EC – III Introduction to

Logical Reasoning and

Critical Thinking

M O D U L E 3 - V E N N D I A G R A M S A N D FA L L A C I E S

- D R . C H A R M Y T H A K K A R
 Review of the basic principles of Venn diagrams

How to use them to represent statements

Module Outline How to use them to evaluate arguments

Nature of fallacies

Different ways of classifying them

Most common fallacies in detail

Introduction to Categorical Logic

• Definition: Categorical logic deals with logical

relationships between categorical statements.

• Example: Statements about categories like "humans,"

"mortals," and "things that die."
Validity in Categorical Logic

• Argument Example:
All humans are mortal.
All mortal things die.
Therefore, all humans die.

• Validity Test: Valid, as no scenario exists where

premises are true and conclusion is false.
Limitations of Propositional Logic

• Propositional Logic Issues:

Cannot represent categorical relationships
effectively.

Example: Translated premises lead to invalid

conclusions.
Categorical Statements

Types of Categorical Forms:

1. Universal Affirmative: All S are P.
2. Universal Negative: No S are P.
3. Particular Affirmative: Some S are P.
4. Particular Negative: Some S are not P.
Venn Diagrams in Categorical Logic

• A Venn diagram is simply a way of graphically

representing the logical relationship between
two different categorical statements.

• All humans are mortal.

Categorical Logic

• S (Subject Term): The category being discussed or examined.

• Example: In "All humans are mortal," 𝑆 stands for "humans."

• P (Predicate Term): The category to which the subject is related.

• Example: In "All humans are mortal," P stands for "things that are
mortal."
Categorical Forms
• A shaded area in a Venn diagram indicates that
there are no members in that section of the
category.

• It represents an absence of overlap between

categories.

• An asterisk (*) placed in a section of a Venn

diagram signifies that there is at least one
member in that area.

• It indicates the existence of at least one example

or instance within that category.
Exercise - 1

Nothing is A Every A is B. (There is no A that is not B.)

Exercise - 1

Nothing is both A and B. Every B is A.

Exercise - 1

Everything is B Everything is A or B but not both.

Exercise - 1

Every A is B and every B is A. Everything is A.

Exercise - 1

Nothing is B. Everything is B and not A.

Exercise - 1

Everything is both A and B. Everything is A and not B.

Exercise - 1

Nothing is A or B, or both. Everything is A or B, or both

Examples of Categorical
Forms

All humans are mortal

→ All H are M

No reptiles give live

birth → No R are L
Examples of Categorical
Forms

Some birds are taller than

Obama → Some B are T

Some birds don’t fly →

Some B are not F
Exercise - 2

a. Is the statement “Every B is a C" true

according to this diagram?

• Yes
Exercise - 2

b. Is the statement "No A is a B" true

according to this diagram?

• No. Since the overlapping area between

circles A and B has not been shaded,
the diagram does not rule out the
possibility that some A is a B.
Exercise - 2

c. Is the diagram consistent with the

statement "Something is A"?

• Yes. There is still one unshaded

region within the A circle.
Exercise - 2

d. "Something is A and it is either

B or C." Is this statement true
according to this diagram?

• No. The regions where A overlap

with B or C are all shaded.
Exercise - 2

e. Is the diagram consistent with the

statement "Something is A or B"?

• Yes. B has not been completely shaded.

Remember that "something is A or B"
can be true even if nothing is A, as long
as there is at least one B!
Exercise - 2

f. This diagram is about different types

of mathematical functions. But there is
something wrong with it. What is it?

• The region marked "decidable" should

not be in the "undecidable" circle.
Exercise - 3

1. What about the following

diagram? What does it
represent?

o Something is A but is not B and

not C
Exercise - 3

2. What about the following

diagram? What does it represent?

o Something is both A and B and

also C.
Exercise - 3

3. What about the following

diagram? What does it represent?

o Something is A and C but not B.

