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Using Arabic
This is a guide to Arabic usage for students who have already acquired the
basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. Focusing mainly on
Modern Standard Arabic, it is divided into three clear sections on varieties of
Arabic, grammar, and vocabulary. 'Varieties of Arabic' describes the linguistic
situation in the Arab world, showing students variations in register through
the use of authentic texts. The vocabulary section is designed not only to
expand students' knowledge of Arabic words, but also to show them which
words are most current, and which are appropriate to different registers. The
final chapter provides an overview of Arabic grammar, giving many modern-
day examples, and highlighting common errors. Clear, readable and easy to
consult, Using Arabic will prove an invaluable reference for students seeking to
improve their fluency and confidence in Arabic.

Mahdi Alosh is Associate Professor of Arabic in the Department of Near

Eastern Languages and Cultures, Ohio State University. His previous
publications include Speak and Read Essential Arabic I (1991), Learner, Text
and Context in Foreign Language Acquisition: An Arabic Perspective (1997), and
An Introduction to Modern Standard Arabic (2000).
Companion titles to Using Arabic

Using French (third ed Using German Synonyms

A guide to contemporary usage MARTIN DURRELL
R. E. BATCHELOR a n d M . H. OFFORD (ISBN 0 521 46552 4 hardback)
(ISBN 0 521 64177 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 46954 6 paperback)
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Using Italian Synonyms
Using Spanish HOWARD MOSS a n d VANNA MOTTA
A guide to contemporary usage (ISBN 0 521 47506 6 hardback)
R. E. BATCHELOR a n d C. J. POUNTAIN (ISBN 0 521 47573 2 paperback)
(ISBN 0 521 42123 3 hardback)
Using French Synonyms
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R. E. BATCHELOR a n d M . H. OFFORD
Using German (second edition) (ISBN 0 521 37277 1 hardback)
A guide to contemporary usage (ISBN 0 521 37878 8 paperback)
MARTIN DURRELL Using Russian Synonyms
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Using Russian
A guide to contemporary usage (second edition) Using French Vocabulary
DEREK OFFORD JEAN H. DUFFY
(ISBN 0 521 54761 X paperback) (ISBN 0 521 57040 9 hardback)
(ISBN 0 521 57851 5 paperback)
Using Italian
A guide to contemporary usage Using German Vocabulary
J. J. KINDER a n d V. M. SAVINI SARAH FAGAN
(ISBN 0 521 48556 8 paperback) (ISBN 0 521 79700 4 paperback)

Using Japanese Using Italian Vocabulary

A guide to contemporary usage MARCEL DANESI
WILLIAM McLURE (ISBN 0 521 52425 3 paperback)
(ISBN 0 521 64155 1 hardback)
(ISBN 0 521 64614 6 paperback) Using Spanish Vocabulary
R. E. BATCHELOR a n d
Using Portuguese MIGUEL A. SAN JOSE
A guide to contemporary usage (ISBN 0 521 00862 X paperback)
ANA SOFIA GANHO a n d
TIMOTHY McGOVERN
(ISBN 0 521 79663 6 paperback) Further titles in preparation

Using Arabic
A guide to contemporary usage
MAHDI ALOSH
(ISBN 0 521 64832 7 paperback)

Using Spanish Synonyms

R. E. BATCHELOR
(ISBN 0 521 44160 9 hardback)
(ISBN 0 521 44694 5 paperback)
Using Arabic
A Guide to Contemporary Usage

MAHDIALOSH
Associate Professor of Arabic, Ohio State University

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, NewYork, Melbourne, Madrid,Cape Town, Singapore, Sa~o Paulo, Delhi
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, NewYork
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521648325
© Mahdi Alosh 2005

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and

to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2005

Reprinted 2008

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-521-64832-5 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents

Foreword XII
List of abbreviations and acronyms XV
Transliteration system xvi
Vowels xvi
Consonants xvi
Stress xvii
1 Varieties of Arabic
1.1 What is Arabic? 1
1.2 Arabic diglossia 2
1.2.1 Defining factors 4
1.2.2 A dichotomy or a continuum? 6
1.2.3 Constraints on use 9
1.3 Diglossia versus bilingualism 11
1.3.1 Language acquisition and learning 13
1.3.2 Standardization 13
1.3.3 Arabization 14
1.4 Register 15
1.4.1 Register versus diglossia 15
1.4.2 Levels of register 16
1.4.3 Diglossia-related variation 18
1.4.4 Register-related lexical variation 20
1.4.4.1 Age-related 21
1.4.4.2 Gender-related 22
1.4.4.3 Status-related 22
Contents

1.4.4.4 Origin-related 23
1.4.4.5 The general lexicon 23
1.4.5 Register-related phonology 28
1.4.6 Register-related grammar 30
1.5 Representative texts 39
1.5.1 Rl 40
1.5.2 R2. 41
1.5.3 R2. 44
1.5.4 R2. 46
1.5.5 R3. 47
1.5.6 R3 49
1.5.7 R3. 50
Vocabulary 53
2.1 Vocabulary study 53
2.1.1 What is a word? 54
2.1.2 How many words should a learner know? 54
2.1.3 Are words learned as discrete items? 55
2.1.4 Can native-like language use be achieved? 55
2.2 Word information 56
2.2.1 Characteristics of words 56
2.2.2 Phonetic information in Arabic words 56
2.3 Conceptual organization of words 60
2.3.1 One word in English, multiple words in Arabic 60
2.3.2 One word in Arabic, two or more in English 61
2.3.3 One word in English, multiple in Arabic 62
2.3.4 English words with multiples in Arabic 63
2.3.5 Arabic words with multiple meanings 65
2.4 Semantic processing of words 65
2.4.1 Semantic maps 65
2.4.2 Categorization 71
2.4.3 Matching 75
2.4.4 Word analysis 76
2.4.5 Lexical ordering 78
2.4.6 Pictorial schemata 80
2.4.7 Collocation 82
2.4.8 Prepositional phrases and adverbials 90
VI
 Contents

2.4.9 Phrasal verbs 92

2.4.10 Verbs which change their meaning 95
2.4.11 Verbs which change meaning 102
2.4.12 Idioms 108
2.4.13 Homonyms 112
2.4.14 Polysemy 113
2.4.15 Words with two opposite meanings 126
2.4.16 Synonyms and related words 128
2.4.17 Antonyms 135
2.4.18 Similes A^iiJ! 137
2.4.19 Plural nouns which have no singular 139
2.4.20 Nouns which are singular, plural, masculine,
feminine 140
2.4.21 Words of emphasis 140
2.4.22 Verbs of transformation 141
2.4.23 Proverbs 142
2.4.24 English prefixes and suffixes and meanings 143
2.4.25 Loanwords 149
2.4.26 Derived and translated technical terms 150
2.4.27 Foreignisms 152
2.4.28 Blends c^]\ 152
2.4.29 Arabized words 153
2.4.30 Homophones 154
2.4.31 Homographs 154
2.4.32 Personal names 154
2.4.33 Names of traditional clothing 159
2.4.34 Names of the months of the Gregorian calendar 160
2.4.35 Names of the Islamic (Hijri) months 161
2.4.36 Names of Coptic months 161
2.4.37 Names of animals and natural phenomena 162
2.4.38 Names of towns and countries 163
2.4.39 Names of countries and their official names 164
2.4.40 Names of ethnic and religious groups 166
2.4.41 Names of continents 167
2.4.42 Names of oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes 167
2.4.43 Other useful geographical terms 168
2.4.44 Abbreviations 169
vii
Contents

2.4.45 Interjections 170

2.4.46 Terms of address 171
2.4.47 Greetings and social niceties 173
2.4.48 Measures 173
2.4.49 Currencies 174
2.4.50 Time 174
2.4.51 Numerals 175
Grammar 177
3.1 What is grammar? 177
3.1.1 Why are some items listed in the grammar part? 177
3.2 An outline of Arabic grammar 178
3.3 Grammatical categories 181
3.3.1 The particles ,j,>l 181
3.3.2 The noun r ^ l : form and type 183
3.3.3 Derived nouns foil I) 184
3.3.4 Noun inflection 186
3.3.5 Gender of nouns 187
3.3.6 Uses of the feminine marker td' marbuta 190
3.3.7 Cases of the noun 190
3.3.7.1 A noun is nominative (^i^o) 191
3.3.7.2 A noun is accusative (ujj-a^) 192
3.3.7.2.1 The subject of members of the oj set 192
3.3.7.2.2 The predicate of a sentence introduced
by a member of the j IS" set 192
3.3.7.2.3 The object of a verb 192
3.3.7.2.4 Adverb of time jUj o > 194
3.3.7.2.5 Adverb of place o&* o > 196
3.3.7.2.6 The subject of ? 199
3.3.7.2.7Adverb of manner JU-I 199
3.3.7.2.8 Specification >^JI 200
3.3.7.2.9 Exception, \&Ji\ 200
3.3.7.3 The genitive ^ ^ 201
3.3.8 Number 201
3.3.8.1 Sound masculine plural 203

