for the total number of lumens leaving
and gives no information about the density or direction in which the
light is leaving. The exitance of a reflective surface is the
illuminance onto that surface multiplied by the reflectance of the
surface. If a surface is 50% reflective, the exitance off of the
surface will equal half of the illuminance on to the surface. In the
case of a light source, the exitance is the sheer number of lumens
that the light source is creating and emitting.
Exitance is seldom used to describe light levels, but understanding
it is useful for visualizing how lumens interact with surfaces and
objects.

Luminance:
Luminance is the
measurement of a
specific density of
lumens of light
leaving a surface or
source in a specific
direction. It describes
light how an observer
experiences it and
explains our
instinctive
undertanding the
intensity of light on a
surface diminishes as
that surface gets
Figure 18.3 Diagram of Candle-power (density of light
further from the light leaving a light source
source.

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 Luminance is measured and expressed in candelas per square
meter (CD/sq.M).
In order to understand what luminance represents, it is necessary to
understand what a candela represents.
The candela is the unit of light density. It is a useful way to express
how densely light leaves a source or surface. One candela is the
equivalent of light leaving a source with a density of one lumen per
“steradian,” of spherical area. A steradian is a contoured area made of
a portion of a sphere. The area of a steradian is such that there are
always 4Π (four pi, or 12.56) steradians in any sphere. Thus in the
case of a sphere with a radius of 1 ft. (and thus a total spherical
surface area of 4Π), each steradian is 1 sq.ft. in area. As a sphere
grows larger, the size of a steradian carved from the sphere grows
larger exponentially. Figure 18.3 shows two different spheres and one
steradian of area carved out of each of them. Because light spreads
out spherically as it leaves its origin, the same number of lumens
passes through each steradian despite the area difference. But, an
object of fixed size receives fewer and fewer lumens as the distance
increases and light spreads out.
This candela output is very useful for describing directional light
sources like accent luminaires that direct far more light forward than
off to the side. Knowing the candela value that comes from the center
of an accent luminaire is useful for calculating the illuminance level
that will occur at a point on a surface or object due to that specific
luminaire.
The nature of the candela means that the luminance value exhibited
by a light source or surface differs based on the angle from which the
source or surface is being viewed. It is luminance that the eye detects
and uses as the basis for decisions about source or surface brightness.
Although we have crafty names for all of these interactions and their units,
the most important and commonly-encountered in lighting design is
illuminance expressed in foot-candles. This expression of light onto objects
is easy to measure and helps us to understand the levels of contrast we can
create in an environment. Illuminance values onto a surface are independent

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of the color or reflectance of the surface, so an illuminance value alone does
not indicate how an object will look. A black object and a white object, side
by side on a table, may be experiencing the same Illuminance level from the
luminaires above them. The drastic difference in appearance between the
objects is a product of their reflectance. To successfully visualize a
situation, we must be told the reflectance of the objects (values and colors),
as well as the Illuminance level onto the objects. This gives us enough
information to interpolate the exitance from the objects. If we also know the
texture of the books and how they will direct reflected light, we can
estimate their luminance, which is much more closely related to our
description of object “brightness.” It is worth noting that all of these
measurements of light do not dictate objectively how bright a surface will
appear. Brightness is a judgment made by a viewer and is dependent on the
adaptation of the viewer and the contrast of the environment.
In all three of these cases of lighting measurement, we are talking
about lumens interacting with objects, so if all else fails; it is always safe to
describe light as lumens.

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Chapter 19
Understanding Illuminance Levels
Light is most commonly described by how much we detect to be leaving a
surface and striking our eyes. “Brightness” is a generic term for this
phenomenon. Oddly, in lighting design study, we more commonly describe
the quantity of light striking a surface. Very often this is because we are
discussing light quantities as they are needed to perform visual tasks. These
visual tasks involve materials of various reflectances that create contrast.
This quantification of light “on to” a surface is called Illuminance. And
when we get scientific about quantitative lighting study, our discussions
will revolve around measurements and expressions of illuminance.
Therefore, we will commonly express light levels in terms of foot-candles
(the unit of measuring Illuminance) incident “onto” a surface.

The study of specific quantities of light desired is a natural progression of

the Light Map process. When we start addressing each individual lighted
surface – especially accented surfaces (Layer 3), or task surfaces (Layer 5)
– we will need to identify specific illuminance levels that we want to
provide so that these accented surfaces stand out from their surrounding
environment and so that the task surfaces receive enough light to perform
the visual task at hand.

ILLUMINANCE LEVEL INTUITION

There is a wealth of published information about what specific
illuminance levels are appropriate to provide onto surfaces to accommodate
different types of visual tasks, and many people use these guidelines as the
basis of their design. Adhering to prescribed illuminance levels for tasks
and neglecting the lighting effect of a whole space can, however, lead to a
very one-dimensional experience.

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 Because we are after a much more holistic approach to our design,
we are interested in an intuitive ability to visualize different Illuminance
levels and what they represent. Though prescribed illuminance levels are
really intended only to be considered for a specific surface, a designer can
put Illuminance levels to good use by utilizing them to describe the overall,
ambient glow of a space where many surfaces are experiencing a similar
illuminance level. This is technically an abuse of the intention of
illuminance level prescription, but is such a useful way for designers to
communicate lighting intention that we take the liberty. When one describes
an entire space as exhibiting an “average” illuminance level, one must
account for contrast, accent, and areas of higher and lower light levels
within it.
Assembled here is a short list of illuminance levels (expressed in
foot-candles) that can help a designer to visualize what these different light
levels can mean to a design. As you consider each space type, close your
eyes and visualize the space described if it were lighted fairly evenly. What
you are visualizing on the surfaces of the space is likely the illuminance
level listed. Remember this is not a list of recommendations, but rather a
reference for visualizing.
Designed Space illuminance Level
Full Moon Light 0.1 Foot-candle
Exterior Parking Lot 1.0 Foot-candle
Dim, romantic restaurant 5.0 Foot-candles
Comfortable Living Room 10-15 Foot-candles
Residential den / study 20-35 Foot-candles
Classroom / Open Office 50-70 Foot-candles
Laboratory / Exam Room 100 Foot-candles

It is uncommon to light an entire interior space to Illuminance levels

beyond 100 foot-candles. Once we start dealing with these higher
illuminance levels, we are usually talking about light that would be applied
to small areas of localized task. We may provide 200 foot-candles of light
onto an operating table or an accented object, but it is unlikely that we
would light an entire space to this level.

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ADDING ILLUMINANCE VALUES TO A
LIGHT MAP
Keeping these light levels in mind while designing and discussing light,
will provide all of the intuitive knowledge needed to engage in discussions
of light levels for basic spaces. With just this small amount of familiarity,
one can start adding these values as targets for specific surfaces and whole
room effects in designed spaces. The suggested progression of design is to
label these whole room and “specific surface” Illuminance level targets as a
part of light map Layer 5 (See Ch. 4). Illuminance levels are best used to
describe the quantity of light cast onto a surface, but they can also be used
to give an impression of the overall ambient glow that one may perceive in
a room. This can be put to use by mentally walking through the design,
room by room, determining the overall ambient glow that is desired for
each room.

Figure 19.1 Adding ambient illuminance level targets (shown here in green) helps to refine design
goals.

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 In residential settings this process can be handled very easily. For
spaces like residences that don’t have to support critical tasks, it is safe to
use a limited range of illuminance values between 5 and 35 Foot-candles as
targets for whole room ambience. You can reference the table above to see
that these values cover most of the moods and environments we try to
create in a residential setting. These illuminance levels can also serve as the
overall ambient glow for spaces like restaurants, galleries, hospitality and
museums. For more task oriented spaces, like open office areas, classrooms,
civic and conference spaces, average illuminance levels in the 35 to 55
Foot-candle range tend to be common. When visual tasks are a critical
component of the lighting design program, a designer is advised to consult
more technical reference material for Illuminance level recommendations
onto specific task surfaces.
The illuminance guidelines above are a gross simplification of a topic
that encompasses much study and engineering. For our basic understanding
and ability to visualize, these numbers will suffice.
It is important to realize that whole room illuminance levels are just
reference targets off which to build. The hope is that all of the specific task
and accent lighting that gets added to the space will inter-reflect to create
this glow. Our design procedure in not to create an ambient light level first,
and add accent or task affects later.
We define lighting goals for specific surfaces and objects for task and
accent first and then assess the effect. Only after we have done this, do we
design lighting intended to increase ambient light levels or perceived
brightness.
As illuminance level targets find their way onto the Light Map,
designers will find their lighting design fall into place much easier.

LIGHTING FOR VISUAL INTEREST: THE

“2X” RULE
As designers primarily interested in adding impact and emotion to our
environments, much of what we light are accented surfaces and objects that
must stand out from the surfaces around them. When we paint light onto
objects with the intent of drawing attention to them, it is helpful to identify
specific light level targets to make sure the impact of design stays intact.

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 Now that we have a basic understanding of what illuminance levels
mean, we will introduce a useful rule-of-thumb for designing accent and
feature lighting. We call this rule the “2 times” contrast rule, and we use it
frequently for creating accents and visual interest. The rule is based on
fundamental vision science that tells us that an object must be twice as
“bright” as a surface adjacent to it to appear noticeably “brighter”. When
we light an object or surface with the intent to make it “pop” or serve as a
focal element, we implement a simple version of this theory by illuminating
the accented object with at least twice as much light as the surrounding
environment. This simplified solution of addressing only the amount of
light cast onto an object ignores the reflectance and color of the object, but
it is a good starting point. There are more complex ramifications of this rule
that have to do with object color, and reflectance, but for our design
purposes, we can safely rely on the broad version of this rule. Generally, the
more light we cast onto a surface, the greater the accented effect.
The other end of the contrast rule comes from the desire to not create
too high a level of contrast that might be translated as glare. To avoid
uncomfortable glare and excess contrast, we avoid lighting an object to be
more than 5 times as bright as the surrounding environment.
So the “2 times” contrast rule really becomes the “2 to 5 times”
contrast rule. We say that for creating visual interest in designed spaces, we
want to light our objects to be twice as bright as their surroundings, but not
more than 5 times as bright. We accommodate this in a very simplified
manner of illuminating objects to two to five times the illuminance of the
surrounding environment.
The effects of this rule can be written onto the light map to further
clarify the lighting design intent. The process is as simple as identifying the
objects and surfaces one wants to use as focal elements in each space.
Because the designer has already assigned a desired ambient glow to these
spaces, he/she has an illuminance value to use as the basis for the “2 to 5
times” contrast rule. Mentally walk through the design, space by space, and
identify objects and label them with a target accent illuminance level.
An example might be a dining room where the design intention calls
for a minimum ambient glow of the space to be around 10 foot-candles.
Using the 2 to 5 times rule, we see that our accented objects should be
illuminated to levels between 20 and 50 foot-candles. The “2 to 5 times”
rule requires that we have first established an ambient illuminance level

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with which to work. This is why we went through the process of targeting
overall ambient illuminance levels for the whole space. These two simple
steps of defining an ambient glow for a space first and then using that as the
basis for accents are quick and effective.

Figure 19.2 Establishing ambient illuminance level targets (in green) allows a designer to go back
and define areas of heightened light levels (in pink).

How we will actually get the light there can be worked out later. For
now, we are simply adding more information to our Light Map to make it
increasingly easier for us to locate and select luminaires.

IES ILLUMINANCE LEVEL CRITERIA

A more specific way to arrive at illuminance level targets for specific tasks
and critical effects is to use the well-established system put forth by the
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA). The IESNA
is a scientific body dedicated to the study of lighting and its effects on
human visual performance. The IESNA has committed significant resources
to the study of illuminance levels onto tasks.

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 Remember that Illuminance levels are descriptions of how much light
we are putting onto an object. Illuminance levels don’t account for
reflectance or how light will leave a surface. This limits their value in trying
to describe how a surface, object or space will look.
Illuminance levels are exceptionally useful when determining
appropriate light levels for tasks. This works primarily because visual tasks
involve objects with known reflectances. If we know the reflectance of the
materials involved in a task, it is safe to prescribe a quantity of light that
should be cast onto the task to create the necessary contrast. Reading, for
example, involves dark text on light-colored paper. As we cast more light
onto a reading task, the light-colored paper reflects more light back at us,
while the dark ink continues to reflect very little. In this manner, the
contrast between the two increases. This is the fundamental basis for the
long list of Illuminance values that the IESNA provides. The IESNA
publishes a book that categorizes a variety of tasks articulated with a variety
of materials. For each of these task and material combinations, the IESNA
provides a recommended Illuminance level. IESNA literature can be
ordered from www.iesna.org.
The IESNA recognizes that there are many factors that dictate what is
appropriate lighting. Another significant aspect of the IESNA illuminance
selection procedure is the assessment of the designed space and
consideration for all of the other visual performance issues that must be
addressed. This includes concerns like color rendition, evenness, and glare.
It is helpful for a designer to develop his/her own list of lighting issues and
concerns like the one presented in Figure 19.3. Rating the importance of
each - on a scale of one to ten, say - can add even more value to such a list.

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 Figure 19.3 A list of lighting concerns that should be considered for every project

The IES selection procedure can certainly help a designer avoid

under-lighting critical situations, but it is really intended as a procedural
guide for visual tasks (the fifth layer of our 5-layer system).
For visual effect, aesthetics, mood, and spatial organization (The
remaining four layers from our 5 layer system), intuition and experience
will serve us better than exact numbers. This is the reason we have gone to
great lengths to voyage through a thought process that leads to
understanding and intuition, before diving in to quantification. Illuminance
values are a welcome level of information to add to our design intent, but
they are only one part of a much bigger picture that has its foundation in
visualization and graphic rendering of lighting concepts.

Remember to visualize lighting effect first and then draw and describe the
lighting effect. Only if the designer feels the need to further articulate does
he/she need to move on to specifying target Illuminance levels. We add
these values to our light map to clarify our intent and make the selection
and placement of lighting equipment easier. If targeting a specific task or
accent light level does not serve to progress our design, it is not worth
taking the time to identify.

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Chapter 20
Lighting Calculations
It is imperative before delving into the world of lighting calculations to step
back and remember the reason for using calculations in design. We use
calculations to help us arrive at specific solutions to critical lighting
challenges. If a calculation will help us select a luminaire, and apply that
luminaire to create the lighting effect we are after, we welcome it. It is
important not to rely on calculations too heavily as they are merely a
supplement to good lighting instinct and experiential knowledge. It is also
important not to assume that every lighting element we are designing can
benefit from performing a calculation.
Lighting calculations can assist us in selecting lamps and luminaires
when we are trying to obtain a specific light level. Lighting calculations
also help us predict the lighting effect we may get from a specific lighting
scenario.
We will investigate two lighting calculation methods that help us in
two types of lighting situations: Lumen Method Calculations and Point
Calculations.
Lumen Method calculations are used for determining average light
levels in large, open areas.
Point Calculations are used for determining light levels at a specific
point on an object or surface.