Exercise - 3

4. What about the following

diagram? What does it represent?

o Something is B but neither A nor

C.
Introduction to Immediate Categorical
Inferences
Definition: An immediate categorical inference
consists of one premise and one conclusion.

Example: Premise: "Some mammals are

amphibious."

Conclusion: "Therefore, some amphibious

things are mammals."
Immediate Categorical Inferences
 Invalid Argument Example

Premise: "All cars are vehicles."

Conclusion: "Therefore, all vehicles are cars."

Exercise - 4

• Apply the Venn test of validity in order to determine whether the

following categorical inferences are valid or invalid.

1. All S are P; therefore, all P are S Invalid

2. Some S are P; therefore, some P are S Valid
3. Some S are P; therefore, some P are not S Invalid
4. Some S are P; therefore, all P are S Invalid
Exercise - 4

• Apply the Venn test of validity in order to determine whether

the following categorical inferences are valid or invalid.

5. No S are P; therefore, no P are S Valid

6. No P are S; therefore, some S are P Invalid
7. Some S are not P; therefore, some P are not S Invalid
8. All S are P; therefore some P are not S Invalid
Exercise – 5
Translate each of the following sentences into one of the four categorical forms (universal affirmative, universal negative,
particular affirmative, particular negative). Make sure that the descriptions of the two categories are nouns or noun phrases
(rather than adjectives or verbs).

1. Real men wear pink. All real men are things that wear pink.

2. Dinosaurs are not birds. No dinosaurs are birds.

3. Birds evolved from dinosaurs. All birds are things that evolved from dinosaurs.

4. Some mammals are not predators. Some mammals are not predators

5. Some predators are not mammals. Some predators are not mammals
Exercise – 5
Translate each of the following sentences into one of the four categorical forms (universal affirmative, universal negative,
particular affirmative, particular negative). Make sure that the descriptions of the two categories are nouns or noun
phrases (rather than adjectives or verbs).

6. Not all who wander are lost. Some things that wander are not things that are lost.

7. All presidents are not women. No presidents are women.

8. Boxers aren't rich. No boxers are rich people.

No things that are sleeping are things

9. If someone is sleeping then they aren't conscious.
that are conscious.
No things that are conscious are things
10. If someone is conscious then they aren't sleeping.
that are sleeping.
Exercise – 5
Translate each of the following sentences into one of the four categorical forms (universal affirmative, universal negative,
particular affirmative, particular negative). Make sure that the descriptions of the two categories are nouns or noun phrases
(rather than adjectives or verbs).

11. All's well that ends well. All things that end well are things that are well

12. My friends are the only ones that care. All things that care are things that are my friends.

13. Someone loves you. Some person is a person who loves you

14. Jesus loves everyone. All people are people who are loved by Jesus

15. Jesus loves the little children. All little children are people who are loved by Jesus.
Fallacies
What is a Fallacy?

• Definition: Mistakes of reasoning, not factual errors.

• Arguments that are accepted as valid but contain reasoning

errors.

• Examples:
• Factual mistake: Counting 20 people instead of 21.
• Reasoning mistake: Believing in round squares.
Importance of Studying Fallacies

• Application of Critical Thinking:

Helps us identify and avoid fallacies in reasoning.

Equips us to explain mistakes made by others.

Types of Fallacies
• Fallacies of Inconsistency: Self-defeating propositions.
Example: “I always lie.” (If true, then it must be false.)

• Fallacies of Inappropriate Presumption: Unreasonable assumptions in questions.

Example: "Have you stopped cheating on tests?” (Presupposes the person cheated.)
(Example: False dilemma)

• Fallacies of Relevance: Irrelevant reasons or ignored relevant reasons.

Example: “You can’t trust his argument on climate change; he doesn’t even recycle.”
(Example: Ad hominen, straw man, genetic, appeal to consequence, appeal to authority)

• Fallacies of Insufficiency: Weak or insufficient evidence for conclusions.