vm
 Contents

3.3.8.2 Sound feminine plural 204

3.3.8.3 Broken plural 206
3.3.9 Broken plurals of adjectives 211
3.3.10 Nouns plural in English, singular in Arabic 211
3.3.11 Personal pronouns yL^JI 212
3.3.11.1 Covert pronouns\ j^AI ^^JI 213
3.3.11.2 Independent and attached pronouns 214
3.3.12 Verb conjugation j l i i i a ^ - 216
3.3.13 The verb J«JI ' 217
3.3.13.1. Perfect'tense ^ U l 217
3.3.13.2. Imperfect tense ^Lail 219
3.3.13.2.1 The three moods of the imperfect 220
3.3.13.3 The imperative j.S/1 224
3.3.13.4 Compound tenses 225
3.3.14 Indeclinable verbs ju.LtI JJUUI 225
3.3.14.1 Verbs of praise 226
3.3.14.2 Verbs of blame 226
3.3.14.3 Verbs of wonder 226
3.3.14.4 Other indeclinable verbs 226
3.3.15 Increased verb forms jujll '$*>}I 227
3.3.16 Verb structure ' 231
3.3.17 Transitive and intransitive verbs 235
3.3.18 Active and passive verbs 236
3.3.19 Verbs used only in the passive 237
3.4 Noun derivation j l i i 1^1 237
3.5 The nominal sentence ;L*«VI iiJ-l 238
3.5.1 Forms of the subject 238
3.5.2 Ellipted subject ij^JI oi> 239
3.5.3 Definiteness 239
3.5.4 Forms of the predicate 240
3.5.5 Ellipsis of the predicate 241
3.5.6 Auxiliaries introducing nominal sentences juJjUl 242
3.5.6.1 The tf set ' 242
3.5.6.l.lMeanings of the j\S set 243
3.5.6.1.2 Conj ugation of defective verbs 243
ix
Contents

3.5.6.1.3 Verbs of approximation i^Ul! Jl*i! 244

3.5.6.1.4 Verbs of hope. 1*^1 JUii 244
3.5.6.1.5 Verbs of beginning gj^ill JUii 244
3.5.6.1.6 The U set 244
3.5.6.2 The ol set 246
3.5.6.3 Class-negating "tf 247
3.6 The verbal sentence U*iJI iLJ-l 247
3.6.1 Components of a verbal sentence 248
3.6.2 Doubly transitive verbs 248
3.6.3 Triply transitive verbs 249
3.6.4 The five imperfect j - verb forms 249
3.6.5 Inflecting and non-inflecting verbs 250
3.6.6 Agent j*i» 252
3.6.7 Deputy agent (Jrf.UJI vJU) 252
3.6.8 Direct object (*, J^uU) 253
3.7 Gender number agreement (verb and agent) 253
3.8 Word order 254
3.9 Adverb of manner (JU-I) 257
3.10 Attributive adjectives (c^JJI) 257
3.11 Prepositions ^J.I <J>jj> 258
3.12 Negation jti\ 263
3.12.1 Negating verbs in the past 263
3.12.2 Negating verbs in the imperfect indicative 264
3.12.3 Prohibitive-* 265
3.12.4 Negating future time 265
3.12.5 Negating an entire class of a noun 265
3.12.6 Other negative particles 265
3.13 Demonstratives SjLftljLJ 266
3.14 Relative pronouns J_^ji I ^Ji I 267
3.15Interrogatives fl^iu^l 269
3.16 Conditional forms J»>JI 270
3.17 Transition words Ja/^l ol/ji 272
3.18 Numbers i^}\ r l 287
 Contents

3.18.1 Cardinal numbers 287

3.18.2 Ordinal numbers 289
3.18.3 Number noun agreement 290
3.19 Partitives 290
3.20 Nominal forms with a verbal force JJUJI ^ ! 293
3.21 The diminutive ^Lall rMl 294
3.22 The vocative ^iUil 295
3.23 Relative adjectives L-JI jlJ 296
3.24 Emphasis 297
3.25 The permutative J'JJI 298
3.26 Conjunctions wikkll <JJv> 299
3.27 Exception .LL^II 300
3.28 The iddfa structure iil^/l 302
3.29Elativeadjectives J.^Vrll 303
3.30 Defective nouns ^jidl ^ 1 304
3.31 Common errors ijuU-tUil 304
Bibliography 308
Arabic index 312
English index 315
Appendix 1: Vowelled text 322
Appendix 2: Answer key 323
Appendix 3: Verb conjugations 325
Appendix 4: Conjugations of all verb forms 338

XI
 Foreword

One of the goals of this book is to provide students of Arabic with

knowledge about the components of the language and how they
are actually used by Arabic speakers. It also provides information
to advanced students and teachers on proper Arabic usage. This
book has an unusual design. It is neither a reference grammar, nor
a vocabulary list, nor is it a textbook. It is rather a practical guide
to help students work their way through aspects of Arabic which
pose the greatest difficulty for them.
It differs from textbooks in its scope. Instead of a focus on grammar
solely, or on vocabulary, this book approaches Arabic as a complete
whole, though with a focus on Modern Standard Arabic. It explains
the linguistic situation in the target culture and describes the varieties
of Arabic, showing through examples which variety is appropriate
for which situation. It also presents a model representing levels of

xn
 Foreword

register. The focus, of the book however, is mainly on three important

aspects of Arabic: (1) the sociolinguistic variables which determine
the most appropriate ways of using the linguistic elements in order
to understand and make oneself understood, (2) the building blocks
of the language, or its vocabulary, and (3) the structure that holds
the words together, or its grammar.
In addition, this book contains both the normative rules of use and
a description of how Arabic is actually used by Arabs. This is a
radical departure from the vast majority of conventional grammars
and textbooks. The section on usage deals with common errors
made by learners of Arabic and even by native speakers. The study
of errors helps learners of Arabic who wish to approximate Register
level 3 (see the section on Register) to gain access to a good
selection of these items usually scattered in different books and
articles.
This book is written with the assumption that the user has already
acquired the basics of Arabic, including the writing system, the
sound system, and the essentials of Arabic grammar along with a
decent repertoire of high frequency lexical items. The material
included herein will only add to what the users have and help them
to ascertain the accuracy of their learning.
In the section on Arabic varieties, I have tried to provide a lucid
description of the diglossic situation and stayed away from compli-
cated linguistic terminology. The point is to lay out the linguistic
situation in a clear, straightforward fashion and let the students
make up their minds about the issues and which kind of language
they wish to use.
This book contains material rarely found in textbooks, and if found,
it would be scattered around. Categories such as names of people;
towns; countries; organizations; geographical regions; historical
eras; social, national, and religious events; technical terms; loan

xiii
Foreword

words; terms of address, brand names; currencies; distance; and

weight are hard to find in a single source. Furthermore, idioms and
proverbs are also included. Grammatical categories are laid out in
the form of flow charts, tables, and graphs to help students grasp
the total picture and make it easy for them to understand the details
and locate the information they wish to check.

xiv
Abbreviations and acronyms

adj. adjective
n. noun
V. verb
prep. preposition
part. particle
m. masculine
f. feminine
adv. adverb
CA Classical Arabic
MSA Modern Standard Arabic
C Colloquial Arabic
dem. demonstrative
rel. relative
P- perfect, past
pr. imperfect, present
ap. active participle (J*UJI ^
pp. passive participle (JJJUI! f
s.o. someone
s.t. something

XV
 Transliteration system

Vowels
I a as in dad and bar
j u as in boot
j o as in French beau
^ I as in beet
a as in but
u as in put
i as in bit
e as in bet
j o as in beau, but half as long
a typically pronounced as a neutral vowel, between schwa
and [e]

Consonants
& th voiceless interdental, as in thin
^ h voiceless, pharyngeal fricative
j- k voiceless velar fricative, as in Scottish loch
i d voiced interdental, as in this
j, s as in ship
^ s emphatic, or pharyngealized /s/, as sod
ja d emphatic, or pharyngealized IAI, as in dull
J? t emphatic, or pharyngealized /t/, as in Todd

xvi
J? D emphatic, or pharyngealized, interdental /d/
J» z emphatic, or pharyngealized form of /z/
c
^ voiced, pharyngeal fricative
^ g roughly similar to the Parisian Ixl
j r similar to the Spanish trilled Ixl
^ j as in measure
^ dj as in judge
j q uvular stop, similar to /k/, but further back, as in cut
' glottal stop (not indicated in initial position
when it is followed by a vowel)

Stress
placed right after the stressed syllable (e.g. mad^rasa
versus madrasa^ 'school')

xvu
1 Varieties of Arabic

1.1 What is Arabic?

The word 'Arabic' is an umbrella term that subsumes several
varieties1 of this language, which vary with region and situation.
Learners of Arabic and those who wish to learn Arabic should be
aware of all aspects of the linguistic situation so that they can
make appropriate choices with regard to which variety they need
to study and whether a single variety would be adequate for their
purposes. Those who have already achieved a certain level of
proficiency can benefit from this information in filling the gaps
in their linguistic-cultural knowledge of Arabic. In addition,
attaining an advanced level may not be possible without the
ability to perform appropriately, using more than one variety,
i.e., Modern Standard Arabic and one of the other Arabic varieties.