These two calculations cover the two ends of the design spectrum:
broad, spatial light levels and minute, point-specific light levels.
To understand how we make use of lighting calculations, we must
first investigate more specifically the way we count and measure light.
In the case of both types of calculations, we will be using Illuminance
as our measurement of light level. Illuminance is, of course, the measure of

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light falling onto surfaces. Specifically, illuminance is the measure of the
number of lumens that are falling onto a square foot of area, which is the
definition of a foot-candle, the unit of measurement of illuminance. A foot-
candle is one lumen of light received evenly over an area of 1 square foot.

Figure 20.1 One lumen onto a one square-foot area represents one foot-candle of illuminance

Figure 20.2 Ten lumens onto a 10 square-foot area is also represents one foot-candle of illuminance

LUMEN METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR

LARGE, OPEN AREAS
The lumen method of calculating light levels is really not a calculation all,
but rather an extrapolation of the unit definition of the foot-candle. When

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we dissect the foot candle, we see it is simply a measurement of light
density in lumens per square foot.
1 Foot-candle = 1 Lumen ÷ 1 square foot
or
1 FC=1 Lm ÷ 1 sq.ft.
Therefore, we can generalize
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ area (in square feet)
or we can express it as mathematical abbreviations
E = Lms ÷ A (sq.ft.)
Putting this together tells us that to calculate the Illuminance level onto a
surface, we simply count up the number of lumens falling onto that surface
and divide by the area of the surface.
In the case of a whole room, that surface would likely be the floor, or an
imaginary work plane above the floor at task height (often assumed to be
30”). A basic situation where we want to predict lighting effect may look
like example 1.

Lumen Method Example 1: Solving for

Illuminance level
Imagine a room that is 10’ × 15’, with 5 downlights placed evenly around
the room. Each downlight emits 1000 lumens. If we imagine that all 1000
lumens from each luminaire end up on the floor of the space, what
illuminance level can be expected onto the floor in this room?

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 Figure 20.3 A 10’ by 15’ floor lighted by 5 downlights.

We know that the solution to a problem like this is to simply count up the
lumens that make it to the surface in question and divide by the area of the
surface.
Using the basic equation
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ area
or
E = Lms ÷ A
We plug in the values we know.
The area of the floor is
A = 10’ × 15’ = 150 square feet.
The total number of lumens that make it to the floor “Lms”
1000 Lumens × 5 downlights = 5000 lms.
So the equation
E = Lms ÷ A
becomes

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 E = 5000 Lms ÷ 150 sq.ft.
or
E = 33.3 Lms per sq.ft.
or
E = 33.3 Foot-candles
(Similar to the illuminance level we might picture on the desk of a home
office or library).

Lumen Method Example 2: Solving for Lumens

or Luminaires Needed
We tend to use the Lumen Method Calculation more frequently for figuring
out how to deliver light to provide a desired illuminance level. In these
cases, we use this same equation flipped around.
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ Area
becomes
Lumens = Illuminance × Area
or more specifically
Lumens needed = Illuminance level target × Area
(in square feet)
A basic situation where we need to solve a lighting challenge may look like
this two-part process:
Given the same 10’ × 15’ room, we would like to light the floor to an
average illuminance level of 60 foot-candles. How many lumens need to
make it to the floor surface?

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 Figure 20.4 How do we deliver the desired illuminance level to a 10’ by 15’ floor?

We use our basic equation

Lumens needed = Illuminance target × Area
or simply
Lumens = Illuminance × Area
or
Lms = E × A
We plug in the values we know.
Our illuminance target is
E = 60 foot-candles.
Our area is
A = 10’ × 15’ = 150 square feet
So the equation
Lms = E × A
becomes

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 Lms = 60 fc × 150 sq.ft.
or
Lms = 9000 Lumens
We need to introduce 9000 functional lumens of light onto the floor to get
the average illuminance level we are after.

How do we get those 9000 functional lumens onto the floor? We need to
determine what quantity and type of luminaire can accomplish this goal.
Hence, the calculation has two parts. In order to answer the question of how
many luminaires we need, we need to know the lumen output of those
luminaires. For this reason, most luminaire manufacturers provide cut-
sheets that provide this information. For this example, we will assume that
we have found a luminaire that emits 550 lumens and that all of these
lumens will make it to the floor in the space.

If we were to use a luminaire that provides 550 Lumens onto the floor, how
many luminaires would we need to evenly place in the space.
This question translates to a simple equation:
Luminaires needed = Lumens needed ÷ Lumens
per luminaire
We solve this by plugging in what we know
Luminaires needed = 9000 Lumens needed ÷ 550
Lumens per luminaire
so our answer
Luminaires needed = 16.36
gets rounded up to
Luminaires needed = 17
So we have determined that 17 of these specific luminaires spaced evenly in
the 150 square-foot space will yield us the 60 foot-candles of average
Illuminance onto the floor.

Lumen Method Reality Checks

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When we perform lumen method calculations for critical situations, it is
important to add in two factors that make our calculations much more
realistic. The first of these factors is a safety factor, or “maintenance” factor
called the light loss factor, or “LLF.” The second factor is the coefficient
of utilization, or “CU.”

Light loss factor

Light loss factor is a way to account for the fact that the light
performance of our lamps and luminaires will deteriorate over time for a
number of reasons. The light loss factor accounts for lamps getting dirty
and thus emitting less light over time. It also accounts for loss in
performance of ballasts and transformers over the life of the luminaire.
There is an articulate method of calculating each of these contributing
factors, but it is common to use an industry standard generic value of
0.85 for a light loss factor. This means that we perform calculations
expecting only 85% of the light from our lighting system to be working in
the space as the system ages (In exceptionally dirty spaces we determine
this value more carefully). This assumption pushes us to design not for how
we want a system to perform on day one, but rather for how we want the
system to perform 2 or 3 years down the road. Just as an architect over-
designs the key structural elements of a building, the lighting designer over
designs to make sure that a space will perform as intended well into the
future.

Coefficient of utilization
The other way to bring the simple lumen method calculation closer to
reality is to account for how effectively the luminaires are working with the
surfaces of the space to deliver light to the target surface in question. If we
are concerned with the light level on a floor plane and we are implementing
an indirect lighting system that delivers light upward onto the ceiling where
it then is reflected downward, it is safe to say that some of that light will be
absorbed by the ceiling and walls and lost before it makes it to the floor.
Indeed, it is rare that the majority of the light from a luminaire is directed
immediately onto the surface with which we are concerned. It is also
important to account for the geometry and reflectances of the room
surfaces. Room surface geometry and reflectance will determine how

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effectively light inter-reflects to reach the surface in question. We
accommodate for luminaire orientation, room geometry and surface
reflectance by including a factor that takes into account these relationships
in each specific situation. We call this factor the coefficient of utilization,
or CU. The CU is expressed as a decimal number or a percentage to
represent how effectively our lighting system is being utilized. The more
directly our luminaires are being utilized and the more favorable the
geometry, the higher the CU. In situations where light takes a very indirect
path to the surfaces we are calculating, the CU is lower.

Figure 20.6 Light delivered with a high Coefficient of Utilization (left) and light delivered with a
low Coefficient of Utilization (right).

There is a very tedious way to accurately calculate the coefficient of

utilization that takes into account room geometry, surface reflectances and
luminaire placement. For our purposes, we will rely on a few ballpark
numbers that will simply add to the usefulness of our lumen method
calculations. Like the light loss factor or any other safety factor, we include
these numbers in our calculations to make sure that we are over designing
and accommodating for non-ideal conditions. The list below shows
Coefficient of Utilization values that would be appropriate in a calculation
where we are concerned with an illuminance level on the floor or a
horizontal work plane. The values also assume that the space in question
consists of fairly reflective surfaces:

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Lumen Method Calculations with Safety Factors
Both of the factors discussed here simply get inserted into our equations to
convince us to use more light or, conversely, to expect less light from our
lamps and luminaires.
This creates a more accurate and useful equation for predicting
lighting effect. With the addition of the light loss factor and the coefficient
of utilization, our lumen method calculation goes from:
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ Area
to
Illuminance = (Lumens × LLF × CU) ÷ Area
Our formula for determining how much light we need to introduce into a
space goes from:
Lumens needed = Illuminance target × Area
to:
Lumens needed = (Illuminance target × Area) ÷
(LLF × CU)
Oftentimes, when we are after a very basic calculation and we don’t
want to numerically include these two factors, we refer to the lumens in our
equation as “functional lumens,” that is, lumens that we know are being
utilized to put light onto the task with which we are concerned. In this
manner, we can use the basic versions of our equations, without the safety
factors, but describe our results in terms of how many “functional lumens”
we would need, or how many “functional lumens” we are providing.
Regardless of whether we use the simplified equations, or whether
we include the two safety factors, it is important to recognize where lumen
method calculations are viable. In order for an “average illuminance level”

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to be meaningful, the space or surface in question must actually have an
“average illuminance level.”
So the lumen method calculation is really only valid for large, open
areas with even lighting layouts. This means that if we have a space where
the luminaires are concentrated and directed to one area, knowing that the
average Illuminance level on the floor is 25 foot-candles tells us very little
since we can plainly see that the room is exceptionally bright in one area
and very dark in another area.
Good candidates for lumen method calculations are open office
spaces, classrooms, sports arenas, warehouses, public hallways… any
rectangular space with an even layout of luminaires and few obstructions.
When we are interested in lighting effects onto objects and specific
surfaces, we use the other form of calculation: the point calculation method.

THE POINT CALCULATION METHOD

When we are interested in illuminance levels that exist at a very specific
point on a surface, we use a simple calculation that takes into account how
the delivery of light spreads out as the distance between the light source and
the object increases. We generally use this calculation for considering
object, accent and task light levels that are a product of a few specifically-
placed luminaires that are directing their light immediately onto the surface
in question. Because of this, the point calculation method requires that we
be able to at least estimate the location of our lighting equipment in
reference to the surface and the distance and aiming angle between the two.
One of the most common situations to use the point calculation is in
accenting artwork or other objects of interest.
The equation we use for the point calculation method is, again, not
really an equation at all, but rather an expression based on the unit
definition of the candela. Candelas are a measurement of light density
exhibited from a specific source in a specific direction. Candle-power
(expressed in Candelas) is a very common way to describe the way light
leaves directional luminaires.
When we consider a glowing globe, it is fairly obvious that the
source distributes light evenly in every direction.

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 Figure 20.7 A candela distribution diagram (left) for a diffuse source (right).

Architectural luminaires like downlights, accent luminaires, spot-

lights and wall-washers have optics and reflectors that drive light in a very
specific manner. The Candle-power measurement from a particular
luminaire is a measure of the light density that a luminaire produces in a
specific direction.

Figure 20.8 A candela distribution diagram (left) for a directional source (right).

There really is no way to estimate the candela values coming from a

light source by observing the source, so this information must be given to
us by the manufacturer of the lamp or luminaire. Luminaire literature often

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includes a candela distribution diagram. This diagram gives specific
candela values that occur directly beneath a source and at various angles.

Figure 20.9 Literature for a high-performance luminaire may provide a candela diagram.

Point calculations usually involve very directional luminaires that

create pools or spots of light. In these situations, we can usually count on
the highest concentration occurring at the center of the pool of light. The
candela value from this center point has a special designation: we call it the
“Center Beam Candle-Power” or CBCP. Some luminaire and lamp
literature will forgo a complex candela distribution diagram and simply
publish this CBCP value, assuming that the user is concerned with the
bright area of light at the center of the beam.

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 Figure 20.10 The highest candela value from a light source is commonly found at the center of the
light output.

The point calculation method is based on the principle that light

spreads out as it travels away from a source. This spread of light is
exemplified by the pool of light created by a directional luminaire. As the
distance from the source increases, the pool of light gets larger, but also gets
less “bright” because the same quantity of light is spread out over a larger
area. Using this principle, we can determine the illuminance level at a
specific point by knowing the candela value of the source in that direction
and the distance and aiming angle from the source to the point. Candelas
are an expression of light density or lumens per area where the area is a
piece of spherical space (see ch. 18). The most important step in putting the
point calculation equation to use is determining the distance value “D” from
the source to the illuminated point in question. This value must be
determined and always expressed in feet before it is squared in the equation.
The equation for a straightforward point calculation looks like this:
Illuminance = Candela value ÷ Distance2 (distance
in feet squared)
Or
E = CD ÷ D2
The equation is best understood through a simple example.

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Point Calculation: Example 1:
Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into a 10’-0” ceiling directly
above a plate that is on a table at 3’-0” above the floor. If that accent
luminaire has a center beam candle power (CBCP) of 10,000 candelas, what
illuminance level can we expect at the brightest point on the plate?
This is best expressed as a diagram as in Figure 20.11.

Figure 20.11 Point calculations are commonly used in situations involving one source and one object
of interest.

Using our basic Point Calculation equation

Illuminance = Candela value ÷ Distance2
or
E = CD ÷ D2
plug in the values we know:
center-beam candela value of the source
CD = 10,000 Candelas
distance squared: The “Distance” is the distance the light must travel. In
this case, it is the mounting height of the luminaire (10 ft.) minus the height
of the table (3 ft.)

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D2 = 7 feet, squared = 49 square feet (the units get
squared too, which represents the translation of
distance into surface area)
Our equation becomes
Illuminance = 10,000 CD ÷ 49 sq.ft.
Or
Illuminance = 204 Foot-candles.
This is a high illuminance level, but certainly within reason for an object we
are trying to accent. It is also important to note that this illuminance level
occurs only at the bright center of the pool of light on the object.
We tend use this calculation more frequently to deduce what type of
candela value (and therefore source) we need to accomplish a certain
lighting task. An example of such a situation may look like example 2

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Point Calculation: Example 2:
Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into the same 10’-0” ceiling
directly above the same plate that is on a table at 3’-0” above the floor. If
we want to illuminate that plate to 150 Foot-candles, what kind of center
beam candle power value would we need from the luminaire? The diagram
is the same, but we use the flipped version our basic equation
Candela value needed = Illuminance level desired
× distance squared
Or
CD = E × D2
We plug in what we know:
illuminance desired
E = 150 Foot-candles
distance squared
D2 = 7 feet squared = 49 sq.ft.
and our solution becomes
CD = 150 FC × 49 sq.ft.
or
Candela value (typically CBCP) needed = 7350
Candelas.
Of course the second part of this type of situation is figuring out what
sort of lamp or luminaire is going to provide this candela value. We may
even decide to use two luminaires in which case we need only half of the
contribution from each of them. To find a specific luminaire or lamp, we
simply look at the various candela values produced by different lighting
equipment. In the case of luminaires, the candela values are represented in
the form of a distribution diagram.

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 Figure 20.12 Candela distribution diagrams for various versions of a basic downlight.