Example: “Everyone I know thinks it’s true, so it must be true.”
(Example: Limited sampling, Appeal to ignorance)
 • Formal Fallacies: Invalid due to form.

Can be identified regardless of content.

E.g. Fallacy associated with
Modus Ponens – Affirming the consequent

Modus Tollens– Denying the antecedent

Types of Example:

If Kant was a deontologist, then he was a non-

Fallacies consequentialist.
Kant was not a deontologist.
Therefore, Kant was not a non-consequentialist.
This argument is invalid (Denying the Antecedent).

• Informal Fallacies: Invalid due to content.

Most Common Fallacies
• Ad Hominem:

• Definition: Discarding a theory based on the person advocating it rather than the
evidence.
• Example:
A: "The government should enact minimum-wage legislation."

B: "Nonsense. You say that because you can't find a good job."

• Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignorantiam):

• Definition: Claiming a proposition is true simply because it hasn't been proven false.
• Example: "Unicorns exist because there’s no evidence against it."
Most Common Fallacies
• Appeal to Pity (ad misericordiam):
• Definition: Arguing for a claim based on an appeal to compassion.
• Example: "The student should pass because he needs it to graduate."

• Appeal to Popularity (ad populum):

• Definition: Claiming something is true because many people believe it.
• Example: "This product is the best because it’s the top seller."

• Begging the Question (petito principii):

• Definition: The conclusion is assumed in the premise.
• Example: "God exists because the Bible says so; the Bible is reliable because it is the
word of God."
Most Common Fallacies
• Complex Question or Loaded Question:

• Definition: A question that traps the respondent into admitting something.

• Example: "Are you still as self-centered as you used to be?"

• Composition:
• Definition: Assuming the whole has the same properties as its parts.

• Example: "Anu and Neha are fun; therefore, inviting them all will ensure a fun party."

• Division:

• Definition: Assuming parts have the same properties as the whole.

• Example: "The company is effective, so all its departments must be effective."

Most Common Fallacies
• Equivocation:

• Definition: Using a word with multiple meanings to mislead.

• Example: "All acts are selfish because they fulfill one's desires, even altruistic acts."

• False Dilemma:
• Definition: Presenting limited alternatives when more exist.

• Example: "You're either my friend or my enemy; there’s no middle ground."

• Gambler's Fallacy:

• Definition: Assuming past independent events affect future outcomes.

• Example: "After flipping heads five times, tails is now more likely."
Most Common Fallacies
• Genetic Fallacy:

• Definition: Assuming something has a property based on its origin.

• Example: "His father was a criminal; he must be up to no good."

• Non Sequitur:
• Definition: A conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises.

• Example: "She loves cats; therefore, she will be a great teacher."

• Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc:

• Definition: Inferring causation from correlation.

• Example: "I fell ill after visiting the graveyard, so graveyards must cause illness."
Most Common Fallacies
• Red Herring:

• Definition: Introducing irrelevant information to divert attention.

• Example: "Believing in God provides peace, so God must exist."

• Slippery Slope:
• Definition: Assuming one action will lead to a series of negative events.

• Example: "If we allow drugs, soon we’ll regulate everything we do."

• Straw Man:

• Definition: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to easily refute it.

• Example: "Those who want more democracy think it will solve all problems."
Most Common Fallacies
• Suppressed Evidence:
• Definition: Presenting only confirming evidence while ignoring contradicting evidence.
• Example: Only discussing benefits of a product while ignoring its flaws

• Appeal to Authority:
• Definition: An appeal to authority fallacy occurs when someone cites an individual's opinion as
evidence for a claim, despite that individual lacking expertise in the relevant field.
• Example: "A group of doctors signed a petition against abortion, so abortion must be morally
wrong."

• Appeal to Consequence:
• Definition: The appeal to consequences fallacy assesses the truth of an idea based on the
(typically negative) consequences of accepting that idea.
• Example: "If you don't believe in God, you will go to hell."