The term 'variety' is used here to refer to a type of language that is used with
a specific social distribution.

1
Varieties of Arabic

This book is focused on Modern Standard Arabic and how to use

it correctly and develop it further. The first chapter deals with
Arabic as a complete whole, including the colloquial end of the
language continuum. With this background, the student of Arabic
will have a better understanding of the linguistic situation in its
entirety and will be able to assess his competence in relation to
what he knows about it.2

1.2 Arabic diglossia

Arabic is one of a few language systems in the world that are
characterized by the coexistence of two distinct varieties of the
same language, used side by side in the same speech community,
each having a set of specialized functions. Situational and
contextual factors influence the choice of elements from either
variety in a speech event. This phenomenon is known as diglossia.
It was Charles Ferguson who stimulated interest in this linguistic
situation and defined it in his classic article 'Diglossia', in Word
(Ferguson 1959), although he was not the first one to use the
term. Arabic diglossia, however, is not a recent linguistic
development; it dates back to pre-Islamic times. Several aspects
of diglossia were discussed in linguistic and literary treatises in
the ninth century and have continued up to this day (Altoma,
1969).
There are basically two varieties: elevated and low. The elevated
one may be called Classical Arabic (CA) or Modern Standard
Arabic (MSA), the latter being the modern counterpart of CA, a
term known and used in the West only. To Arabs, both are
known as al-fusha ^—a__AJI. They share almost the same syntax
and morphology, but they exhibit differences in the areas of style
2
For convenience, 'he' will be used to refer to both genders.
 Using Arabic

and the lexicon. CA is the language of a vast body of Arabic

literature, scholarly works, religious studies, the exegesis of the
Qur'dn, the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad, and above all
it is the language of the Qur'dn, the holy book of the Muslims.
MSA is the language of scholarship, technology, school
instruction, government offices, modern literature, the media,
and almost all formal transactions and situations, including
political speeches, and religious sermons in mosques and churches.
It is learned mostly in school, but even the least educated person
has a measure of comprehension of MSA. The pilot tests conducted
for the Arabic adaptation of Sesame Street are a case in point.
They revealed that listening comprehension scores among three-
and four-year-olds of MSA texts were 65.5-91% in Pilot I. The
research was conducted in four Arab capital cities (Alosh, 1984).

Asia

Syrian
Iraqi
Peninsular
Egyptian
North African

Figure 1. Major dialectal areas in the Arab world

MSA is fairly uniform throughout the Arab world; minimal
variation is observed. Its rules are codified in grammar books
and its lexicon contained in dictionaries. In this book, the concern
is primarily with this variety, namely, MSA.
Varieties of Arabic

The other is the low variety known as Colloquial Arabic (C), to

which Arabs refer as al-cdmiyya i^L*JI or ad-ddrija 1>JJJ\. It is the
language that is acquired natively and used for everyday,
interpersonal, casual communication in the home and on the street.
This variety is characterized by extreme variation throughout the
Arab world, as exemplified in the numerous dialects. The map in
Figure 1 shows the main five dialectal areas. It should be noted
that each area contains multiple dialects. (See Alosh, 1997 for a
detailed discussion.)

1.2.1 Defining factors

There are linguistic and non-linguistic factors that contribute
to the existence and maintenance of a diglossic situation. In
the case of Arabic the linguistic factors span the entire linguistic
system. There are phonological, morphological, syntactic, and
lexical features whose choice determines which variety is
used. These will be discussed below in detail.
Non-linguistic factors are also involved in the perpetuation
of diglossia. The most important factor in Arabic may well
be religion. The word of God is believed to have been revealed
to the Prophet Muhammad in what is known today as Classical
Arabic. About 1.2 billion Muslims venerate Arabic because
of its close association with the Qur'an.
In addition to religion, Arab nationalism is another strong
factor in perpetuating the diglossic situation. In the Symposium
on the Arabic Language and the Media convened in Damascus
in November 1998, the keynote speech of Zuheir Masharqa,
Vice President of Syria, and almost all the presentations,
associated MSA with Arab unity. Masharqa asserted that it is
the fundamental principle of Arab nationalism (Masharqa
 Using Arabic

1998). He entrusted the media with the responsibility of

promoting MSA and making it easier for all Arabs to acquire
and use. The presentations abounded in repeated calls to
preserve the purity of MSA, rid it of the common errors
observed in the media, and restrain the use of colloquialisms
in the media and advertising. Muhammad Salman (1998),
Minister of Information, asserted the importance of the model
set by President Assad by his insistence on using solely MSA
in public functions. He added that Arabic (i.e. MSA) is a
basic ingredient of the make-up of the individual's identity
and of internal (i.e. Syrian) and national (i.e. pan-Arab) unity.
An attitudinal survey of faculty members at a Jordanian
institution of higher education found enthusiasm toward MSA
use and Arabization. The researcher concluded that com-
munication across Arab countries would be difficult without
MSA, which enjoys communal support and loyalty (Al-Abed
Al-Haq 1998).
Another survey of subjects representing fourteen Arab
countries found that they were satisfied with the diglossic
situation and that it does not pose a problem (Al-Kahtany
1997). It also revealed a negative attitude toward
standardization of a particular regional dialect. Even Syrian
subjects rejected Kaye's (1970) proposition that Damascene
Arabic be a standard dialect. Dweik (1997) also found no
preference of any single variety to replace MSA.
MSA and CA preserve a huge legacy of literature and
scholarship. Any proposals for reform or modification are
summarily rejected for fear of cutting off the present generation
and posterity from this legacy. Salha Sanqar, Minister of
Higher Education in Syria, considers MSA the backbone of
Varieties of Arabic

educational curricula (Sanqar 1998). Shaker Al-Fahham

(1998), President of the Arabic Academy, sees C A/MS A as
the depository of the nation's literary and intellectual treasures
and the link between the past and present. He regards the use
of C in some satellite television broadcasts as a great danger,
and calls for a firm stand against such practice.
MSA is the official language of more than 250 million Arabs
in twenty-two countries which are members of the Arab
League, and one of the official languages of the United Nations
Organization. Additionally, the attitude of most Arabs toward
MSA and C helps to maintain an active, strong role for MSA.
The majority of people view MSA/CA with veneration and
believe that it is a powerful, beautiful language. Competence
in the elevated variety is a source of pride and an indication
of a high level of education. Conversely, C is generally regarded
with disdain, as the language of the illiterate and vulgar people.
Some writers have expressed extreme views against C.
Mubarak views it as inferior to or a deformed form of MSA
(Mubarak 1970). Other Arab writers have an even harsher
characterization of C as a protege of ignorance and imperialism
(Nasif, 1957, p. 49) or as a form unworthy of being called a
language (Hussein, 1944, p. 236). These and the preceding
factors are counterbalanced by the role of C as the language
of daily communication and the code which all Arabs use
with facility and with no need for instruction, grammar books,
or dictionaries. In fact, many native speakers take great pride
in their first language, i.e., their dialect.

1.2.2 A dichotomy or a continuum?

Several linguists, particularly in the second half of the twentieth
century, studied Arabic diglossia and attempted to propose
 Using Arabic

models that can account for the extreme variation in language

use. Ferguson characterized the situation as a binary one with
a high variety and a low one, but he also mentioned that two
or more varieties may be in use (1959). El-Hassan, in 1977,
identified and described a variety he named Educated Spoken
Arabic (ESA), and Mitchell recognized it and studied it as
well (1980). Meiseles (1980) suggested that Oral Literary
Arabic existed alongside ESA. Blanc (1960) and Badawi
(1973) recognized five distinct levels of Arabic. These views
may be represented diagrammatically as follows:

ARABIC

I I I I
Variety 1 V2 V3 V4
Figure 2. Arabic with a number of distinct varieties

Those varieties, or styles, are described by the above linguists

mainly in terms of lexical and grammatical categories, not on
the basis of the context of situation in which the language
interaction is taking place. Three, four, or even five different
levels are too restricted to account for the variability observed.
In fact, there may be an infinite number of levels at which
speakers are in a constant state of flux influenced by a host
of sociocultural and sociolinguistic variables. Close observa-
tion of language behaviour among native speakers in a variety
of situations does not support the compartmentalization of
styles into discrete language varieties. It is quite rare to find
a sustained stretch of discourse in one variety, unless it is
prepared. Speakers continuously vacillate among different
Varieties of Arabic

levels, depending on sociolinguistic variables. As Parkinson

rightly observes, 'Naming and carefully defining distinct
intermediate styles ... has a tendency to reify that style and
give it an independent existence which it may not have for
native speakers who apparently have no category for thinking
and talking about it, and whose behavior simply may not be
so consistent as to warrant a named style' (1991:37).
Alternatively, the different models, styles, levels, varieties,
or whatever they may be called may fall on a language
continuum with a range from MSA to the most local C. This
is not a new idea. Meiseles mentions it, but he neither elaborates
on it nor relates it to sociolinguistic factors which determine
selection of language forms. This dynamic model that I suggest
for Arabic may be represented in the following diagram (Alosh
1991 and 1997 for more details).