When we are using one of our many accenting lamps, like an MR-16
or PAR lamp, the candela value will usually be expressed as the center
beam candle power (CBCP), tucked in with a host of other information.

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Figure 20.13 Accent lamp literature commonly describes the Center Beam Candle-power values of a
family of lamps.

Point calculations become much more useful and slightly more

complicated when we consider situations in which the object we are
lighting is not perpendicular to the light source. In these situations we must
include a bit of geometry in our calculation to be more accurate : If we are
aiming the light source at any angle other than perpendicular to the surface
being lighted, we know our “pool” of light spreads out and is therefore less
“intense”. This is exemplified by the shape the “pool” of light takes on. As

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the aiming angle is increased, a circular pool of light becomes an elongated
and widened “scallop” of light.
We modify our point calculation equation to accommodate for how the
geometry will spread out the light intensity:
Candela value needed = (Illuminance level desired
× distance squared) ÷ cosine of the angle
The angle in question is the angle created between the aiming line of the
luminaire and a line perpendicular to the surface being lighted as displayed
in Figure 20.14.
or
CD = (E × D2) ÷ cosine of angle.
or, if we use the equation to solve for illuminance onto the object, we use
this
E = (CD × cosine of angle) ÷ D2
An example of this situation might look like example 3

Point Calculation: Example 3:

Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into a 10’-0” ceiling aimed
to light a collectible plate resting on a pedestal 3’-0” from the floor. To
accent the plate, the luminaire is aimed at an angle. Aiming the luminaire
creates an angle of 30 degrees between the aiming line of the luminaire and
the line perpendicular to the plate. If we want to illuminate the plate to 100
foot-candles, what kind of center-beam candela value would we need from
the luminaire?

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 Figure 20.14 A point calculation used to determine how to light an object when an aiming angle is
involved.

We use the version of our equation that accounts for lighting at an angle
Candela value needed = (Illuminance level desired
× distance squared) ÷ cosine of the angle
or
CD = (E x D2) ÷ cosine of angle
We plug in what we know:
illuminance desired
E = 100 Foot-candles
We use simple trigonometry to determine the Distance squared
D2 = 8.1 feet squared = 65 sq.ft. Cosine of angle =
cosine of 30 degrees = 0.87
Our solution becomes
CD = (100 FC x 65 sq.ft) ÷ 0.87
Or
Candela value needed = 7471 Candelas.

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 Through this example we can see that lighting at an angle reduces the
effectiveness of the light source immensely. This makes sense when we
consider how the geometry affects the shape and size of the piece of light
created. Rather than a defined circle or “pool” of light, the aiming angle
results in a long, wide “scallop”.
It is important to recognize that this chapter presents simple
calculations that ignore any inter-reflected light. In these situations, it is
assumed that all of the light being measured comes directly from the
luminaires in question.
Once a designer gets the hang of the basic principles of these two
types of calculations, he/she will begin to gain an instinct for where each
can be useful. As mentioned before, it is equally important to recognize
where calculations will not benefit the design or help to create a good
lighting solution. Calculations are merely tools to support and refine the
lighting concepts that one draws up as he/she works through the more
graphical and imaginative processes that we now associate with lighting
design.
All of the tools we have explored through this section are geared
towards bringing us to a point where we are ready to prepare drawings that
will translate our lighting concepts into a constructible project. The
visualizing, the articulating, the sketching, the drawing, the describing, and
the calculating are all tools to make the job of selecting the appropriate
lighting easier. The next logical step is to use all of the creative and
calculative input to create the drawings and details that will allow the
project to be built.

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Part III
Deliverables

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Chapter 21
Deciphering Manufacturers Literature
and Luminaire Cut Sheets
Before we can hope to make intuitive decisions about selecting lighting
equipment to solve our lighting challenges, we must dedicate some time to
understanding what types of luminaires are available to us. Lighting
products, like most specification design products, have a wealth of
information published about them to help the designer determine which
product is most appropriate. In addition to printed catalogs and websites,
most lighting manufacturers employ a local representative to service the
needs of the designer. This representative will take the time to explain why a
particular piece of lighting equipment may or may not suit ones needs. The
manufacturer’s rep can also give pricing information and indicate shipping
lead times for time sensitive jobs. One of the best things designers can do to
position themselves for good lighting knowledge is to contact their local
lighting manufacturer’s representative agency.
Lighting literature comes in all shapes and sizes and all levels of
usefulness. Manufacturers publish what they call “cut sheets” to list the
various features, options and capabilities of a lighting product. First and
foremost, a product cut sheet should give us an idea of the size, function and
overall appearance of a product. Beyond these basics, the level of
information provided by various manufacturers varies greatly from very
vague to very detailed. Generally, the more technically inclined the
luminaire, the more articulate the information. Some of our more exotic
decorative luminaires provide very little information. In order to learn to
decipher these manufacturers cut sheets, we will look at a few examples and
learn how to identify the key pieces of information.
The complex and cryptic nature of lighting manufacturers’ cut sheets
should not prevent a designer from taking up lighting as a design tool. If a
designer can develop confidence in the ability to gather information from

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these cut-sheets, he/she will be well armed to make confident luminaire
decisions. The ability to decipher manufacturers’ cut sheets is absolutely
necessary for properly specifying and ordering lighting equipment.
The following is a list of features that the designer should be able to
identify from a cut sheet and put together to create a complete luminaire
product number. As the designer reads about the pieces of information that
he/she is looking for, refer back to the sample cut sheet in Figure 21.1.

PHYSICAL BASICS
The first impression of a luminaire should be its size, shape and function. It
should be readily apparent how and where this luminaire would be mounted
(surface, recessed, wall, ceiling, etc.). If the luminaire is recessed into the
wall or ceiling, the cut sheet should quickly confirm whether the luminaire
will fit into the space available. One should also get an impression of how
the luminaire will look in the space.

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www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com
 Figure 21.1 A typical architectural luminaire cut sheet. In this case, a recessed adjustable accent
luminaire.

The cut sheet shown for reference in Figure 21.1 is for a small
adjustable accent luminaire and includes all of the various reflectors and the
various housings that can accommodate it. This is a recessed adjustable
accent luminaire. Upon first glance, it should be obvious that this piece of
equipment recesses into the ceiling plane. We should be able to identify the
lamp located within the luminaire, and the angle of the lamp should hint that
this is an adjustable / aimable luminaire. The other piece of information that
should jump out at us is the sheer size of a simple luminaire like this. This
recessed accent luminaire is a good example of how large these luminaires
can get. If we look at the cut sheet, we see that there are three different sizes
of housing available for different uses of this luminaire.

Mounting Style:
Does this luminaire recess into the ceiling?
Does this luminaire mount to the surface of a wall or ceiling?
Does this luminaire mount from a pendant or canopy?

The cut sheet in Figure 21.1 shows three different housing types for
different construction types. Recessed luminaires often have multiple
housing options to accommodate insulated (IC) and non-insulated (Non-IC)
plenum situations, which we will discuss below.

Luminaire Size and Height:

What are the luminaire dimensions?
How will the luminaire dimensions work in our space?
If this is a recessed luminaire, will it fit into our ceiling, wall or floor
assembly?

The luminaire shown in Figure 21.1 has an aperture of about 4”,

which is rather small. There are three housings available for this luminaire,
ranging from 8” in height, to 11” in height. All three have a similar footprint

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of 14” x 10”. These physical basics begin to show why it is so important to
coordinate recessed luminaire locations when building.

Aesthetics:
What are the colors and finishes available?
What trims, diffusers and accessories are available?

A recessed luminaire like the example in Fig 21.1 has relatively little
aesthetic impression in the space, but there are decisions to be made
nonetheless. For recessed luminaires, we must decide on the color of the
reflector cone above the ceiling and the trim ring that rests at ceiling level.
The cut sheet in Figure 21.1 shows that we need to make a color
specification for each of these components. Because this luminaire holds an
MR-16 lamp, we can also specify any type of colored lens or diffusing lens
to soften the light.

Light suitability:
Is the luminaire IC rated (Suitable for insulated ceilings / plenums)?
Is the luminaire listed for damp or wet locations?
Does the luminaire deliver the quality, color, and texture of light that
we are after?
Is the luminaire / lamp dimmable?
Is the source instant on / off?
Does the luminaire create excessive glare?
Is the luminaire aimable / adjustable?

The luminaire in Figure 21.1 is really nothing more than a holder for
an MR-16 lamp. As such, the lamp is going to dictate most of the light
delivery properties. The MR-16 lamp is a low voltage halogen lamp, so we
know that it is instant on and off, is easily dimmable, and is a very
directional light.

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 IC rating is a common issue that comes up with recessed luminaires.
IC rating stands for “Insulation Contact.” It is a rating that indicates that the
luminaire housing is cool enough to be in contact with fiberglass and batt
insulation. We encounter this insulation most commonly on residential
projects, so when designing for a residence, it is always prudent to determine
if the luminaires need to be or are IC rated.

Lamp and Electrical Basics:

Are there multiple lamp / source options?
Does the luminaire require multiple lamps?
What are the luminaire voltage options?
What are the luminaire wattage limitations (Maximum wattage)?
Does the luminaire require a ballast or transformer?

The luminaire here accepts MR-16 lamps up to 75 watts for the non-
IC housing and up to 50 Watts for the IC version. The IC rated housing
limits lamp wattage to limit potential heat. Because the MR-16 lamp is a
“low voltage” source, we know that the luminaire requires a transformer. In
this case, the transformer is integral to the luminaire. Often, a luminaire will
not include a transformer, and a remote transformer will be required.

Light Output Performance:

What is the lumen output of the luminaire?
What is the efficacy / efficiency of the luminaire?
What is the distribution shape of the luminaire?
Does the cut sheet provide a distribution diagram?
How would we describe the light distribution shape? Spot, flood,
accent, wash, spread, glow, diffuse?

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 The luminaire in Figure 21.1 will have the properties of the MR-16
lamp we put into it. MR-16 lamps come in all different beam spreads and
candela distributions. Because the lamp defines the light output properties,
we can probably learn more about this luminaire’s light performance from
the lamp manufacturer’s literature than we can from the luminaire cut sheet.
Regardless of how thorough or lacking the literature that is available,
remember the basics that will get us most of the way towards the right
product:
How is this luminaire installed (Recessed, surface, wall mount etc.)?
What type of lamp / source does this luminaire use?
Does this luminaire require a remote driver, transformer or ballast?
What are the dimensions of the luminaire?
If a designer can successfully answer the preceding questions when faced
with a luminaire cut sheet, then he/she has a very good chance of selecting
appropriate lighting equipment. Just simply knowing that the information is
somewhere on the cut sheet gives us greater hope and confidence when we
are poring over luminaire catalogs and websites.

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Chapter 22
Selecting Luminaires: A Basic Family
Every lighting project is entirely unique, and over the course of a design
career, one may find oneself becoming more proficient and familiar with
certain types of environments. Time and time, again, project situations call
for the same styles and types of lighting equipment. For this reason, we will
look at a family of the “workhorse” luminaires that commonly appear on
luminaire schedules for residential, high-design commercial and hospitality
projects. Obviously, lighting design projects span a broad spectrum. There
are designers who will never have need for any of the products mentioned
here. But these tools seem to be versatile enough to be useful as a
foundation for everyone. Technologies; sources, efficacies and code
requirements are constantly changing, so be sure to stay up to date with
advancements within these basic families. When in doubt, hop online or call
your local manufacturer’s representative for up to date information. And
remember: It is always advisable to see a working sample of a luminaire
prior to specifying it on a project.

THE BASIC LUMINAIRE FAMILIES

The 4-inch Aperture Recessed Downlight
The recessed downlight is, no doubt, one of the darlings of the architectural
lighting world. This little device shows up as nothing more than a hole in
the ceiling and casts fairly directed light onto a surface below. The small
version of a downlight will usually hold an MR-16 low-voltage lamp or a
line-voltage PAR-20 lamp. There are even 4” aperture downlights that hold
compact fluorescent lamps, ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps and of
course LED’s. This small aperture downlight will generally be useful in
ceilings up to 9’-0” high. Be warned, however, that by their very nature,
downlights are fairly restrictive. Because they place light directly down,

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they do not allow for precise aiming onto vertical surfaces or specific
objects. For this reason, many designers eschew the “fixed aim” down-light
altogether and instead use recessed adjustable accent luminaires (See
following pages) Some commonly-specified 4” aperture downlights are
made by Lightolier, Prescolite, Leucos, Deltalight, Prima, Capri and Juno.
Below are cut sheets and images of this type of luminaire.

Figure 22.1.1
4” aperture halogen downlight from Deltalight.

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 Figure 22.1.2
4” aperture LED downlight from Erco.

Figure 22.1.3
4” aperture halogen downlight from Philips Lightolier.

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 Figure 22.1.4 An application featuring 4” aperture downlights.

The 6-inch Aperture Recessed Downlight

The 6 inch downlight behaves in the same way as its smaller cousin, but it
generally contains a larger lamp for more robust effects. If you are going to
use a 6” aperture luminaire, make sure you are getting enough light to
justify the larger aperture. Look for a 90W-150W PAR38 halogen lamp,
70W-150W T6 ceramic metal halide lamp, or 2500-lumen LED module.
Generally, these larger downlights are a utilitarian way to get light onto the
horizontal plane from ceilings with ranging from 10’-0” to 30’-0” in height.

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 Figure 22.2.1
6” aperture LED downlight from Erco.

Figure 22.2.2
6” aperture downlight from Philips Lightolier.

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 Figure 22.2.3 An application featuring 6” aperture downlights.

The 4-inch and 6-inch Recessed Adjustable Accent

The recessed adjustable accent is simply a downlight that can be aimed. Its
versatility makes it one of the preferred workhorses of the lighting designer.
This luminaire can be used like a theatrical lighting device to direct a
defined piece of light onto any surface at which it is aimed. For many
applications, the recessed adjustable luminaire can act as an accent, a wall-
wash, or simply as a general downlight. They can be diffused with lens
media to provide light that varies from dramatic and harsh to soft and
flattering. These luminaires are particularly useful for “painting” pieces of
light onto the specific objects and surfaces that we have identified on our
light maps (see ch.17). Some simple project spaces can be lighted almost
entirely with recessed adjustable luminaires. It is well worth specifying an
adjustable luminaire that has the aiming mechanism recessed above the
ceiling plane, rather than the all-too common “eyeball.” Some well-known

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manufacturers of adjustable accents include Erco, Zumtobel, and RSA, as
well as those brands mentioned in the downlight family.

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 Figure 22.3.1
4” aperture adjustable-accent halogen luminaire from Erco

Figure 22.3.2
4” aperture adjustable accent halogen luminaire from Philips Lightolier

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 Figure 22.3.3
4” Aperture adjustable-accent ceramic metal halide (CMH) luminaire from Philips Lightolier

Figure 22.3.4
4” aperture adjustable-accent LED luminaire from Erco

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 Figure 22.3.5
6” aperture adjustable accent halogen luminaire from Philips Lightolier.

Figure 22.3.6
6” Aperture adjustable-accent ceramic metal halide (CMH) luminaire from Philips Lightolier

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 Figure 22.3.7
6” aperture adjustable-accent LED luminaire from Erco

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 Figure 22.3.8 An application featuring adjustable accent luminaires

The Millwork Downlight

Inevitably, there comes a need for a very small version of an adjustable
accent or downlight. As we have seen, the majority of recessed luminaires
feature large housings to contain heat. There are, however, recessed
products that have reduced housings and are suitable for building into
cabinetry, millwork and architectural details. Some commonly used
products are available from Prima lighting, DaSal lighting, and Ardee
lighting.

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 Figure 22.4.1
Millwork “puck light” LED luminaire from Dasal.

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 Figure 22.4.2
millwork “puck light” halogen luminaire from Dasal

Figure 22.4.3 millwork “puck light” halogen luminaire from Prima

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 Figure 22.4.3 An application featuring millwork “puck light” luminaires

The Direct-burial or “In-grade” Floor Luminaire

This family of luminaires mounts directly into the ground or floor of a
space and casts light upwards onto walls, columns, and canopies above. It is
essentially a robust downlight mounted upside-down. Because it goes in the
ground, these luminaires must be durable, water tight and must be
considered for the amount of heat they create. They must be considered for
their depth and the type of flooring or ground (wood, earth, stone) into
which they can be mounted. They also need to be located very carefully as
their installation is notoriously labor intensive. Direct burial luminaires are
also available in adjustable versions so that they can be aimed to wash light
onto a specific surface. Implementing these luminaires is one way to
introduce a unique light character into a space. Some commonly specified
versions of this type of luminaire are from Lumascape, Lumiere, Hydrel,
Kim, and Deltalight.

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 Figure 22.5.1 Direct-burial halogen uplight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.5.2 Small direct-burial LED indicator uplight from Erco.

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Figure 22.5.3 Direct-burial halogen uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.5.4 Direct-burial LED uplight from Erco.

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 Figure 22.5.5 Direct-burial compact fluorescent (CFL) uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.5.6 An application featuring direct-burial uplights.

The Wall Mounted Uplight or “Wash Light”

These luminaires are often mounted on columns and other vertical surfaces
to accent the vertical surface and direct light upwards onto the ceiling or lid
above. They are useful for adding an ambient glow and accenting unique

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ceiling architecture. These luminaires can be surface mounted to project
from a surface or can recess to create a “hole in the wall” effect. These
luminaires are available in numerous decorative styles or can disappear to
have almost no impression at all. Some commonly-specified versions of
wall surface mounted uplights are from Winona, Elliptipar and Insight.
Some wall recessed versions are made by Belfer, Energie, Eurolite and
Deltalight.

Figure 22.6.1 Wall mounted halogen uplight from Deltalight.

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 Figure 22.6.2 Decorative wall mounted uplight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.6.3 Wall-mounted compact fluorescent (CFL) uplight from Erco.

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 Figure 22.6.4 Wall-mounted ceramic metal halide (CMH) uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.6.5 Wall-mounted “hole in the wall” uplight from Erco.

The “Glowing Disc” Area Light

Often times an afterthought, some sort of surface mounted area light should
be considered for small spaces or utility areas. Too often, these small spaces
are left to recessed luminaires that direct most of their lighting effect

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downward, leaving the space dark and cave-like. A simple dish or slightly
decorative disc can provide light onto the ceiling and walls as well as
downward. Some commonly-specified versions are from Tech lighting and
Eureka lighting.

Figure 22.7.1 Glowing surface mounted compact fluorescent (CFL) area light from Deltalight

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Figure 22.7.2 Glowing surface mounted LED area light from Eureka

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 Figure 22.7.3 Glowing, surface-mounted area light (CFL and LED) from Tech Lighting

The Residential-Grade Downlight: Compact

Fluorescent, LED and LED Retrofit
With energy consumption (efficacy), lamp-life and longevity of design
rising on the priority list, even the simplest of residential projects are being
pushed towards non-incandescent sources. The lighting program in
residential spaces is often driven by greater concern for color rendering,
warm color temperatures, minimizing glare and creating softer light
textures through the use of diffusing lenses. Recessed luminaires for
residential projects must commonly provide an insulated ceiling (IC) rated
housing (see chapter 24). These criteria all add up to a fairly specialized
product, worthy of its own family. Commonly-specified high-efficacy,
residential luminaire are available from Lightolier, Iris, and Capri.

Figure 22.8.1 Compact fluorescent (CFL) downlight from Erco

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Figure 22.8.2 Compact fluorescent (CFL) downlight from Philips Lightolier

Figure 22.8.3 LED downlight from Philips Lightolier.

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 Figure 22.8.4 A downlight LED retrofit / lamp replacement for downlights from Cree.

The Continuous Linear LED Luminaire

Long, continuous lines of light are fairly common design feature in
contemporary environments. The diminutive linear sources that create these
shapes of light can be smaller than 1” x 1” in profile and are often flexible
and can be cut to any length in the field. These luminaires often operate at
low-voltages that require a remote transformer or “driver”. These
luminaires can serve in coves, slots, niches, and even as under cabinet
luminaires. Many mount into slender channel brackets. Some even mount
with simple sticky tape. Some commonly-specified versions of this type of
luminaire are from Tivoli, Solavanti, ColorGlo, and Tokistar.

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Figure 22.9.1 Linear LED source from Solavanti Lighting.

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Figure 22.9.2 Linear LED source from Tokistar.

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 Figure 22.9.3 An application featuring continuous linear sources to uplight ceiling beams.

Fluorescent Continuous Sources

For larger or more utilitarian linear applications, fluorescent sources often
prove to be a good solution. These luminaires incorporate linear or compact
fluorescent lamps mounted end–to-end to create a continuous effect. This
can be accomplished with something as simple as a bare lamp, or the
luminaire may have a reflector to direct light. These sources are commonly
used in commercial and themed environments in coves, slots, and backlight
applications. Some commonly-specified versions of this luminaire are from
Belfer, Bartco, Tivoli and Tokistar.

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 Figure 22.10.1 Linear fluorescent staggered strip from Bartco

Figure 22.10.2 Continuous compact fluorescent system from Belfer.

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Figure 22.10.3 Compact fluorescent staggered strip from Bartco.

Figure 22.10.4 Linear fluorescent strip from Lightolier.

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 Figure 22.10.5 Modular linear fluorescent system from Deltalight.

Figure 22.10.6 An application featuring continuous linear fluorescent sources.

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Low-Level Steplight
The low-level area light or “steplight” is a superb tool for delivering light
directly onto a ground plane. Too often, when a design calls for light onto
the floor, luminaires are placed up high, and, consequently, light is wasted.
Steplights can deliver focused lighting for safety on pathways and stairs.
Steplights succeed in delivering a controlled pool of light that does little to
disturb the existing lighted environment. Larger versions of this low-level
area light are used in larger settings for illuminating seating areas or
exterior areas bound by low walls.

Figure 22.11.1 Small aperture halogen steplight from Deltalight.

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Figure 22.11.2 Large aperture compact fluorescent (CFL) steplight from Erco.

Figure 22.11.3 Small LED indicator steplight from Erco

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 Figure 22.11.4 An application of typical steplights

This small family of luminaires is by no means comprehensive. It

gives but a glimpse of some of the more common ways to deliver light onto
the surfaces of our designs. There numerous tools for delivering light, but at
the core of design, we are still simply dealing with shapes of light, color of
light, texture of light, where that light goes, and how it gets there. Choosing
architectural luminaires should be an exercise in selecting tools to deliver
lighting effects that have already been identified through the design process.
Remember that many luminaires are often nothing more than lamp holders.
A designer should be able to recognize when the lamp is doing most of the
work and when the luminaire is more integral to the delivery of light.
Hopefully, this representation of some more common lighting tactics will
broaden horizons as the designer moves on to actually lay out and specify
lighting equipment for his/her design.

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Chapter 23
Switching, Dimming and Control
Systems
Designing lighting control systems is an art and science in its own right.
Considering how the lighting elements in a space will be controlled is an
integral part of completing the lighting design thought process. There is a
significant chasm between simple, wall-mounted switches and the whole-
building, computer-based control systems that allow for tremendous
flexibility.

Sustainability initiatives, incentives and codes have made lighting controls

increasingly important and consequently complex. A lighting designer is
expected to possess an intimate knowledge of current codes, incentives and
sustainability practices as well as the technologies available. Constant
research and staying up to date with technologies and practices is a must.
On a modern design project, documentation and troubleshooting of the
lighting control system can consume as much time as that of the light itself.
But controls need not become unwieldy. Once a designer is familiar with
the baseline requirements of local codes and the best practices employed by
other designers, meeting code requirements and implementing practical,
useful lighting control technology can become second nature.

The key to making use of these technologies is to make decisions about the
specific functionality the project needs. Design of the control systems
should be treated similarly to designing the light itself. The effects of
dimming, mixing, fading and timing functions are the components that
complete a lighting application. Lighting control systems should be chosen
with a consideration for how they can simplify the project. When lighting
controls are added as a means to provide more options and infinite
flexibility, unwieldy chaos can be the result.

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TYPICAL SWITCHED LIGHTING CIRCUITS
To make sense of the benefits and features of the various level of control
system, it is most helpful to understand how basic in-line “light switches”
work to control the delivery of power to luminaires.

Figure 23.1 Elevation diagram of typical electrical delivery for lighting.

In a typical electrical set-up like the basic residence in Figure 23.1,

electrical service from the utility is connected to distribution panels
typically located in a utility area on the project. From these distribution
panels, the electricity is split into branch circuits that run out to the
receptacles (plugs) and the various hard-wired luminaires on the project.
The only way to interrupt power to these devices would be to physically
“open” or interrupt the branch circuit that connects back to the panel. To
control power to luminaires, this takes the form of simple wall mounted
“light switches”. The light switch is either on (closed) and passes electricity
to the lighting device, or the switch is off (open) and electricity is not
delivered. The important thing to visualize is the flow of electricity from the
panel, to the switch, and then onto the luminaire.

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WALL MOUNTED LIGHTING CONTROL
DEVICES
There are also a number of wall mounted devices that can add helpful levels
of functionality to a lighting design without the expense and complexity of
a complete computer-based lighting control system.

Dimmers
Dimmers are devices that control lighting intensity. Common incandescent
dimmers simply limit the current of electricity. Low-voltage sources. LED
sources and fluorescent sources often require a dedicated dimmer matched
to the source type. Wall mounted dimmers are commonly available and
serve in place of a typical “light switch”. Increasingly, dimming devices are
required by code for lighting applications that involve incandescent or
halogen incandescent technology. They are commonly used in residential
projects and are an increasingly popular means of controlling large
fluorescent applications in special commercial spaces, event spaces and
conference rooms. At their simplest, dimmers curtail electricity waste by
giving the user control over the desired light quantity. Dimmers can also be
paired with daylight sensors to reduce electric light levels in response to
available daylight.

Figure 23.2 Two versions of typical wall mounted dimmers from Lutron.

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Timer Switches
A timer is a simple light switch that keeps a lighting load “on” for a set
amount of time, and then automatically turns it off. Many timers offer the
ability to modify or program the timer function.

Time Clocks
A time clock is a device with mechanical or electronic means of keeping
time. They are often mounted closer to an electrical panel to control entire
circuits of lighting. The time clock allows lighting functions to
automatically occur at specific times throughout the day. Sophisticated time
clocks may also know the time of sunrise and sunset through the seasons as
well as daylight savings changes. Controlling lighting through a time clock
allows lighting functions to be programmed to reliably activate at certain
times of day throughout the year. Time clocks are often a first level of
sophistication on commercial projects as they reduce wasted electricity by
assuring that lighting applications don’t accidentally remain “on” after
business hours. Many time clocks meet the basic control requirements of
many local lighting code requirements.

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy sensors detect
people and activity through
heat, motion, sound or
obstruction. These control
devices can often be
programmed to come on and
turn off manually or
automatically when they
detect a presence. Many
lighting efficiency codes
require that these devices be
used to automatically switch
lights off if occupancy is not Figure 23.3 An example of a typical wall mounted
detected. They are often occupancy sensor
used to turn off a portion of

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the luminaires in a large area to meet code requirements addressing
“uniform light reduction” targets. They are available as integral to typical
wall-mounted switches, or as stand-alone devices for controlling entire
lighting circuits.

INTELLIGENT LIGHTING CONTROL

SYSTEMS
The increase in energy code requirements and sustainable design incentives
had made “whole project” controls increasingly popular and feasible.
Besides fine tuning of lighting effect, they allow implementation of many
energy saving initiatives (occupancy response, daylight response and time
of day response) in a comprehensive package.
Most of our more
sophisticated lighting
control systems deviate from
the simple “switching”
model in an important
manner. When an intelligent
control system is employed,
power is delivered from the
distribution panel to a
nearby intelligent lighting
control panel (we will call it
the “lighting panel”).
Electricity then flows
directly from the “lighting Figure 23.4 A typical Scene Controller or “Keypad”
panel” to the luminaires.
This means that the primary control of electricity flowing to a luminaire is
the intelligent lighting panel itself. In the set-up shown in Figure 23.5,
individual control devices like multi-button keypads send a signal to the
lighting panel telling it to deliver electricity to the luminaire (or not to). The
biggest benefit of this type of design is that control devices can send a
signal to the lighting panel to tell it to operate any luminaire that is
connected to the lighting panel: A button on a keypad in the kitchen can tell
the lighting panel to activate the lights in the laundry room; a keypad next

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to the bed can tell the lighting panel to turn on every luminaire in the house.
This type of lighting control scenario can be identified as three parts:
1. The intelligent lighting control panel (usually only one per
project);
2. The control devices like multi-button keypads that replace common
light switches;
3. The groups of luminaires that we want to control together (called
“lighting loads” or “lighting zones”).

The function and design of the system branches out from this basic
concept. The lighting loads get specific names (or more likely address
numbers), and we program the lighting panel to recognize these names or
addresses. We then program the individual control devices to send the
appropriate signal to the lighting panel.

Figure 23.5 Elevation diagram of electrical delivery for an intelligent “whole-project” lighting
control system.

In a set-up like Figure 23.5, we would program the top button of a

keypad to send a signal to the lighting panel to send power to a load in the

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room. In this fashion, we can program the buttons on a keypad to control
different lighting loads to different intensities to create “scenes.” When this
type of control synchronization is distributed throughout an entire project,
we call it a “whole building” lighting control system.
Some well-known manufacturers of intelligent lighting control
systems include the following:
LC&D, Lutron, Litetouch, Vantage, and Crestron.