ARABIC
I
II
I
Situation Formal Informal

Event

Setting Non-local Local Non-local Local Non-local Local Non-local Local

MSA C

Figure 3. Arabic language continuum

The various combinations of situation, event, and setting,
along with other variables, such as gender, age, social status,
topic, and so forth, when added to the equation, affects language
performance and the distinctions of the MSA/C 'mix' grow
finer and finer. No single description can possibly be used
alone to characterize an entire language interaction; several
 Using Arabic

may be needed.
In sum, there are certain characteristics which can distinguish
MSA from C. They may be summarized in the table below.

MSA

Learned primarily by school instruction Acquired naturally as a mother tongue

Used in formal situations Used for casual, everyday communication
Mostly written Oral use
Almost uniform throughout the Arab world Great variation across dialects at all levels
Prestigious and esteemed by its speakers No prestige associated with its use
Complex grammar Simple grammar (no cases)
Official language Language of the common people (not codified)
Closed to borrowing from other languages Open to loan words
A dictionary and grammar are needed in Its use requires no dictionary or grammar
order to learn it

Table 1. Characteristics of MSA and C

1.2.3 Constraints on use

There are some supralinguistic, sociocultural, and sociolin-
guistic factors that constrain language use and make speakers
use certain forms rather than others. Among these are the
age, gender, place of origin, socioeconomic status, and level
of education of the interlocutor, as well as the topic of
interaction, the purpose or message, and, most significantly,
the situation which determines the formality level.
For example, it is more likely than not, even in C, for a
younger speaker to use plural forms to address an older,
more respected individual. A student might say to a teacher,
',»5uiL-_- l£jj^3-> jljit i^SJ\yj.' 'your address'. Some speakers
are able to modify their speech when talking to an individual
from another dialectal area by changing certain sounds they
feel are stigmatized or certain lexical items deemed too local.

9
Varieties of Arabic

So, someone who has garlb 'near' in his repertoire, might, in

an urban setting in Greater Syria or Egypt, use 'arlb if he is
talking to a city dweller. Level of education and profession
have a significant impact on the choice of language. You
may hear the same language function expressed in two vastly
different ways when used by speakers from two different
socioeconomic strata or belonging to two different professions.
A teacher, for instance, trying to make his way in a very
crowded place might say in C pronunciation:
- f - * f a *

excuse me! »j>ljll *•**• I Ijic / LJ^1»^\ .\

whereas a porter or a young apprentice in a manual profession
might say, in a similar situation,

mind your back/watch out! [<jJUL y_i / iS'J^ vjl _Y

The forms used in example 1 are polite expressions influenced
by MSA. The first and third instances are pronounced,
however, according to C conventions, where the two words
^... 1 and J are merged together, [d] is pronounced [z], and
final [a] is [e]. On the other hand, the forms in 2 are entirely
in C, in terms of pronunciation and word choice.
Two educated individuals talking privately in a local setting
are more likely than not to use C even if they are educated.
But if the topic is intellectually set at an elevated level, many
MSA terms find their way into their speech naturally. A few
selected examples of such terms include the following listed
below, pronounced according to MSA rules. Several of them,
overheard by the author, were said by adults and school
children:
'economic development plan' Lj
'monetary/economic inflation'

10
 Using Arabic

'inaugural address' uw^u

'agrarian reform' ^Ijjil f%Si\
'corruption law' II* ill ^J ^ ^U
'cultural invasion' ^^iLis
'the grammar of the language' iuJJ
'impressionistic art'
'pioneers of modern literature' £jjii
'cellular phone'
'computer room' t_
'satellite channels' iJUaiJI o
'automatic promotion' (in schools) ^fifl gjjdl
'mentality of backwardness' Jdjxs
'futile discussion'
'partial withdrawal' ^yj*
'peaceful settlement'
'peace negotiations'
Political speeches tend to be entirely in MSA. Nonetheless,
popular leaders such as Jamal Abdul-Nasser of Egypt did
slip into C when addressing the masses, perhaps to demonstrate
solidarity. Other leaders, such as Hafez al-Assad of Syria,
used MSA exclusively to convey a message, that of a pan-Arab
orientation. Some people punctuate their speech in private
speech events with MSA terms, or even considerable stretches
of discourse, to project a particular image: sophisticated,
accomplished, highly learned.

1.3 Diglossia versus bilingualism

Diglossia should not be confused with bilingualism or multilin-

11
Varieties of Arabic

gualism. In bilingualism, two distinct languages, each with a

complete spectrum of discourse levels, are used in the same
speech community, whereas in diglossia, one of the two basic
varieties of the same language specializes in one set of levels,
and the other variety is allocated the other set. According to
Ferguson (1959), specialization of function is the hallmark of
diglossia. The high (MSA) and low (C) varieties are in com-
plementary distribution; formal situations call for the use of MSA
and informal, casual interaction requires C. Figure 4 contains a
graphic representation of diglossia and bilingualism or multilin-
gualism.
DIGLOSSIA BILINGUALISM/
MULTILINGUALISM
ARABIC

MSA C
LI L2 L3
I I 1 I
Arabic Dialects

Figure 4. Representations of diglossia and bilingualism

Nor should diglossia be confused with the situation where there
is one language and various dialects, such as in English, where
every dialect has a complete register for all levels of formality.
Figure 5 shows the difference schematically.

STANDARD ENGLISH

Dl D2 D3 D4

Figure 5. One language with dialects

12
 Using Arabic

1.3.1 Language acquisition and learning

In a bilingual community, the two languages may be acquired
natively, as in the case of Spanish and English in some parts
of the United States. However, in diglossia, only the low
form is acquired natively; the high form is learned through
school instruction. To Ferguson, the method of acquisition is
an important defining factor of diglossia.

1.3.2 Standardization
The high form of Arabic (MSA/CA) has long been
standardized. The first grammar was compiled by Abul-Aswad
Al-Du'ali in the seventh century in Basra in southern Iraq
and was refined shortly after by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad. In
many old Arabic sources, the cited reason for the need to
compile a grammar was the spread of linguistic errors among
Arabs after increased contact with non-Arabs.3 The new science
was simply called al-carabiyya (Arabic), and it became known
as al-nahw (grammar, literally, 'way/method' ) only after a
congratulatory remark made by the Caliph AH to Al-Du'ali.
He said, 'What a method you have followed!' Ali ibn Abi
Talib, the fourth Caliph, was the first ruler to commission
writing a grammar. Al-Du'ali is also credited with the pointing
of Arabic letters, a reform measure that made Arabic
orthography more precise and easier to read.

Many dictionaries were compiled over the centuries. In the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries, specialized and bilingual
dictionaries began to appear.

Abu Sacd (1990) cites thirty-four major books on linguistic errors authored
by outstanding scholars from the second to the tenth centuries of the Islamic
calendar only (9th-16th of the common era).

13
Varieties of Arabic

An important step toward the universalization of MSA was

the decision to use it in the media. All newspapers, magazines,
and most radio and television broadcasts are in MSA. Soap
operas and some talk shows are, however, broadcast in C.
Interestingly, translated soap operas, such as Mexican
productions, are dubbed in MSA, and they have scored huge
popular success. In 1978, the decision to adapt Sesame Street
into MSA had a huge impact on almost all children's television
programs. Following the release of iftah yd simsim (Sesame
Street), most animated cartoons were translated into MSA.

1.3.3 Arabization
In the modern Arabic linguistic renaissance, which started in
the nineteenth century, Arabization was perhaps the most
important factor in standardizing MSA. Arabization (at-tacrib)
is used in this section in two senses; a traditional, linguistic
sense and in a social, modern sense.4 The traditional meaning
pertains to the process of making loan words fit into Arabic
morphological patterns. That is, verbs conjugate like Arabic
verbs and nouns decline and are pluralized according to Arabic
conventions. The modern meaning involves the transfer of
knowledge and learning to Arabic. This sense also includes
using Arabic (MSA) in all aspects of life, such as education,
communication, government offices, and in the intellectual
domain. In addition, the effort of coining new words and
terms in modern sciences is an important part of this process.
Some researchers and editors have also equated Arabization
with translation.

It is interesting to note that Sibawayhi, an early grammarian, was the first to

use the term tacrlb 'Arabization'.