Localized Control Panels

Lighting control intelligence does not have to be remotely located as in
Figure 23.5. Smaller control systems can be located to incorporate only the
luminaires in a single room as in Figure 23.7. These smaller, local control
systems usually control up to six lighting loads and can be connected to
control devices anywhere in the room. A typical situation may be an
auditorium or a home theater where numerous lighting loads in a space
need to be controlled from numerous locations. The local control system
can reduce the number of traditional wall-mounted light switches used and
can add dimming and scene creating abilities. A normal “switched” lighting
layout for a space may look like Figure 23.6. In this case, the wall sconces,
wall-wash luminaires, steplights, and pendants are each controlled by a
light switch. A local control system would be installed in place of the light
switches. The groups of luminaires would now be considered “lighting
loads,” and each would be connected back to the local control system.

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Figure 23.6 Using standard light switches to control complex spaces can lead to an over-abundance
of light switches.

Figure 23.7 A localized “whole room” control system can reduce clutter and confusion.

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 The local control system would have a set of visible buttons that
would be programmed to turn on the various lighting loads. We can keep
the programming simple and program each button to control one lighting
load, or we can program each button to activate a scene of multiple lighting
loads at varying light levels. We can also install other control devices
capable of telling the local lighting control system to activate the same
scenes. Figure 23.7 shows how a space might look when such a system is
implemented. These local systems can often be retrofit into existing lighting
situations. A common candidate is a room that has four or five wall
switches in one location. Rather than fuss with each switch, the local
control system replaces all of the switches and opens up the possibility of
programming scenes and dimming levels and activating them with a single
button press.
Some common manufacturers of small, localized lighting control
systems include the following:
Watt stopper,
Lutron “Grafik Eye”, and
Crestron.

These types of local lighting control systems can also be located far
from the lighting loads that they control. In many commercial projects, a
simple local lighting panel is used only for its built-in time-clock and all-on
and all-off functions.

All of the devices discussed here are intended to add to the functionality of
a lighting design and increasingly to tackle the two largest electricity
wasters: Lighting inadvertently left on, and excessive lighting with no local
control for reducing it. Without the consideration of these technologies, one
is living in a world of light switches on the wall that must be manually
turned on and manually turned off. A designer should consider how each
lighting addition will be controlled and whether these control technologies
will provide a benefit. It is highly advised that a designer employ the
assistance of a lighting control manufacturers’ local representative, who can
assist in specifying components for these systems.

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The various levels of control capability are the crowning touch on the
lighting design in a space. A careful consideration of cost, complexity, and
convenience will dictate the appropriate lighting control system for each
design.

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Chapter 24
The Preliminary Lighting Layout
“Redline”
“The preliminary lighting layout is where our design concepts start to
become buildable.”

Now that we have been introduced to a vocabulary of luminaire types,

applications, and control methods, we are ready to move forward in our
design. The preliminary lighting layout is the intermediate step between
lighting concepts and lighting drawings used for construction. It is an
evolving layout of lighting luminaire locations that gives the designer the
opportunity to ponder and select lighting equipment and fine-tune the
locations, applications and control of these luminaires. This preliminary
layout is often referred to as a “redline layout” because luminaire locations
and notes are often marked in red pencil and undergo numerous changes
and tweaks before the document is finalized. The redline layout is where
our graphics, descriptions and calculations are translated into individual
symbols that represent specific pieces of lighting equipment.
Creating the “Redline” preliminary layout is basically the process of
“solving” the conceptual light map that has been created. A clear, well-
executed light map with notes and descriptions should pretty much solve
itself, leaving the designer with the simple task of matching lighting
equipment and locations to the already-documented lighting applications as
indicated on the light map.

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 Figure 24.1 The process of marking ideas (here in red) for the placement of specific lighting
equipment.

The two significant tasks that are accomplished through this “redline”
layout are the locating and selecting of luminaires. These decisions will
form the basis of the final construction documents - the Lighting Plan,
Luminaire Schedule and Luminaire Cut Sheets - that will make our design
buildable.
There are very few rules for the graphics and symbols used in laying
out preliminary lighting intent. The goal is simply to clarify the locations
and types of luminaires to be used in the design. If symbols alone cannot
successfully translate ideas, additional notes and comments can be used to
provide more information. Luminaire mounting dimensions and mounting
heights are also a useful addition.

THE PRELIMINARY LUMINAIRE SCHEDULE

As a designer goes through the redline layout, they will ponder over the
types of luminaires that will solve the particular lighting challenges they
have mapped out. While they are creating this preliminary layout, they
should be simultaneously creating the rough draft of their luminaire

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schedule. As luminaire
symbols are placed to
represent lighting
equipment, they should be
given luminaire “type”
labels - unique names - that
will serve as the
coordination between the
lighting drawing and the
luminaire schedule. The
preliminary luminaire
schedule should be a
running list of luminaires to
be used. The list should
indicate at least the name or
“type” label and a
description for each
luminaire. This simple step Figure 24.2 Identify each unique luminaire with a “type”
will keep a designer from label as soon as it is drawn into the space.
repeating luminaire types
and will streamline the luminaire selection process.
The luminaire type labels need to be unique to each luminaire that
ends up being used on the job.
It is advisable to add luminaire types and descriptions to the
preliminary luminaire schedule as soon as there is even a glimmer of
thought about what the luminaire will be. This simple step will build the
schedule incrementally and keep a clear record of the different equipment
as the designer goes through selecting lighting equipment to “solve” the
lighting applications indicated on the redline layout.

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Figure 24.3 A completed “red line” layout shows ideas for all luminaire locations and a preliminary
luminaire schedule. Each lighting application is informed directly by the light map.

The “redline layout” should act as a link from the graphics and
descriptions of the light map to the precision and clarity of the drafted
lighting plan from which the project will be built. The redline layout gives
the designer the opportunity to move luminaires and experiment with
different solutions.

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Chapter 25
Luminaire Schedules and Cut Sheets
The most important support documents that accompany a lighting plan are
the luminaire schedule and cut sheets that illustrate exactly what lighting
equipment is required to bring the lighting plan to life. All of the deliverable
documents must be accurate and error free, but this holds especially true for
the schedule and cut sheets, as they will inform the ordering of lighting
products. On complex projects, architects and engineers create specification
documents that articulate the specific nuances of every product and material
that is necessary for the construction of the project. The luminaire schedule
and cut sheets are the closest a lighting designer gets to true “specification”.
As such, these documents that must list products accurately and completely.
The luminaire schedule is the document that the electrical contractor will use
to price, order and install the lighting equipment. This means that a slight
error in catalog number or description can affect the budgeting, delivery and
installation of every instance of a particular luminaire type. The two secrets
to a thorough luminaire schedule are to get started early (as discussed in
Chapter 24), and to check and re-check the schedule and cut sheets for
errors. By now, readers have seen enough manufacturers’ literature to know
that the catalog numbers for lighting products can become rather lengthy and
complex. A simple typo can cause a product to be delivered in the wrong
size, the wrong color, or not at all.

THE LUMINAIRE SCHEDULE

The sample luminaire schedule shown in Figure 25.1 includes most of the
pertinent information one would need to provide for a project. Each category
has critical information that must be presented in a manner that makes things
clear and obvious. The contents of the various categories of information are
discussed here.

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Heading
The first piece of information that should go on a luminaire schedule is the
name of the project and the date the schedule was created. With so many
projects going on at once, and so many changes being made to luminaire
selections, this labeling ensures that those involved with the project are
referring to the correct document. The heading should also include the name
of the firm or individual preparing the document so that those involved in
the project know whom to contact with questions.

Luminaire Type Labels

Luminaire type labels will connect all of the luminaire symbols on the
lighting plan to the specific pieces of equipment that they represent as
defined by the luminaire schedule. Designers can use whatever “type” logic
makes sense for the project. Often a two or three digit or alphanumeric code
is employed. To keep luminaire selections clear, it is advisable to give a
unique type to every variation of every piece of lighting equipment. Even if
the variation is simply a lens, lamp type, or finish color, it should warrant a
unique luminaire type.

Luminaire Manufacturer
This indicates who the product is made by and where specific questions
regarding mounting, installation and electrification should be directed. Be
sure to list the true manufacturer of the product, not a third party vendor who
is supplying the luminaire.

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www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com
 Figure 25.1 The luminaire schedule lists the information a contractor needs to price and order all of
the luminaires.

Catalog Number
The most important piece of information to accurately list is the product
code that will be used to price and order the equipment. The catalog number
is usually full of letters and numbers that indicate specific finishes, colors,
mounting styles, and other options. Any small errors in catalog number will
come back to cause larger problems during construction.

Lamp Specification
The schedule should include information on the quantity and type of lamp
required for the luminaire. Sometimes it will be necessary to list a specific
lamp product. Other times it will suffice to list the desired wattage and
source type. It is always good practice to make sure that the lamp
specification provides information about color-rendering index (CRI) and
color temperature (CCT) to ensure that a suitable product is used.

Voltage
There are many voltages that service lighting projects. 120 volts is common
line voltage for residences in the US, but it cannot be assumed. Larger
commercial projects and projects that house heavy machinery often use 277
Volts as the primary voltage. The luminaires specified for a project must be
designed to operate at the voltage that will be provided on the job. This is
one of the first pieces of information that should be confirmed with the
electrical engineer or contractor on the job. Luminaires that use low-voltage
lamps typically require electricity delivered at 12 or 24 volts. These low
voltages generally require that a transformer be integral to the luminaire or
located nearby.

Mounting style
This piece of information will help an electrical contractor prepare the site
for the luminaire well before it arrives. It can also head off any major
conflicts with building conditions and space constraints.

Locations

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This simple description of where the luminaire is actually used on the project
will save hours of looking for luminaire symbols on the lighting plan later.

Notes
This area is for any additional clarification information. The most common
notes that show up on a luminaire schedule are related to ballasts and
transformers that need to be provided, IC housing requirements, and wet-
listing designations. This is the place to put information that is essential to
the successful installation of the luminaire.
Remember that all of this information will serve the designer and the
electrical contractor on the job. The electrical contractor is a necessary ally
on a lighting design job and efforts put towards clarifying the contractor’s
job will benefit the design project as a whole.

LUMINAIRE CUT SHEETS

To take the job of providing clear information a step further, a lighting
designer includes job specific cut sheets to accompany the other construction
documents. These sheets are usually some form of the manufacturers’
luminaire literature put into a format that will benefit the lighting design
project. Many manufacturers include blank spaces on their literature so that
designers can turn them into job specific cut sheets very easily.

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 Figure 25.2 A manufacturer’s cut sheet often provides space for the inclusion of project-specific
information.

Like the luminaire schedule, cut sheets are a direct link between the
symbols and “type” labels on the lighting plan and a specific piece of
lighting equipment. A good cut sheet helps a contractor be certain that the
luminaire that is about to be installed does, indeed, belong. It is a good idea
to include on the cut sheet information directly from the luminaire schedule,
such as catalog number and lamp information. Some manufacturers’
literature will show multiple luminaires or options on the same page. In
these cases, is it very helpful for the designer to highlight or draw attention
to the specific piece of equipment being specified. Figure 25.3 is a

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customized cut sheet made for a specific job. The manufacturer’s
information was simply downloaded from a website and inserted into the
blank cut sheet. It is certainly worth a designer’s time to develop a blank
template that serves this purpose while providing project specific design
information.

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www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com
Figure 25.3 A custom luminaire cut sheet created by the designer for a specific project

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Chapter 26
The Lighting Plan
The drafted lighting plan is the finalized construction document that will be
used on the job site for the location and installation of all lighting related
equipment. The lighting plan is a formally-drafted construction document
that must provide specific information clearly enough to allow a contractor
to actually build the design.
A proper lighting plan is a tool for construction; it is not a tool for design.
At this point a designer is merely translating information from a highly-
evolved light map and redlined preliminary lighting layout. The drafted
version is simply a finalized drawing that clarifies everything and facilitates
the construction process. A final drafted lighting plan will ideally show all
of the lighting equipment on a job; lighting installed in the ceiling, lighting
in the walls, lighting in floors, millwork and niches. If a device creates
light, it should show up on the lighting plan. It is advisable to not use a
reflected ceiling plan as the basis for a lighting plan as lighting equipment
typically has much more relationship to floor and furniture conditions than
to ceiling conditions. A preferable method for many jobs is to start with a
furniture plan and add pertinent ceiling information to create a suitable
architectural background. The final lighting plan truly is a tool for the
builder. Remember: The construction phase of a project is where actual
lighting equipment will be priced, purchased and installed. It is by far the
costliest phase of a project. Errors and miscommunications are equally
costly. The job of the final lighting plan is to eliminate any opportunities for
confusion, mistakes or misunderstandings. There is plenty of room to tweak
the formula and add or subtract to make the lighting plan work for each
individual, but the following ingredients represent the “must-have’s”

Luminaire Symbols

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These can be of any design. They can relate literally or loosely to the shape
of the luminaire. It is encouraged, however, to draft these symbols to
represent the actual size of the luminaire if one is drafting a plan at ¼” =
1’-0” or ⅛” = 1’-0” scale. If one is drafting a plan at a very small scale, it is
advisable to size the symbols so that they are clearly visible. Figure 26.1
presents a sample legend of commonly-used luminaire symbols.

Luminaire Type Labels

There is plenty of room to invent convenient and helpful ways to tag
luminaires on the lighting plan. The safest and simplest is to put the
luminaire type next to every single occurrence of every luminaire on the
lighting plan. More technically oriented lighting plans may include
information like wattage and source type, but for a basic lighting plan,
clarity of luminaire “type” and the ability to reference a luminaire symbol
back to the luminaire schedule is paramount.

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COMMON LUMINAIRE SYMBOLS

Figure 26.1 Common luminaire symbols used on drafted lighting plans

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Figure 26.2 “Type” labels or tags are crucial for referencing a drafted symbol to a specific luminaire
on the luminaire schedule.

Notes
Don’t be stingy with the application of lighting related notes on the plan. If
there is any ambiguity, clarify it with a note in plain language. When we
rely on a single plan to show luminaires in ceilings, walls, and millwork,
notes are imperative for clarifying where a piece of equipment actually
belongs and what it is doing there. A simple note at the end of a leader can
save numerous phone calls and coordination headaches.

Dimensions
Placement of lighting equipment is a relatively exact science, so it is
preferable to note exact locations of luminaires with clear dimensions.
Luminaires for accenting, wall washing, linear slots and coves all may

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warrant the addition of dimensions that refer back to nearby architectural
elements.

Control Intent
The lighting designer is also responsible for translating which luminaires
are controlled together (turned on, turned off and dimmed) and where that
control takes place. Most lighting control intent takes the form of arcs
connecting luminaires to wall switch devices or numbers and letters keyed
to wall-switch devices. Control intent can get a little more complex when
we integrate intelligent control systems and scene control devices as
covered in Chapter 23.

Figure 26.3 Notes and leader clarify any ambiguities.

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 Figure 26.4 Dimensions ensure that luminaires are implemented properly.

Figure 26.5 Numbered lighting control zones and keypads (left) take the place of traditional
switching symbols (right) when a control system is implemented.

Luminaire Schedule or Legend

If one has the means, it is helpful to include the entire luminaire schedule as
a drawing sheet that gets submitted along with the lighting plan. This clarity
will ensure that this information is always available.
In addition to the luminaire schedule, a basic legend like the one
shown in Figure 26.6 can be helpful to explain some of the other symbols
used on a lighting plan. It is common practice to create a legend that
clarifies not only luminaire symbols, but controls devices and details.

Detail Call-outs.

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Many lighting applications
are simply too cumbersome
to be understood in plan.
When this is the case, we
develop lighting details that
show specific construction
situations and dimension in
a very precise manner.
These details will usually
occupy a dedicated drawing
sheet. Numerous examples
of typical lighting details
appear in Chapter 29.
Figure 26.6 A simple legend can help clarify various
lighting related symbols.

Figure 26.7 (example of detail callout)

As with any other construction drawing, proper formatting will add

the finishing touches that will get the lighting plan the respect it deserves.
The construction documents that come out of the studio are the only
product that much of the project team gets to see. Development materials -
sketches, renderings and light maps - can lead to great design, but it is all
for naught if the construction documents are not complete, correct and easy
to use. In the end, the construction of a project relies heavily on these few

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black and white drawings and how easy they are to translate into a built
environment.

Figure 26.8 A completed drawing sheet of a lighting plan for a commercial project, including
lighting details and title block.

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Figure 26.9 A completed lighting sheet for a residential project, including legend and notes.

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Chapter 27
Lighting Layouts for Residential Spaces
The following chapter includes lighting tactics commonly found in typical
residential spaces. The point of typical layouts is really just to lend some
familiarity and a jumping-off point. Every project has unique programming
criteria that must be thoroughly understood. It is good practice to dissect
any and all lighting layouts that one comes across to gain a familiarity with
the various techniques available. The lighting layouts in this chapter are
annotated to describe what lighting principles are at work. Take such
“typical” layouts with a grain of salt. Regardless of how many times the
same space is lighted in the same manner, it always behooves the designer
to investigate all of the available lighting options.

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Layout 1
Lighting a Residential Dining Room

A residential dining room is a good opportunity to make use of different

textures and intensities of light. A formal dining room has very few critical
tasks, so lighting decisions can focus on environmental effect. Like many
rooms, the fundamental light elements of a dining room are the vertical
surfaces that will define the brightness of the space and the accented objects
that will create visual interest and add a unique character. Softness, warmth,
and intimacy are usually the desired qualities. These can be accomplished

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through uncommon tactics, such as up-lighting from the floor or walls, as
well as more traditional pendants and recessed luminaires. Even in its
simplest form, dining room lighting should be more than a single decorative
pendant. At the very least, luminaires should be dedicated to painting light
onto the table and vertical surfaces to allow a balancing act between task
and ambient light levels

Common Features
1. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires cast light onto the objects
that adorn the back wall.
2. An incandescent or fluorescent decorative pendant can serve as the
main focal element in a dining area. It serves as a glowing object to
draw attention and ultimately congregate around. Decorative
elements are at their best when they are free to be dimmed to an
appropriate level for ambience and mood.
3. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires (ideally with diffusing
lenses) at the table provide light for eating and rendering the faces of
the diners. Implementing these luminaires frees up the decorative
pendant to serve only as ambience and décor.
4. Incandescent or compact fluorescent, Wall-mounted decorative
sconces or, better yet, wall-mounted uplights add a layer of diffuse
light.
5 and 6. Additional adjustable halogen luminaires paint pools of light
onto the other important objects in the room and create more visual
interest through contrast.
7. Wall dimmers or a localized lighting control system can be used to
control any loads that can be dimmed. The flexibility that dimming
adds to a space will facilitate the creation of different evironments for
different moods and uses.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: The decorative pendant serves to anchor the space and
create a clear draw and area for gathering. The lighted character of the
back wall will serve as the visual goal compelling a visitor to move
towards the space.

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Mood and Ambience: Multiple textures can be created by implementing
various diffusing sources. Wall-mounted uplights lend a softness, and
the decorative pendant contributes to the mood and atmosphere
Accenting: Crisp pieces of accent light cast onto art or furniture objects
provide visual logic and interest through contrast. A brilliant pool of
light onto the surface of the table itself will serve to accent the objects
on the table and create a bright plane in the space.
Revealing Architecture: Wall mounted uplights add volume contribute to an
all-encompassing glow that expands the space. The central pendant can
also cast light upward to illuminate the ceiling above.
Task Lighting: Dedicated recessed adjustable luminaires paint pools of light
onto the surface of the table as well as the buffet or any other task-
related furniture. The recessed luminaires and pendant at the dining
table also serve to illuminate the faces of the diners.

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Layout 2
Lighting a Residential Kitchen

The residential kitchen is a place not only for food preparation, but
socializing and gathering. The kitchen island often becomes a multi-
purpose task surface used for studying and quick dining. The program for
such a space is certainly not purely task driven. Lighting ingredients should
draw people to the space and contribute to the mood.

Common Features

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 1. 6” aperture recessed downlights help to create an above average
illuminance level throughout the space so that tasks can be
accomplished anywhere. These could be incandescent, halogen, or
carefully-selected compact fluorescent luminaires.
2. Under-cabinet luminaires provide localized task lighting on
counter tops. These could be linear incandescent, linear halogen,
linear fluorescent or individual puck lights.
3. Incandescent or compact fluorescent decorative pendants direct
light onto the island task surface. They should direct light downward
in addition to simply glowing.
4. A small aperture recessed adjustable halogen luminaire or
fluorescent downlight can augment light levels over the sink area.
5. Switches to activate task specific lighting can be located near the
area they serve.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Decorative pendants over the island can serve as a focal
point and a point of gathering to draw people into the space. Lighting
the vertical surfaces of the back walls can also help create an inviting
atmosphere.
Mood and Ambience: The glow or sparkle of the decorative pendants can
serve to reduce the scale of the space and create a more intimate area.
Sources should also be warm in color temperature to contribute to an
inviting feeling.
Accenting: Light washed down the face of cabinetry can create visual
interest and hierarchy. A distinct pool of light onto the island surface
can also serve as the bright centerpiece of the space.
Revealing Architecture: The pendants over the island serve to reduce the
scale and break up the volume of the space. The under cabinet
luminaires can create a band of light that breaks up the surfaces of the
back wall.
Task Lighting: Under-cabinet luminaires serve to put light directly on the
task surface where it is needed. Small pendants cast task lighting onto the
task surface of the island. These two applications eliminate the need to
create task level lighting throughout the space.

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Layout 3
Lighting a Residential Bathroom

Even a simple bathroom should be treated with care to create a space that
serves all of the functional needs while creating an environment for long-
term comfort. Lighting the vertical surfaces will dramatically improve the
perception of brightness, and a few, well-placed accents can add some
sparkle and elegance to the space.

Common Features
1. Diffuse decorative sconces at the vanity are the first line of defense
for making the space functional and inviting. Even with today’s
energy concerns, it is worth working to find a way to stick with
incandescent or halogen sources to ensure good color rendering and
pleasing color temperature.
2. A small aperture recessed halogen luminaire can serve as
additional vanity lighting to accent the area and provide additional

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 task light
3. Additional recessed adjustable halogen or fluorescent wall wash
luminaires can paint light onto art-work or simply illuminate vertical
surfaces. Light across from the vanity can reduce contrast by creating
a luminous background for looking at one’s self in the mirror.
4. A fan and light combination unit is a reasonable way to dedicate
light to the toilet area.
5. The shower or tub should have its own dedicated source of light.
This incandescent or fluorescent luminaire must be suitable for use in
wet areas.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Even a simple bathroom should have areas of brightness to
determine a visual order. Self-Luminous sconces and a pool of accent
light at the vanity serve as the bright core.
Mood and Ambience: Diffuse decorative sconces at the vanity serve to
define a soft mood. Light onto the back wall and at the toilet create a
heightened light level to make the space more inviting.
Accenting: Recessed accent luminaires can create pools of light to show off
the vanity hardware, art on the walls, and even the toilet itself.
Revealing Architecture: Glowing wall sconces help to volumize the space.
Even the recessed luminaire in the shower can add to the perceived
depth of the space
Task Lighting: The vanity is a critical task area, where light sources should
be chosen for texture and color rendering. Lighting at the vanity must
provide soft, diffuse light from above and below with excellent color-
rendering capability for revealing faces. The even qualities of vanity
lighting can also be enhanced by using light-colored surfaces to reflect
light. The shower should also get a dedicated light source to aid in all of
the important tasks related to keeping clean.

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Layout 4
Lighting a Residential Bedroom

The residential bedroom is a good example of a space with few driving task
criteria, but plenty of need for versatility. The lighting system in a bedroom
needs to be able to cast light effectively onto tasks, like dressing and
reading. All of the lighting ingredients need to contribute to the generally
inviting and comfortable feeling. The bedroom can survive with a few
lighted vertical surfaces and a few accented objects. Additions of decorative
light or uplight can be implemented to add volume and warmth to the space.

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The various lighting loads should be independently controlled so that
different moods can be created for different times of day and different uses.

Common Features
1. A surface-mounted glowing dish serves to cast a quantity of diffuse
light to all reaches of the space. This luminaire is a good place to
integrate fluorescent lamps.
2. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires paint light onto artwork
and the vertical surfaces of the space as well as areas for dressing or
the head of the bed for reading.
3. Wall mounted halogen or fluorescent uplights cast light onto the
ceiling to expand the space. These luminaires are a good place to
integrate fluorescent lamps.
4. A dedicated incandescent or compact fluorescent floor lamp or
recessed luminaire provides ample lighting for reading and creates
an attractive nook for relaxing.
5. Linear fluorescent luminaires mounted to the backside of the closet
header can be activated by a door jamb switch to turn on whenever
the closet is opened. The luminaires are out of sight and lend a nice
glow for navigating the contents of the closet.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Washing light onto art and the back surfaces of the room
helps to draw in the eye. Accenting the reading nook creates an inviting
area of respite. The glowing table lamps and floor lamp also create
objects that draw attention and create hierarchy.
Mood and Ambience: Wall-mounted uplights brighten the ceiling and
create an open, inviting space. The glowing lamps and the center
glowing dish contribute to the intimate feeling. The warmth of
incandescent sources or carefully-selected fluorescent sources will
create a desired mood.
Accenting: Recessed accent luminaires cast pools of light onto artwork,
reading areas and the various furniture elements in the space. Each
serves to add visual interest and contrast to the space. The decorative
lamps also add a bit of sparkle.

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Revealing Architecture: Accent luminaires paint light onto the back walls
to give a perception of depth, while the wall-mounted uplights and
center glowing dish wash light on to the ceiling surface to expand the
space and reduce the feeling of confinement.
Task Lighting: Reading in bed is accommodated through recessed
adjustable luminaires or typical bedside table lamps. The vanity desk or
dresser also receives dedicated task light from above. Closets benefit
from dedicated luminaires so that they do not depend on the ambient
light from the bedroom itself.

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Layout 5
Lighting a Residential Living Room

The residential living room sees frequent use and accommodates a number
of different activities. The primary program calls for a space that is inviting
and comfortable for long spells of socializing. The lighting ingredients
should donate multiple textures of light; directional accents to create visual
interest and obvious areas of activity, as well as diffuse light that lends soft
ambience for long term visual comfort. The living room should also be
capable of providing low-level ambient lighting for television viewing. The
various lighting loads should all be independently controlled so that the
space can serve the various functions.

Common Features

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 1. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires balance light between the
surface of the coffee table and the social seating area.
2. Wall-mounted halogen or fluorescent uplights create volume and
inviting softness. The luminaires provide a low level of ambient light
without casting light directly onto the television.
3. Small-aperture recessed adjustable halogen luminaires accent the
hearth of the fireplace to create visual interest and a choreographic
goal.
4. Recessed halogen luminaires paint light onto the various furniture and
secondary task areas in the space.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Light cast onto the fireplace acts as a focal element to draw
attention. Pools of light onto the coffee table create an attractive area
for gathering and socializing.
Mood and Ambience: Wall-mounted uplights cast soft, warm light onto the
ceiling to create an enveloping comfortable space. Distinct pools of
accent light onto wall objects and furniture serve to brighten up areas
and create a “lived-in” feeling.
Accenting: Recessed adjustable luminaires paint light onto the fireplace, art
and furniture to create visual interest and hierarchy.
Revealing Architecture: Accented vertical surfaces serve to expand the
perimeter of the space, while upward directed light adds volume and an
evenly-lighted ambient atmosphere. Light painted onto the coffee table
and fireplace keep the attention down at a human level.
Task Lighting: Recessed luminaires push light down onto the central area
for reading and rendering faces for socializing.

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Chapter 28
Lighting Layouts for Commercial Spaces
Commercial spaces tend to be areas where visual tasks take priority. This does not, however,
preclude their need for thoughtful application of light for the sake of emotional state. It is
increasingly common to find work spaces that recognize the impact that environmental comfort has
on productivity. Work environments also commonly support multiple uses, serving workers as they
move from computer tasks to physical layout tasks, filing, reading and writing. The most successful
work environments are those that keep a space fresh by accommodating different lighting feelings
throughout a workday. Task-focused lighting too-often takes the form of a uniform texture of
downward directed light. The addition of lighting ingredients that alter mood in a space and reveal
the architecture can greatly improve upon an otherwise drab and lifeless environment. Remember
that the layouts here are just some common tactics. A successful lighting design is a thoughtful
lighting design where the program of the space is considered, along with all available lighting
options.

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Layout 1
Lighting Open Office Space

Open office spaces often suffer under the uniform treatment of task light
directed downward. The monotony of the single light texture can cause eye
strain and mental fatigue. The inclusion of multiple light textures can
improve the long-term comfort of such spaces. Lighting the perimeter of
open office spaces also works wonders to create a space that feels bright
and lively. Office lighting systems must also be designed to minimize

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visible lamps and glare that can interfere with computer screens and
sensitive tasks. Work spaces that are computer-focused may even benefit
from a lower overall ambient light level to avoid a hazy reflection in the
screens. Spaces that are more concerned with diversity of tasks and
interaction with documents and graphic materials benefit from changeable
lighting effects and emphasis on the color-rendering capabilities of the light
sources. Integrating daylight harvesting adds an additional level of
complexity to the situation.