14
 Using Arabic

1.4 Register
When we learn our first language, we acquire the language system
in addition to an implicit knowledge of how to use elements of
the system appropriately. Unfortunately, a learner of Arabic as a
foreign language might not have the opportunity to acquire such
competence in the classroom. Only by learning, exposure, or
conscious effort will he be able to do so. This ability is especially
needed at an advanced level of proficiency. At such an advanced
level, he should be able to appreciate the richness of the language,
experience its entire spectrum, and be able to alternate along the
language continuum, selecting different forms in order to interact
orally with native speakers in authentic situations in an appropriate
manner.
Arabic is mistakenly perceived as a homogeneous whole. None-
theless, with a growing proficiency, the learner needs to be aware
not only of the diglossic situation (i.e. C versus MSA) but also
of levels of register and how to adjust his speech according to
non-linguistic variables.

1.4.1 Register versus diglossia

Register is concerned with the relationship that exists between
interlocutors, such as gender, socioeconomic status, and age.
The choice of language elements can be made either from a
single variety (e.g. plural forms versus singular to indicate
respect) or from the high and low varieties. On the other
hand, speech in a diglossic community requires selection of
elements (e.g. phonological, lexical, and grammatical forms)
from more than one variety; a situation where speakers switch
back and forth between C and MSA, depending on such
factors as situation (i.e. level of formality), medium (oral or

15
Varieties of Arabic

written), message (purpose for choice), and role (e.g. chairman

of the board or school principal in a meeting with subordinates).
It should be noted that both C and MSA can have at least two
levels of register each.
Samples from C are obtained either from an attested corpus I
compiled for another study (Alosh 1997) or from Syrian Arabic
with which I am familiar. C samples can easily be substituted
with forms from the different Arabic dialects.

1.4.2 Levels of register

Register levels are not to be confused with the varieties of
Arabic discussed above under Arabic diglossia. They may be
arbitrarily divided into three: Rl, R2, and R3. The lowest
level, Rl, is informal and casual. Although C forms may be
used, MSA forms may also be used, but they are perceived
by speakers as C. R2 is probably the level at which the
language used is similar to the Arabic used in the spoken
media. It is standard, educated speech, but pausal pronunciation
may be utilized, where case and mood markers are dropped.
R3 is the highest register level. It is very careful speech,
official and formal, whether extemporaneous or prepared. It
adheres strictly to the pronunciation and grammatical conven-
tions of MSA and is characterized by low frequency word
choice. Examples of it include political speeches, sermons,
proceedings at a court of law, news broadcasts, and talk among
Arabic specialists in a public, highly formal situation. Four
main factors determine the level of register, namely, age,
gender, status, and origin. Figure 6 depicts the relationship
between Arabic varieties and register levels. It also shows
the overlap between C and MSA at the R2 level.

16
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
in much water, when it has an astringent, metallic taste; very
deliquescent; soluble in water and alcohol.