Common Features
1. Linear fluorescent pendants distribute light up onto the ceiling and
downward. The combination of textures avoids an overly diffuse
experience and eliminates visibility of bare lamps. The luminaires are
mounted 18” to 24” from the ceiling to allow light to spread evenly
over the ceiling plane.
2. Recessed fluorescent wall wash luminaires mounted 18” to 24”
from the wall create a bright vertical surface to enhance the
perception of brightness in the space and define the perimeter
3. Localized fluorescent or halogen under cabinet task luminaires at
each work station provide a directional source to punch thought the
haze of the general office-wide light. The task light can also be
selected to provide improved color rendering. These luminaires are
independently controlled by each workspace occupant.
4. 2’ × 2’ or 2’ × 4’ acoustical ceiling tiles are a common finish in
commercial spaces. These tiles often restrict the layout or types of
luminaires that can be used in the space. An indirect lighting system
must consider the reflectance of these ceiling tiles.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Long lines of linear fluorescent luminaires create a pattern
that directs an already symmetric space. A row of recessed wall wash
luminaires creates an additional bright vertical surface to draw attention
through the space.
Mood and Ambience: Individual work stations have the benefit of more
directional, color rendering, localized task lighting to punch through the
diffuse lighting created by pendant-mounted indirect luminaires.

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 Fluorescent lamps with good color rendering indices (80+) provide
reasonably accurate color rendition. Color temperature is selected to
complement the color palette of the materials and finishes.
Accenting: Wall wash luminaires provide a punch of light onto the vertical
wall surfaces. Local task lighting provides directional light at each
work station.
Revealing Architecture: Long lines of indirect linear fluorescent luminaries
complement the linear nature of the lay-in ceiling tiles and the
arrangement of the workstations. Luminaires are mounted
perpendicular to the long axis of the room to avoid an overly-long,
bowling alley effect.
Task Lighting: Linear fluorescent, direct-indirect pendants create a
combination of diffuse and downward-directed light for long-term
visual comfort. Localized task lighting at each work station
accommodates critical tasks and provides improved color rendering.

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Layout 2
Lighting a Private Office

A private office serves as an area of industry and an area of respite. It must

play the part of a work station while also serving as a meeting room and
thinking environment. The lighting systems must be versatile to create
varying environmental effects. A typical professional may spend more time
in a private office than any other space. Different light texture, bright
vertical surface and control over individual lighting zones help to serve all
of these functions.

Common Features

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 1. Well-designed 2’ × 2’ fluorescent troffers provide a directional
downlight component and a diffuse spread of area light. Recessed
indirect 2’ × 2’ luminaires might also provide a desirable light
texture.
2. Compact fluorescent wall wash luminaires around the perimeter
define the space and add to the perceived brightness.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: A wash of light on the back wall directs attention through
the space. Heightened light levels on the desk surface and other
furnishings provide visual interest and hierarchy.
Mood and Ambience: Multiple textures are achieved through the
combination of more direct wall wash luminaires and diffuse linear
fluorescent troffers. The 2’ × 2’ troffers in this space create a downward
directed light component that has directional and diffuse qualities.
Accenting: Wall wash luminaires can serve to accent art on the walls. The
directional component of the troffers casts a crisp light onto the desk
surface below, creating a lighted centerpiece to the room.
Revealing Architecture: The wall wash luminaires help to expand the
perimeter of the space by brightening the vertical surfaces.
Task Lighting: Diffuse and direction light textures combine over the desk
area to provide comfortable lighting for visual tasks, as well as
conversing with colleagues.

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Layout 3
Lighting a Conference Room

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Corporate conference rooms serve as areas of congregation that bring
colleagues together to discuss business and build camaraderie. These spaces
also act as the calling card that defines the image of the business to
outsiders. Conference rooms serve a multitude of uses from business
dealings to presentations, luncheons and video conferencing. The lighting
systems in a conference room should be dynamic and easy to control to
create different lighting environments. The luminaires in a conference room
also tend to have an aesthetic appeal, fitting of the image that the company
wants to convey.

Common Features
1. A decorative, direct/indirect pendant casts light up into the coffer
volume and down onto the conference table and the faces of the
occupants.
2. Staggered linear fluorescent strips serve as an uplighting cove to
fill the coffer with light that inter-reflects to cast diffuse light into the
core of the space.
3. Compact fluorescent, recessed wall-wash luminaires add the
necessary perimeter brightness to soften the space and increase the
perception of brightness.
4. Acoustic ceiling tiles may dictate the layout of some luminaires and
must be considered for how they will reflect light back into the space.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: The conference table is, appropriately, the obvious
organizing element of the space. Linear fluorescent pendants overhead
serve as bright objects to draw attention, as well as to light the
conference table. A ceiling cove system creates a bright halo above this
gathering area.
Mood and Ambience: The multiple textures of light create areas of distinct
gathering importance. The soft uplight of the cove and the brightness of
the pendants and the lighted table create a sense of severity and
importance. Perimeter lighting helps to lighten the mood when
necessary.
Accenting: The pendants and the table surface are the notable elements of
visual interest and organization. The wall wash luminaires can also

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 serve to accent art work or graphics on the wall.
Revealing Architecture: Wall wash luminaires serve to define the perimeter
of the space while the central cove creates height and a focal element to
anchor the space.
Task Lighting: Various textures are at work to provide different types of
light at the conference table for reading tasks, as well as rendering
occupants. Conference rooms intended for video conferencing need
additional layers of controllable light to render occupants, as well as
balance out the brightness of the background.

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Layout 4
Lighting a Reception Area

A reception area is often the first point of contact for an outsider and
defines much of the identity of a facility and a company. These spaces must
be, at once, welcoming and comfortable, not to mention impressive and
intriguing. Defining distinct zones of use within the reception are a helps to
organize the space by creating points of specific interaction. Seating areas,
display areas, and task areas all deserve unique lighting characters and their

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own physical space. Decorative elements and attention to corporate signage
work wonders to enhance the appeal of reception areas. Light sources
should also be chosen with concern for color rendering and color
temperatures that are complementary to the color palette and materials
involved in the décor.

Common Features
1. Incandescent or fluorescent decorative pendants add sparkle,
reduce scale and put light onto the task surface below them.
2. Compact fluorescent, recessed wall wash luminaires paint light
onto the back wall and any signage that may be there.
3. Incandescent or fluorescent, decorative pendants draw visitors to
the seating area, creating visual interest and reducing the scale of the
space. A little bit of decorative character goes a long way to create a
welcome environment.
4. Recessed, fluorescent troffers can create a volume of diffuse
lighting necessary to enliven the transition from outside to inside.
Recessed, indirect luminaires can be specified to provide a
combination of diffuse light without the sterile, corporate feeling of
traditional parabolic troffers.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: A pattern of recessed luminaires creates brightness onto the
floor that surrounds an occupant in brightness upon entry. Light painted
onto the back wall serves as the visual goal and draws visitors through
the space or into the space if the entry has glass doors or walls. A row
of decorative pendants can also create a visual curtain that stops
progress at the point of interaction with the receptionist. Wall wash
luminaires and pendants also draw attention to the seating areas on the
periphery.
Mood and Ambience: Multiple light textures liven-up the space and create
a welcoming experience. Light painted onto the walls increases the
perception of brightness. Pendants add a human scale and a touch of
sparkle and a comfortable diffuse quality of light at the entry point.
Accenting: Recessed wall wash luminaires place light onto the art and
graphics on the vertical surfaces. Decorative pendants catch the eye and

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 push light down onto furniture and horizontal surfaces as points of
visual interest.
Revealing Architecture: Light onto the back wall defines the length of the
space while lighted vertical surfaces expand the perimeter. Decorative
pendants drop specific areas down to a human scale.
Task Lighting: Accented signage on the back wall lends corporate identity.
Pendants draw light onto the receptions desk and the seating area tables.

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Chapter 29
Common Lighting Details
To implement lighting design that transcends the status-quo yet is still
constructible, a fair amount of time and effort must be put into refining the
construction details of each lighting application. Many lighting effects are
the result of precision and subtlety. Without the proper considerations,
unusual lighting applications can become sources of glare or simply wasted
electricity. To understand what is possible with light, it is important that a
designer have a fair understanding of typical construction methods. Every
project has unique conditions which will accommodate certain types of
lighting integration better than others. Knowledge of issues such as plenum
space, framing construction type and wall thickness will affect lighting
options. Remember that every project is unique, and the details presented
here are for reference only. Be sure to coordinate with the design team to
develop lighting applications that will work for the specific project

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A wall or ceiling-integrated cove is a great way to volumize a space by
casting light up onto the ceiling plane above. This kind of clean shape of
light can harmonize well with the geometry of the space and lend a soft,
enveloping light. Coves can be implemented with a variety of linear
sources, including linear fluorescent, linear incandescent and linear LED
sources.

Keys to Success:
Socket shadow that occurs where luminaires butt against one another
is a common problem. Consider whether the light has room to spread
out, or whether the luminaires should be staggered to overlap and
eliminate these dark areas.

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 Geometry of the cove should create an opening large enough for light
to leave, as well as for maintenance of the luminaires.
Cove-specific luminaires exist, which incorporate reflectors and optics
that drive light out of a cove in a very efficient manner.
Cove geometry should be designed to eliminate the possibility of lamp
visibility.

Wall slots integrate continuous linear sources concealed and directed

downward to create a wash of brightness on the vertical surfaces of a space.
These bands and planes of light can break up a space and add to the
perception of lightness by disconnecting the walls from the ceiling.

Keys to Success:
Socket shadow that occurs where luminaires butt against one another
is a common problem. Consider whether the light has room to spread
out or whether the luminaires should be staggered to overlap and
eliminate these dark areas.

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 Geometry of the slot should create an opening large enough for light to
leave as well as for maintenance of the luminaires.
Cove-specific luminaires exist, which incorporate reflectors and optics
that drive light out of a slot in a very efficient manner.
Slot geometry should be designed to eliminate the possibility of lamp
visibility
Consider the materials and craftsmanship of the wall being lighted.
Because of their grazing nature, wall slots tend to show off
imperfections. Beware of specular or shiny wall surfaces as they tend
to reflect images of the lamp.

Under cabinet lighting is a good way to localize task light. This can be
accomplished with a variety of source types, but color rendering and color
temperature should always be a priority.

Keys to Success:
Under cabinet lighting should be accomplished with a solid front
luminaire or include a fascia or proper geometry to eliminate the

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 possibility of lamp visibility.
Under cabinet systems can include local switching at the task location
or may be controlled from typical wall switch locations.
Under cabinet systems can utilize luminaires as small as 1” × 1” linear
incandescent or more robust puck lights and linear fluorescent sources.
If linear fluorescent lamps are used for under cabinet light, they should
be specified with good color rendering and color temperature in mind.
Consider the location for the transformer that is required for the low
voltage sources commonly used.

Suspended soffit panels and floating lids are good ways to reduce the scale
of space and cast a volumizing light upward. Such systems can be very
simple structurally and can make use of common sources like linear
fluorescent strips. With the addition of inexpensive color filters, a dropped
lid can transform the mood and spatial effect of a space very thoroughly.
Dropped soffits can serve as the anchor for seating areas, office work
stations and retail displays.

Keys to Success:

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 Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider the material above the soffit. It should be reflective enough to
spread the light back into the room. Specular (shiny) surfaces should
be avoided as they will reflect the image of the lamps or luminaires.
The suspension distance should be considered to ensure that light has
room to inter-reflect within the space.
Luminaire placement should be studied to ensure even lighting without
apparent stripes or hot spots.

Backlit walls and large glowing panels add a lightness that transcends
typically constructed spaces. The challenge with large scale applications is
achieving an even plane of light that truly appears to be self-luminous.

Keys to Success:
Ample space behind the backlit panel must be available for light to
diffuse evenly.
Maintenance and access must be designed into the panel system.

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 The diffusing properties of the panel material will dictate the geometry
and luminaire layout. Be sure to mock-up the application with the
specific material that will be used.

Millwork integrated lighting creates a very distinct and attention drawing

display element. This type of feature is commonly used for retail display
and food and beverage display.

Keys to Success:
Consider the heat output of the light source and how it will affect the
object being lighted.
Subtle changes in source location will affect the light quality and
should be studied and mocked-up.
Display lighting can be accomplished with a single line of light; both
top and bottom light, individual puck lights or a combination of
treatments as shown here.
Consider the location for the transformer that is required for the low-
voltage sources commonly used.

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Chapter 30
Daylight and Electric Light Integration
Details
Some of the best lighting details are those that combine the effects of
daylight and electric light sources. The human affinity for the quality, color
and texture of daylight crosses over to electric light applications that can
mimic these same traits. Well thought-out details that manage to fuse the
two together can create remarkable lighting effects that can define a space.
These details have a dynamic character that will change through the course
of a day while maintaining a desirable effect.
If the electric light component can be put on a dimmer, a photo-
sensor that detects variation in light levels can be implemented to control
the exact quantity of electric light being contributed to augment the
daylight. Such systems ensure that the electric light is not wasted.

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Typical skylights can be augmented with the addition of upward-directed
light sources. The electric light system can be as complex as a shelf or cove
system or as simple as surface mounted luminaires that cast light upward.
Under daylight conditions, sunlight will diffuse through the skylight
material. When activated, the electric light will wash up, filling the volume
of the skylight and reflecting back into the space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the skylight as it may reflect an
image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate
the contribution of the electric light system.

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A light monitor is a perfect candidate for electric light integration. A shelf
or cove system can be integrated to cast light upward onto the ceiling
surface of the monitor. The electric light will wash up, filling the volume of
the monitor and reflecting back into the space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the monitor as it may reflect an
image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate
the contribution of the electric light system.

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A ceiling slot is a great way to harvest daylight and is the perfect candidate
for electric light integration. The clean plane of light created by the daylight
can be seamlessly complemented by the same shape and texture of electric
light. A simple fascia to conceal the electric source is all that is needed.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the daylight slot as it may reflect an
image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate
the contribution of the electric light system.

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Even simple windows can be used to harvest daylight when they are fitted
with a diffusing material to control the light contribution. During daylight
conditions, a clean, diffuse light filters in. During electric light operation,
light washes the interior surface of the diffusing window and reflects a soft
glow back into the space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the diffusing window as it may
reflect an image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.

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Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate
the contribution of the electric light system.

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Part IV
Final Thoughts on Design

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The Fundamental Lighting Design
Process
LIGHTING DESIGN IN A NUTSHELL
The following shortcuts will serve to jog your memory and act as a
checklist for the thought processes and production processes that yield good
design and implementation.