LIQUOR ZINCI CHLORIDE—SOLUTION OF ZINC

CHLORIDE
Derivation.—Made from zinc chloride and water. It should contain
about 50 per cent, by weight, of the salt. Zinc chloride is used
externally only.
Properties.—A clear, colorless, liquid, odorless, having a very
astringent, metallic taste.
Action and Uses.—Is caustic and escharotic, used full strength or in
a strong solution; penetrates very deeply and causes deep
sloughing; an irritant and corrosive poison; mild medical solutions
are antiseptic and astringent; is also disinfectant and deodorizer. Can
be used as a caustic when indicated; used with caution, for
granulations in chronic ulcers and foot-rot in sheep; to slough out all
kinds of fistula, usually mixed with one or two parts of flour made
into a paste with water, two ounces in a pint of water is injected as a
caustic into fistulous tracts; two or three per cent solution or two to
four drachms to the pint of water is used for ordinary astringent
purposes and as a parasiticide.
 VALUABLE DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES FOR
DOMESTIC ANIMALS
In the list of doses, oz. stands for ounce, pt. for pint, lb. for
pound, gr. for grain, dr. for dram, dp. for drop.
Name of Drug Cattle Sheep Horses Hogs Dogs
Alcohol 4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-4 dr.
Alum 3-4 dr. 40 gr. 2-4 dr. 40 gr. 15 gr.
Ammonia Aromatic 2 oz. 1-2 dr. 1-2 oz. 1-2 dr. 20-60 dp.
Aniseed 1-5 oz. 1-2 dr. 1 oz. 1 dr. 15 gr.
Arnica Tincture 1 oz. 2 dr. .5-1 oz. 1 dr. 7-20 dp.
Asafetida Tincture 3 oz. .5 oz. 2 oz. 2 dr. 1 dr.
Boracic Acid 3 dr. 20 gr. 1-3 dr. 15 gr. 8 gr.
Brandy 4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-2 dr.
Calomel 1-2 dr. 5-20 gr. 1 dr. 5-20 gr. 1 gr.
Camphor Spirit 1 oz. 2 dr. 2-4 dr. 15 dp. 10 dp.
Carbolic Acid 1-2 dr. 10-20 dp. .5-2 dr. 5-15 dp. 3-8 dp.
Castor Oil 1 pt. 2-4 oz. 1 pt. 2-4 oz. 1-2 dr.
Chalk 2 oz. 1-2 dr. .5-2 oz. 1 dr. .5-1 dr.
Codliver Oil 3-8 oz. 3-8 dr. 2-6 oz. 2-6 dr. 1-3 dr.
Copperas 2 dr. 20 gr. 1 dr. 10 gr. 4 gr.
Copper Sulphate 2-4 dr. 20-30 gr. 2-4 dr. 20-30 gr. 1-2 gr.
Digitalis 10-30 gr. 5-15 gr. 10-50 gr. 3-10 gr. 2 gr.
Epsom Salts 1 lb. 1-4 oz. .5-1 lb. 1 oz. 1-4 dr.
Fowler’s Solution 5 dr. 5-20 dp. 2-4 dr. 5-20 dp. 1-5 dp.
Gentian 5-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 4-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 40 gr.
Ginger 5-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 2-8 dr. 15-60 gr. 5-20 gr.
Glauber Salts 1-1.5 lb. 1-4 dr. .5-1 lb. 1 oz. 1-4 dr.
Iodide of Potash 1-2 dr. 10-25 gr. .5-2 dr. 5-20 gr. 2-8 gr.
Iron Sulphate. 2 dr. 25 gr. 1-2 dr. 25 gr. 4 gr.
Jamaica Ginger 2 oz. .5 oz. 1 oz. .5-1 dr. 1⁄ -1⁄ dr.
4 2
Laudanum 2-5 oz. 1-4 dr. 1-4 oz. 1-2 dr. 20 dp.
Lead Acetate 1 dr. 25 gr. 1 dr. 20 gr. 1-2 gr.
Lime Water 4-6 oz. 2 oz. 4-6 oz. 2 oz. 1-8 dr.
Linseed Oil 1-2 pt. 6-12 oz. .5-1 pt. 5-10 oz. 1 oz.
Mustard 1 oz. 1-2 dr. .5-1 oz. 1-2 dr. 20 gr.
Nitre 3-8 oz. 1 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 5-20 gr.
Nux Vomica 2 dr. 30-40 gr. 1-2 dr. 10-20 gr. 1-2 gr.
Olive Oil 1-2 pt. 3-8 dr. 1-2 pt. 2-6 dr. 2-4 oz.
Pepper 2-4 dr. 15-25 gr. 1-3 dr. 10-20 gr. 4-10 gr.
Potassium Bromide 2 oz. 2-4 dr. 1-2 oz. 2-4 dr. 5-50 gr.
Quinine 1-2 dr. 5-10 gr. 50-60 gr. 5-10 gr. 1-2 gr.
Rhubarb 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 5-10 gr.
Saltpeter 1-3 dr. .5-1 dr. 2-4 dr. .5-1 dr. 2-10 gr.
Soda 2 oz. 2-4 dr. 1-1.5 oz. 1-3 dr. 20-50 gr.
Sulphur 3-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-4 dr.
Turpentine 2 oz. 1-4 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 20-50 dp.
 INDEX
Abbreviations in Prescription Writing, 24
Absolute Alcohol, 36
Acetate of Lead, 131
Acetate of Morphine, 123
Acetate of Potassium, 133
Acetate of Zinc, 162
Acid Arcenous, 58
Acid Benzoicum, 67
Acid, Boric, 25
Acid Boricum, 25
Acid, Carbolic, 26
Acid, Salicylic, 28
Acidum Arsenosum, 58
Acidum Carbolicum, 26
Acidum Carbolicum Crudum, 26
Acidum Salicylicum, 28
Aconite, Fluidextract, 31
Aconite, Tincture, 31
Aconite, 29
Aconitum, 29
Aconitina, 31
Aconitine, 31
Actions of Iron, 93
Adeps Benzoinatus, 66
Administration of Medicines, 20
Aether, 33
Aloe Barbadensis, 11
Aloe Socotrina, 41
Aloes Barbadoes, 41
Alcohol, 35
Alcohol Absolutum, 36
Alkaloidal Salts of Chichona, 84
Aloin, 42
Aloinum, 42
Alum, 44
Alum, Dried, 44
Alumen, 44
Alumen Exsiccatum, 44
Alumini Hydroxidum, 44
Alumini Sulphas, 45
Aluminum Hydroxide, 44
Aluminum Sulphate, 45
Ammonia Aromatic Spirit, 51
Ammonia Liniment, 52
Ammonia Muriate, 54
Ammonia Spiritus, 50
Ammonia Stronger Water, 50
Ammonia Water, 50
Ammonii Benzoas, 67
Ammonii Carbonas, 52
Ammonii Chloridium, 54
Ammonium Acetate Solution, 52
Ammonium Benzoate, 67
Ammonium Carbonate, 52
Amyl Nitrate, 46
Amylis Nitris, 46
Anesthesia, 79
Anise, 47
Anise Oil, 47
Anisum, 47
Antimonii et Potassii Tartars, 48
Antipyrin, 49
Antipyrina, 49
Antimony and Potassium Tartrate, 48
Apomorphine Hydrochloride, 127
Apomorphine Hydrochloridum, 127
Aqua Ammoniae, 50
Aqua Ammoniae Fortior, 50
Aqua Camphorae, 71
Aqua Chloroformi, 77
Arcenous Acid, 58
Argenti Nitras, 54
Argenti Nitras Fusus, 55
Argenti Nitras Mitigatus, 55
Arnica, 56
Arnica Root, Extract, 56
Arnica Root, Fluidextract, 56
Arnicae, 56
Aromatic Fluidextract of Cascara Sagrada,
146
Aromatic Spirit Ammonia, 51
Aromatic Tincture of Rhubarb, 147
Arseni Trioxidum, 58
Arsenic, 57
Arsenic Trioxide, 58
Arsenic, White, 58
Arsenum, 57
Art of Prescribing, 22-23
Aspidium, 61
Atropinae Sulphas, 64
Barbadoes Aloes, 41
Belladonna Extract, 63
Belladonna Leaves, 62
Belladonna Liniment, 64
Belladonna Ointment, 63
Belladonna Radix, 63
Belladonna Root, 63
Belladonna Tincture, 63
Belladonnae Folia, 62
Benzoate of Ammonia, 67
Benzoate of Soda, 67
Benzoic Acid, 67
Benzoin, 66
Benzoin Tincture, 67
Benzoinated Lard, 66
Benzoinum, 66
Bicarbonate of Potassium, 136
Bicarbonate of Soda, 150
Biniodide of Mercury, 102
Bi-Chloride of Mercury, 99
Bitartrate of Potassium, 141
Bitter Wood, 143
Black Mustard, 148
Blister Beetles, 74
Blue Stone, 88
Blue Vitriol, 88
Boracic Acid, 25
Boric Acid, 25
Brandy, 37
Bromide of Potassium, 134
Bromide of Sodium, 134
Calamus, 68
Calamus Fluidextract, 68
Calcium Oxide, 69
California Buckthorn, 145
Calomel, 101
Calumba, 69
Calumba Fluidextract, 70
Calumba Tincture, 70
Calx, 69
Camphor, 71
Camphor Cerate, 72
Camphor Liniment, 72
Camphor Water, 71
Camphora, 71
Camphora Monobromata, 72
Camphorated Oil, 72
Camphorated Tincture of Opium, 121
Cantharis, 74
Cantharides, 74
Cantharides Tincture, 74
Capsicum, 75
Capsicum Fluidextract, 76
Capsicum Oleoresin, 76
Capsicum Tincture, 76
Carbolic Acid, 26
Carbolic Acid, Crude, 26
Carbonate of Ammonia, 52
Carbonate of Potassium, 135
Carron Oil, 69
Cascara Sagrada, 145
Castor Oil, 115
Catechu, 97
Caustic Potash, 136
Cayenne Pepper, 75
Cerate of Camphor, 72
Ceratum Camphorae, 72
Chalk Mixture, 87
Chalk, Prepared, 86
Chichona, 83
Chichona Alkaloids, 84
Chittem Bark, 145
Chlorate of Potassium, 140
Chloride of Iron, 93
Chloride of Mercury, Mild, 101
Chloride of Sodium, 150
Chloride of Zinc, 162
Chloroform, 77
Chloroform Compared with Ether, 81
Chloroform Emulsum, 78
Chloroform Liniment, 77
Chloroform Spirits, 78
Chloroform Water, 77
Chloroformum, 77
Citrate of Potassium, 133
Cocaine Hydrochloride, 85
Cocainae Hydrochloridum, 85
Cod Liver Oil, 114
Codeina, 123
Codeine, 123
Comparison of Ether with Chloroform, 81
Compound Chalk Powder, 87
Compound Powder of Jalap, 145
Compound Powder Rhubarb, 146
Compound Spirit of Ether, 34
Compound Spirit of Juniper, 37
Compound Tincture of Benzoin, 67
Compound Tincture of Gentian, 99
Compound Tincture of Gambir, 97
Copper Sulphate, 88
Copperas, 91
Corrosive Mercuric Chloride, 99
Corrosive Sublimate, 99
Cosmoline, 128
Cotton Seed Oil, 115
Cream of Tartar, 141
Creta Praeparata, 86
Cretae Mistura, 87
Cretae Pulvis Compositus, 87
Croton Oil, 118
Crude Carbolic Acid, 26
Cupri Sulphas, 88
Diacetylmorphine, 123
Dandelion Root, 158
Digitalein, 89
Digitalin, 89
Digitalis, 88
Digitalis Infusion, 90
Digitalis Extract, 89
Digitalis Fluidextract, 90
Digitalis Tincture, 90
Digitonin, 89
Digitoxin, 89
Deodorized Opium, 122
Donovan’s Solution, 59
Dose Table of Valuable Drugs, 164
Doses for Young Animals, 21-22
Dover’s Liquid Powder, 121
Dover’s Powder, 121
Dried Ferrous Sulphate, 91
Emulsion of Chloroform, 78
Epsom Salts, 109
Ether, 33
Ether Compared with Chloroform, 81
Ether, Pure, 33
Extract of Arnica Root, 56
Extract of Belladonna Leaves, 63
Extract of Digitalis, 89
Extract of Gentian, 98
Extract of Nux Vomica, 111
Extract of Opium, 121
Extract of Quassia, 143
Extract of Taraxacum, 158
Extractum Arnicae Radicis, 56
Extractum Belladonnae Foliorum, 63
Extractum Digitalis, 89
Extractum Gentianae, 98
Extractum Nucis Vomicae, 111
Extractum Opii, 121
Extractum Quassiae, 143
Extractum Taraxaci, 158
Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus, 92
Ferri Chloridum, 92
Ferri Sulphas, 91
Ferri Sulphas Exsiccatus, 91
Ferric Chloride, 92
Ferrous Sulphate, 91
Ferrum Reductum, 91
Flaxseed, 107
Fluidextract of Aconite, 31
Fluidextract of Arnica Root, 56
Fluidextract of Belladonna Root, 63
Fluidextract Calamus, 68
Fluidextract of Calumba, 70
Fluidextract of Capsicum, 76
Fluidextract of Digitalis, 90
Fluidextract of Gentian, 98
Fluidextract of Ginger, 159
Fluidextract of Hydrastis, 104
Fluidextract Nux Vomica, 111
Fluidextract of Quassia, 143
Fluidextract of Rhamnus Purshiana, 145
Fluidextract of Rhubarb, 146
Fluidextract of Taraxacum, 158
Fluidextractum Aconiti, 31
Fluidextractum Arnicae Radicis, 56
Fluidextractum Belladonnae Radicis, 63
Fluidextractum Calumbae, 70
Fluidextractum Calami, 68
Fluidextractum Capsici, 76
Fluidextractum Digitalis, 90
Fluidextractum of Gentianae, 98
Fluidextractum Hydrastis, 104
Fluidextractum Nucis Vomicae, 111
Fluidextractum Quassiae, 143
Fluidextractum Rhamni Purshiana, 146
Fluidextractum Rhamni Purshiana
Aromaticum, 145
Fluidextractum Rhei, 146
Fluidextractum Taraxaci, 158
Fluidextractum Zingiberis, 159
Fowler’s Solution, 58
Foxglove, 88
Gambir, 97
Gambir Tincture Compound, 97
Gamboge, 70
Gambogia, 70
General Actions of Medicines, 5-19
Gentian, 98
Gentian Extract, 98
Gentian Fluidextract, 98
Gentian Tincture Compound, 99
Gentiana, 98
Ginger, 159
Ginger Fluidextract, 159
Ginger Oleoresin, 159
Ginger Tincture, 159
Glauber’s Salts, 151
Glycerite of Boroglycerin, 25
Glycerite Hydrastis, 104
Glyceritum Boroglycerin, 25
Glyceritum Hydrastis, 104
Golden Seal, 103
Goulard’s Extract, 132
Green Vitriol, 91
Gregory’s Powder, 146
Gum Camphor, 71
Heroin, 123