The Design Development Process

Brainstorm and develop concepts

The Controllable Aspects of Light (Ch. 5)
Intensity of light
Color of light
Texture of light
Shape of light
Origin of light

Lighting techniques (Ch. 9, 10, 11, 14)

Graphic development (The Five Layer Process)

Light Map choreography goals (Ch. 17)

Light Map remaining design goals (Ch. 17)

Identify and label Illuminance level criteria (Ch. 19)

The Specification and Refinement Process

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 Concept refinement

Lighting Calculations (Ch. 20)

Redline Lighting Layout (Luminaire locations) (Ch. 24)

Select luminaire types (Ch. 21, 22)

Downlights, Adjustable accent luminaires, Floor uplights, Wall-
mounted uplights, Linear sources, Low-level steplights

The Final Construction Documents

Luminaire schedule (Ch. 25)

Luminaire cut sheets (Ch. 25)

Drafted lighting plan (Ch. 26)

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Green Design and Sustainability
Sustainability has moved well-up the program for many of today’s lighting
projects. This evolution will only accelerate as electricity and other
materials become more expensive. All parties involved in the building
process now realize that good design means “green” design and lighting is
recognized as a key component of this. The lighting designer is absolutely
expected to be an expert in the implementation of current standards of best
practice. Luminaires, lamps, and lighting controls all contribute. Softer
environmental issues like light pollution and light trespass add yet another
layer of knowledge and expertise.
In the United States, roughly 1/3rd of the electricity we consume is for
electric lighting. This is a huge percentage, and means that even small
improvements in the application of light can mean large reductions in our
consumption of electricity. You may live in a municipality where energy
conservation codes are written into building codes and certain criteria must
be met in order to get a building permit.
All lighting designers should research and investigate the organizations that
are taking the initiative to suggest and mandate progressive, energy efficient
lighting design.
California State Energy Code Title 24 energy.ca.gov/title24
ASHRAE 90.1 aashrae.org
USGBC including LEED Program usgbc.org
Savings by Design savingsbydesign.com
International Dark Sky Association darksky.org
Energy Star energystar.gov
US Department of Energy energy.gov/savings
DSIRE Solar Incentives dsireusa.org

But remember: Some conservation recommendations take the form of

very clinical methods for reducing the consumption of electricity through

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draconian limits on source types, connected load and control requirements.
Many guidelines and codes are based on a “lighting power density” (watts-
per-square-foot) prescription that is based on the use type of each project
space. Remember that your intuition of where light belongs in a space and
your understanding of how to accomplish more with less light are the
foundation of your ability to create impacting design with minimal light
waste. The more you rely on brightness through contrast and visual interest,
the more you will find yourself using less light through good design without
having to “reduce” or eliminate design ideas.
Put light where it belongs, decide what lighted surfaces will
contribute best to your lighting goals, and you will be well on your way to
conservative design through conscious placement of light.

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Designing with New Eyes
Remember that as designers, we are ultimately responsible for how people
feel and, therefore, interact with the built environment around them. There
are numerous lessons to be learned from classical design, as well as the
natural world all around us. Look at the world with designer’s eyes. Always
be on the hunt for tools and techniques that you can use in your design to
impart a specific feeling or function.

Light has immense power.

Architectural projects are rarely recognized as great without having

superbly-executed integration of light. Many good projects use light as an
afterthought, but every great project has lighting thought at the very core.
There is no “right” lighting just as there is no “right” design. There is only
design and designed light that are well thought-out and that which is not. If
you know your space, you know more than enough to get to work placing
light onto the surfaces and objects that will enhance your design. The tools
presented here are simply ways to get you to better visualize and draw light.

“If you can conceive of ideas and communicate them to others, you are
eighty percent of the way to great design.”

Hopefully, the more technical aspects of implanting these ideas will serve
you as you solve your own lighting challenges.
Design is a state of mind. A true designer can design anything. It is
the knowledge of a reliable, creative design processes that will give you
confidence in the form of a bottomless well of great ideas that jump from
your mind onto paper. Let those ideas out. Write them down, sketch them
up. Do whatever it takes to empty your head of concepts to create room for
new ones. There is no need to self-censor your creative ideas. There is a
whole world out there that will help you weed through your thoughts and
filter out the best of them.

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Good luck in designing and never stop observing and learning from the
environment around you.

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Appendix A
Glossary of Lighting Terms

A
Accommodation: The function of the dynamic components of the eye to
focus on objects at different distances.
Adaptation: The function of the eye and brain working together to operate
under varying amounts of light.
Adjustable (Luminaire): Describes a luminaire that includes mechanical
means to aim light output in a specific direction.
Ambient light: A description of the light quality that defines the overall
experience of a space.
Aperture: An opening cut into a form or surface. Often describes the
opening a recessed luminaire creates in the ceiling
B
Backlighting: The tactic of placing a light source behind an object or
translucent surface. This creates an effect of silhouetting solid objects
or creating a luminous plane from a translucent material.
Baffle: a visual control device that mounts to the face of a light source to
control the angles at which the light source is directly visible.
Ballast: An electronic or magnetic device used to control electricity to start
and operate fluorescent and HID light sources.
C
Candela (CD): a unit measurement of light density from a light source or
reflective object. 1 Candela is the equivalent one lumen of light
emitted evenly from a portion of spherical surface area called a
steradian.
Candlepower: an expression of luminous intensity from a light source
expressed in Candelas.

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Candlepower Distribution curve: A graphical representation of the light
intensity leaving a light source in specific directions.
Center Beam Candlepower (CBCP): A commonly-used expression of
luminous intensity from the center-most area of a light source. (This is
typically the most luminous area of a light source)
Choreography: the direction of movement and path of experience of an
individual in the designed environment.
Chromaticity: The level of saturation evident in a colored material or
colored light source.
Coefficient of Utilization (CU): A factor used in lumen method
calculations to express how effectively light is being delivered from a
luminaire to the surface in question
Color Rendering Index (CRI): An expression of the completeness of the
spectral output of a light source. Indicates how accurately a light
source will reveal colors in the lighted environment. Expressed on a
scale from 1 to 100: the higher the number, the more complete the
spectral output and the more accurate the color rendition.
Color temperature: A manner of describing the apparent color of a light
source. Commonly used to express the cool or warm color of a source
that deviates from neutral. Expressed in degrees Kelvin or Kelvins (K)
D
Daylight: A general reference to the quality of light received from the sun
as it diffuses through the atmosphere of the earth, including both
direct sunlight and diffused skylight.
Diffuse Light: Light which is scattered in all directions in relation to its
source
Diffuser: Lens material used to scatter the light output of a source in all
directions
Dimmer: A lighting control device that varies the electricity delivered to a
luminaire to control the output of light.
Directional Light: Light that leaves a source in a single direction through
means of reflectors or optical control.
Direct Burial (Luminaire): A luminaire that resides primarily in the
ground or floor structure of a space and casts light upward.
E
Efficacy: Used in lighting as an expression of how well a light source
converts electricity into radiant light energy. Expressed as Lumens of

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 light per Watt of electricity for Lumens per Watt (L / W)
Exitance: An expression of the light quantity leaving a reflective surface in
all directions.
F
Flood (Light): describes light cast in a confided manned over a broad area
as a result of interaction with optics and reflectors.
Fluorescent Lamp: A light source technology that relies on the excitement
of phosphors to convert a limited spectrum of radiation into a more
complete spectrum of visible light
Foot-Candle (FC): The (English) unit of expressing and measuring light
flux onto an object, where 1 Foot-candle is the equivalent of one
lumen of light arriving evenly onto a surface area of 1 square foot.
G
Glare: Excessive brightness created by an unshielded light source. Also
describes the reflection of bright objects visible in a specular surface
Grazing: The tactic of lighting a surface at a severe angle from a nearby
light source. Tends to spread light over a great distance and reveal
texture
H
Halogen lamp: A light source technology that relies on an incandescing
filament within a pressurized environment of halogen gas.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp: A light source technology that
relies on an arc of electricity passed between electrodes to excite an
environment of vaporized metal. Includes sources such as Mercury
Vapor, High Pressure Sodium and Metal Halide.
I
Illuminance: An expression of light quantity incident onto a surface.
Expressed and measured in Foot-candles (FC) (English unit) or Lux
(LX) (SI unit).
In-grade (Luminaire): (See direct burial)
Incandescent lamp: A light source technology that relies on radiant energy
emitted from a metal filament resisting a flow of electricity.
Indirect Light: light distributed after it reflects or interacts with a
shielding surface
Inter-reflection: The product of light interacting with the objects and
surfaces of a space.

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L
Lamp: The generic term for an engineered light source
Lamp Life: An expression of the expected operating life of a light source
expressed in hours.
Light: Electro-magnetic radiation that stimulates the visual system of a
typical human.
Light Emitting Diode (LED): A Light source technology that relies on
electricity passed through a solid state electrical device that emits a
single wavelength of radiation.
Light Loss Factor (LLF): A safety factor used in lighting calculations that
accommodates for the loss of light production of a luminaire over time
due to dirt, ballast depreciation and lumen output depreciation
Light Map: The author’s term for a visual document that expresses
lighting intent through colored graphics on an architectural furniture
or floor plan.
Louver: A bladed shielding device implemented in a luminaire to reduce
the visibility of a bare lamp
Lumen: an expression of radiant energy flux as it impacts the human visual
system.
Luminaire: A device that controls the delivery of light through the
management of electricity and the inclusion of ballasts, transformers,
optical elements, reflectors and architectural mounting mechanisms.
Luminous Flux: The total quantity of visible radiant energy that leaves a
light source in all directions. Expressed in Lumens.
Lux (LX): The SI unit of expressing light flux incident onto a surface
(illuminance)
O
Occupancy sensor: Device that implements heat, sound and motion
detection to determine whether a space is in use.
P
PAR Lamp: Lamp shape that utilizes a parabolic aluminized reflector to
deliver controlled directional light. Commonly associated with
Halogen and Metal Halide sources
Photometry: The science of measuring light output distribution, patterns
and effects from light sources.
R

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Recessed Luminaire: A luminaire that resides primarily in the plenum
above the ceiling line of a space.
Reflectance: An expression of the percentage of light incident onto a
surface that in turn leaves the surface.
Reflected Ceiling Plan (RCP): An architectural plan that shows the
contents and details of an architectural ceiling system as it would
appear if viewed from within a space.
Re-strike Time: An expression of the time required for a light source to
cool off before it can be reignited after an interruption of power.
Commonly used in reference to HID sources.
S
Sconce: A wall-mounted lighting device commonly associated with a
decorative character.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): A human physiological condition
associated with inadequate exposure to various wavelengths of light
contained in daylight.
Soffit: An architectural feature of geometry added to a space through built-
up construction
Solar Geometry: The predictable movement of the sun in the local sky,
due to the earth’s rotation, revolution and declination.
Specular: Description of a material’s ability to directly reflect light images.
Commonly expressed as “shiny”.
Spot (Light): Describes directional light delivered in a confined beam as a result of interaction with
optics and reflectors.
Step Light: A luminaire that typically recesses into the lower portion of a
wall for the purpose of illuminating stairs.
Steradian: A unit of spherical area such that any size sphere consists of 2π
Steradians. Used in measuring luminous intensity (see Candela).
T
Transformer: an electromagnetic device that alters the voltage of
electricity delivered to a light source.
Translucent: The descriptive property of a material that allows light to
pass through but alters the direction of the light, resulting in diffusion.
Transmission (of light): The passage of light through various materials.
Transparent: The descriptive property of a material that allows light to
pass through it with minimal refraction or change of direction.

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Troffer: Description of luminaires, commonly of a rectangular nature, that
utilize linear fluorescent lamps to deliver a uniform light texture.
W
Warm-up Time: Reference to the time required for a lamp to come to full
light output. Commonly used in reference to HID light sources.
Wash: Describes light delivered in an even fashion across a large surface.
Watt: Unit of expressing and measuring electrical work potential in a
circuit as a product of potential voltage and amperage.

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Appendix B
Professional Organizations and
Agencies

Professional and Educational Organizations

American Institute of Architects
www.aia.org
American Lighting Association
www.americanlightingassoc.com
American Optometric Association
www.aoanet.org
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
www.ashrae.org
American Society of Interior Designers
www.asid.org
American Society of Landscape Architects
www.asla.org
American Solar Energy Society
www.ases.org
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
www.iesna.org
International Association of Lighting Designers
www.iald.org
International Commission on Illumination
www.cie-usnc.org
International Dark-Sky Association
www.darksky.org
International Interior Design Association

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www.iida.org
National Council for Interior Design Qualification
www.ncidq.org
National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions
www.ncqlp.org
National Lighting Bureau
www.nlb.org

Publications
Architectural Lighting Magazine
www.archlighting.com
Lighting Design + Application Magazine
www.iesna.org/lda/iesnalda.cfm
Metropolis Magazine
www.metropolismag.com
Mondo Arc Magazine
www.mondoarc.com
Professional Lighting Design Magazine
www.via-verlag.com

Search Tools
Elumit (Lighting search and specification tool)
www.elumit.com
Design guide.com
www.designguide.com
Lightsearch.com (Lighting product search tool)
www.lightsearch.com

Conferences
Lightfair International
www.lightfair.com
Professional Lighting Design Convention
www.pld-c.org
The Arc Show
www.thearcshow.com

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Appendix C
Descriptive Words for Lighting

Bold
Brilliant
Confined
Contrasty
Crisp
Dramatic
Dreamy
Diffuse
Direct
Effervescent
Ephemeral
Even
Exotic
Expansive
Focused
Gleaming
Glimmering
Glowing
Harsh
Intense
Liquid
Muddy
Murky
Oozing
Radiant
Restrained
Sharp

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Smooth
Soft
Sparkling
Sprawling
Subtle
Theatrical
Understated
Vivid
Voluminous

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Appendix D
Directory of Contributors and
Other Manufacturers

Special Thanks to the following manufacturers who were gracious enough

to furnish reproductions of literature, technical data and images. Without
this material, the pages of this text would not be nearly as colorful.

Ardee Lighting
888.442.7333
www.ardeelighting.com

Bartco
714.230.3200
www.bartcolighting.com

Belfer
732.493.2666
www.belfergroup.com

DaSal
604.464.5644
www.dasalindustries.com

Deltalight
954.677.9800
www.deltalight.us

Erco
732.225.8856

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www.erco.com

GE Lumination
216.606.6555
www.led.com

Philips Lightolier
508.679.8131
www.lightolier.com

Lutron Electronics
610.282.3800
www.lutron.com

Osram Sylvania
978-777-1900
www.sylvania.com

Tech Lighting
847 410 4400
www.techlighting.com

Wila Lighting
714-259-0990
www.wila.net

The following represent a small cross section of manufacturers of lighting

equipment.

Lamps

GE Lighting
www.gelighting.com

Osram Sylvania
www.sylvania.com

Philips Lighting
www.lighting.philips.com

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Ushio
www.ushio.com

Venture Lighting
www.venturelighting.com

Luminaires

Artemide
www.artemide.us

Bega US
www.bega-us.com

Bruck Lighting Systems

www.brucklighting.com

Color Kinetics
www.colorkinetics.com

Columbia Lighting
www.columbia-ltg.com

Cooper Lighting
www.coooperlighting.com

Flos
www.flos.com

Juno Lighting
www.junolighting.com

Lightolier
www.lightolier.com

Louis Poulsen Lighting

www.louispoulsen.com

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Lithonia
www.lithonia.com

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