Hoffman’s Anodyne, 34
Hydrate of Turpin, 117
Hydrastine Hydrochloride, 104
Hydrastis, 103
Hydrastis Fluidextract, 104
Hydrastis Glycerite, 104
Hydrastis Tincture, 104
Hydrargyri Oxidum Flavum, 103
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum, 99
Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite, 101
Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, 102
Hydrastinae Hydrochloridum, 104
Hydroxide of Potassium, 136
Hyposulphite of Sodium, 152
Hydroxide of Aluminum, 44
Infusion of Digitalis, 90
Infusum Digitalis, 90
Iodide of Mercury (Red), 102
Iodide of Potassium, 137
Iodine, 105
Iodum, 105
Ipecac and Opium, 121
Iron Actions, 93
Iron Chloride, 92
Iron Reduced, 91
Jalap, 144
Jalap Compound Powder, 145
Jalapa, 144
Jalapa Resina, 144
Jalap Resin, 144
Lard Benzoinated, 66
Laudanum, 121
Lead Acetate, 131
Lead Oxide, 131
Lime, 69
Lime Liniment, 69
Liniment, Ammonia, 52
Liniment Belladonna, 64
Liniment Chloroform, 77
Liniment Soap, 72
Liniment of Turpentine, 117
Linimentum Ammoniae, 52
Linimentum Belladonnae, 64
Linimentum Calcis, 69
Linimentum Camphorae, 72
Linimentum Saponis, 72
Linimentum Terebinthinae, 117
Linseed, 107
Linseed Oil, 107
Linum, 107
Liquid Dover’s Powder, 121
Liquid Petrolatum, 128
Liquor Ammonii Acetatis, 52
Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri Iodidi, 59
Liquor Ferri Chloridi, 93
Liquor Ferri Subsulphatis, 93
Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, 132
Liquor Potassii Arsentis, 58
Liquor Potassii Hydroxidi, 137
Liquor Zinci Chloride, 163
Lithii Benzoas, 67
Lithium Benzoate, 67
Lunar Caustic, 55
Male Fern, 61
Magnesii Sulphas, 109
Magnesium Sulphate, 109
Medicines, General Actions, 5-19
Medicines, Administration, 20
Mercury Bi-Chloride, 99
Mercury Oxide (Yellow), 103
Methods of Administering Medicines, 20
Mild Mercurous Chloride, 101
Mitigated Silver Nitrate, 55
Monkshood, 29
Monobromated Camphor, 72
Monsel’s Solution, 93
Morphina, 122
Morphine, 122
Morphinae Acetas, 123
Morphinae Hydrochloridum, 122
Morphinae Sulphas, 123
Morphine Acetate, 123
Morphine Hydrochloride, 122
Morphine Sulphate, 123
Moulded Silver Nitrate, 55
Muriate of Ammonia, 54
Mustard, Black, 148
Mustard Oil, 148
Mustard, White, 148
Naphthalene, 110
Naphthalenum, 110
Nitrate of Potassium, 139
Nitrate of Silver, 54
Niter, 139
Nitrite Amyl, 46
Nux Vomica, 110
Nux Vomica Extract, 111
Nux Vomica Fluidextract, 111
Nux Vomica Tincture, 112
Oil of Anise, 47
Oil Camphorated, 72
Oil Carron, 69
Oil of Castor, 115
Oil of Cod Liver, 114
Oil of Cotton Seed, 115
Oil of Croton, 118
Oil of Linseed, 107
Oil of Mustard, 148
Oil, Olive, 114
Oil, Sweet, 114
Oil of Turpentine, Rectified, 117
Oil of Tar, 130
Ointment of Tar, 130
Ointment of Zinc Oxide, 162
Oleum Anisi, 47
Oleoresin Aspidium, 62
Oleoresin Capsicum, 76
Oleoresin Male Fern, 62
Oleoresina Aspidii, 62
Oleoresina Zingiberis, 159
Oleoresina Capsici, 76
Oleum Gossypii Seminis, 115
Oleum Lini, 107
Oleum Morrhuae, 114
Oleum Olivae, 114
Oleum Picis Liquidae, 130
Oleum Ricini, 115
Oleum Sinapis Volatile, 148
Oleum Terebinthinae, 116
Oleum Terebinthinae Rectificatum, 117
Olive Oil, 114
Oil of Turpentine, 116
Oleum Tiglii, 118
Opii Pulvis, 120
Opium, 120
Opium Deodoratum, 122
Opium Extract, 121
Opium and Ipecac, 121
Opium, Powdered, 120
Opium Tincture, 121
Opium Tincture, Camphorated, 121
Opium and Wine, 122
Oxide of Lead, 131
Oxide of Zinc, 161
Paregoric, 121
Pepper, Cayenne, 75
Pepper, Red, 75
Permanganate of Potash, 142
Petrolatum, 128
Petrolatum Album, 129
Petrolatum Liquidum, 128
Petrolatum White, 129
Phenol, 26
Phenyl Salicylate, 29
Phenylis Salicylas, 29
Pix Liquida, 130
Plumbi Acetas, 131
Plumbi Oxidum, 131
Potassii Acetas, 133
Potassii Citras, 133
Potassii Bicarbonas, 136
Potassii Bitartras, 141
Potassii Bromidum, 134
Potassii Carbonas, 135
Potassii Chloras, 140
Potassii Hydroxium, 136
Potassii Iodidum, 137
Potassii Nitras, 139
Potassii Permanganas, 142
Potassium Acetate, 133
Potassium Bicarbonate, 136
Potassium Bitartrate, 141
Potassium Bromide, 134
Potassium Carbonate, 135
Potassium Chlorate, 140
Potassium Citrate, 133
Potassium Hydroxide, 136
Potassium Hydroxide Solution, 137
Potassium Iodide, 137
Potassium Nitrate, 139
Potassium Permanganate, 142
Precipitated Sulphur, 156
Precipitated Zinc Carbonate, 161
Prepared Chalk, 86
Prescribing, the Art of, 22-23
Prescription Writing, Abbreviations, 24
Prescription Writing Tables, 21
Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii, 121
Quaker Button, 110
Quassia, 143
Quassia Extract, 143
Quassia Fluidextract, 143
Quassia Tincture, 144
Quininae et ureae Hydrochloridum, 85
Quininae Sulphas, 84
Quinine Sulphate, 84
Quinine and Urea Hydrochloride, 85
Rectified Oil of Turpentine, 117
Red Iodide of Mercury, 102
Red Wine, 38
Reduced Iron, 91
Red Pepper, 75
Resin of Jalap, 144
Resina Jalapa, 144
Rhamnus Purshiana, 145
Rheum, 146
Rhubarb, 146
Rhubarb Compound Powder, 146
Rhubarb Fluidextract, 146
Rum, 38
Saccharated Ferrous Carbonate, 92
Sal Ammoniac, 54
Salicin, 147
Salicinum, 147
Salicylas Sodium, 28
Salicylic Acid, 28
Salol, 29
Saltpeter, 139
Salts (Epsom), 109
Salts of Tartar, 135
Silver Nitrate, 54
Sinapis Alba, 148
Sinapis Nigra, 148
Soap Liniment, 72
Socotrine Aloes, 41
Sodii Benzoas, 67
Sodii Bromidum, 134
Sodii Chloridum, 150
Sodii Salicylas, 28
Sodii Sulphas, 151
Sodii Thiosulphas, 152
Sodium, Salicylas, 28
Sodium Benzoate, 67
Sodium Bicarbonate, 150
Sodium Bromide, 134
Sodium Chloride, 150
Sodium Sulphate, 151
Sodium Thiosulphate, 152
Solution of Ammonia Acetate, 52
Solution of Ferri Chloride, 93
Solution of Ferric Subsulphate, 93
Solution of Lead Subacetate, 132
Solution of Potassium Arsenite, 58
Solution of Potassium Hydroxide, 137
Solution of Zinc Chloride, 163
Spanish Fly, 74
Spirit Ammonia, 50
Spirit of Camphor, 72
Spirit of Chloroform, 78
Spirit of Ether, 34
Spirit of Glonoin, 155
Spirit of Glyceryl Trinitrate, 155
Spirit of Nitrous Ether, 153
Spirits Vini Gallici, 37
Spiritus Aetheris, 34
Spiritus Aetheris Compositus, 34
Spiritus Aetheris Nitrosi, 153
Spiritus Ammoniae, 50
Spiritus Ammoniae Aromaticus, 51
Spiritus Camphorae, 72
Spiritus Chloroform, 78
Spiritus Frumenti, 37
Spiritus Glycerylis Nitratis, 155
Spiritus Juniperi Compositus, 37
Stronger Ammonia Water, 50
Strychnina, 112
Strychnine, 112
Strychnine Sulphate, 112
Strychninae Sulphas, 112
Sulphate of Aluminum, 45
Sugar of Lead, 131
Sulphate of Atrophine, 64
Sulphate of Copper, 88
Sulphate of Copper, 91
Sulphate of Iron, Dried, 91
Sulphate of Magnesium, 109
Sulphate of Morphine, 123
Sulphate of Quinine, 84
Sulphate of Strychnine, 112
Sulphate of Zinc, 160
Sulphate of Sodium, 151
Sulphur Flowers, 156
Sulphur Lotum, 156
Sulphur Ointment, 156
Sulphur Precipitatum, 156
Sulphur Sublimatum, 156
Sulphur Sublimed, 156
Sulphur Washed, 156
Sweet Flag, 68
Sweet Oil, 114
Sweet Spirits of Niter, 153
Syrupus Ferri Iodidi, 92
Syrup of Ferrous Iodide, 92
Tables used in Prescription Writing, 21
Tables Regulating the Doses for Young
Animals, 21-22
Tables of Weights and Measures, 21
Tar, 130
Tar Oil, 130
Tar Ointment, 130
Taraxacum, 158
Taraxacum Extract, 158
Taraxacum Fluidextract, 158
Tartar Emetic, 48
Terebene, 117
Terebenum, 117
Terpin Hydrate, 117
Terpini Hydras, 117
Tinctura Aconiti, 31
Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhae, 42
Tinctura Arnicae, 56
Tinctura Belladonnae Foliorum, 63
Tinctura Benzoini, 67
Tinctura Benzoini Composita, 67
Tinctura Cantharidis, 74
Tinctura Capsici, 76
Tinctura Digitalis, 90
Tinctura Calumbae, 70
Tinctura Gambir Composita, 97
Tinctura Gentianae Composita, 99
Tinctura Hydrastis, 104
Tinctura Ipecacuanhae et Opii, 121
Tinctura Nucis Vomicae, 112
Tinctura Opii, 121
Tinctura Opii Camphorata, 121
Tincture Aconite, 31
Tincture of Aloes and Myrrh, 42
Tincture of Arnica, 56
Tincture of Belladonna Leaves, 63
Tincture Benzoin, 67
Tincture of Calumba, 70
Tincture of Capsicum, 76
Tincture Cantharides, 74
Tincture of Digitalis, 90
Tincture of Ferric Chloride, 93
Tincture Hydrastis, 104
Tincture of Ipecac and Opium, 121
Tincture of Nux Vomica, 112
Tincture of Opium, 121
Tincture Quassiae, 144
Tincture Rhei Aromatica, 147
Tincture Zingiberis, 159
Turpentine, 116
Turpentine Liniment, 117
Tincturus Ferri Chloridi, 93
Unguentum Belladonnae, 63
Unguentum Picis Liquidae, 130
Unguentum Sulphuris, 156
Unguentum Zinci Oxide, 162
Vaseline, 128
Vinum Album, 38
Vinum Opii, 122
Vinum Rubrum, 38
Vitriol, Blue, 88
Vitriol, Green, 91
Weights and Measures Tables, 21
Whisky, 37
White Mustard, 148
White Wine, 38
Wine of Opium, 122
Wine, Red, 38
Wine, White, 38
Yellow Mercuric Oxide, 103
Zinc Acetate, 162
Zinc Chloride, 162
Zinc Chloride Solution, 163
Zinc Oxide, 161
Zinc Sulphate, 160
Zinc Sulphocarbolate, 160
Zinci Acetas, 162
Zinci Carbonas Praecipitatus, 161
Zinci Chloridum, 162
Zinci Oxidum, 161
Zinci Phenolsulphonas, 160
Zinci Sulphas, 160
Zingiber, 159
 Transcriber’s Notes
Inconsistent, archaic and unusual spelling,
hyphenation, capitalisation, etc. have been
retained, except as mentioned below. This
includes the use of Linne for Linné, atrophine for
atropine, Qussia for Quassia, incontinuence for
incontinence, Reisling and Resiling for Riesling;
Chichona and Cinchona; chlorid and chlorate for
chloride, etc. that may either be deliberately used
alternative spellings or typographical errors.
Individual medicines have been treated as sections,
which were (when applicable) grouped together in
chapters based on their common compound.
The book has several sentences where a word (or
some words) may be missing; these have not
been corrected, unless mentioned below.
Depending on the hard- and software used and their
settings, not all elements may display as intended.
Page 36, miscible with ether chloroform: presumably
miscible with ether and chloroform.
Page 37, owe their flavor to bouquet to ethers: as
printed in the source document; possibly an error
for ... to a bouquet of ethers.
Page 41, 20 gr. to 1 dr.: the animal for this dose is
not mentioned, but is possibly the dog.
Page 46, distillation of nitric and amylic alcohol:
possibly an error for ... nitric acid and amylic
alcohol.
Page 51, These four proportions of ammonia:
possibly an error for These four preparations of
ammonia; alcoholic proportions: possibly an error
for alcoholic preparations.
Page 85, 97, U. S.: presumably U. S. P. (for
Pharmacopoeia) as elsewhere.
Changes:
Many minor obvious typographical errors have been
corrected silently.
Aquous and aqueous have been standardised to
aqueous; columba and calumba to calumba;
hydrastic to hydrastis.

Page Source document Changed to

7 Antiferement. Antiferment.
9 Commony Elaterium Common Elaterium
10 seatons setons
Cautery Potenteal. Cautery Potential.
12 Pancratin Pancreatin
13 Epispostic. Epispastic.
14 Segenaroot Senegaroot
17 borac acid boric acid (boracic
acid might also
be appropriate)
24 quaqua—hora quaqua-hora
Oclarius Octarius
Unguntum Unguentum
25 crystitis cystitis
26 cresol creosol
PHENO—ACIDUM PHENOL—ACIDUM
CARBOLICUM— CARBOLICUM—
CARBOLIC ACID CARBOLIC ACID
30 horney horny
32 perotidities perotiditis (also
called parotiditis
elsewhere in the
book)
41 Aloe chinenisis Aloe chinensis
50 AQUA AMMONIAE AQUA AMMONIAE
FORTOR FORTIOR
53 the oxygens, the oxygen carrying
carrying power power
intestinal paristalsis intestinal peristalsis
55 ARGENTE NITRAS ARGENTI NITRAS
MITIGATUS MITIGATUS
56 senuses of fistulous sinuses of fistulous
withers withers
58 ARSENIC TROXIDE ARSENIC TRIOXIDE
LIQUOR POTASSII LIQUOR POTASSII
ARSENTIS ARSENITIS
59 excharotic escharotic
60 exidation exudation
acidum arcenosum acidum arsenosum
61 Aspidum Filix—mas Aspidium Filix-mas.
62 aspedium aspidium
65 pharangitis pharyngitis
66 stryrax styrax
68 rheumatic effections rheumatic affections
69 abraided surfaces abraded surfaces
70 CAMBOGIA GAMBOGIA (this
section is no
longer in
alphabetical order
after the
correction)
TINCLURA TINCTURA
CALUMBAE CALUMBAE
73 stangury strangury
75 adaps adeps
83 antonic indigestion atonic indigestion
84 the action of quinine the action of
or micro- quinine on micro-
 organisms ... organisms ...
86 neurectony neurectomy
97 Uncaria Gembier, Uncaria Gambir,
Roxb. Roxb.
100 albumenates albuminates
101 emisis emesis
103 GOLDEN ZEAL GOLDEN SEAL
106 parasitide parasiticide
disquamatic desquamatic
110 Commandel Coast Coromandel Coast
112 anyl alcohol amyl alcohol
116 alvein secretions alvine secretions
Pinus paulstris Pinus palustris
120 The Smyram, or The Smyrna, or
Turkey opium Turkey opium
123 ammonical ammoniacal
126 bismuth sub. nitrate bismuth subnitrate
129 electuries electuaries
130 OLEUM PISIS OLEUM PICIS
132 repeated header deleted
PREPARATIONS
138 scirrhus scirrhous
142 internally in purperalinternally in
puerperal
152 chologogue cholagogue
153 All ethyl-nitrate to Add ethyl-nitrate to
157 psoriases psoriasis
159 Zingiber officiale Zingiber officinale
162 acedious acidious
165 ff., duplicate entry Acid, removed
Index Carbolic
Argenti Nitras Fusus moved to proper
place
Entry Ether moved from
separate entry
(directly before
Chittem Bark) to
the second line of
entry Chloroform
compared with
Wand Measures Weights and
Tables Measures Tables
Several corrected in order
typographical to conform to the
errors text; when
necessary the
entries concerned
were moved to
their proper
places after
correction.
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