Week 1: Introduction

to Psychology

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Learning Objectives:

Understand the main components of Psychology

Familiarize with the historical path and the pioneers of the field
Apprehend the main Psychological School of Thoughts

1.1 A historical review of Psychology

According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 2017), Psychology is

defined as ‘the scientific study of the mind and behavior’. This broad field applies
on every human experience (e.g. throughout the lifespan) and professional
psychologists can be located in a variety of settings ranging from research centers
to mental health care services (APA, 2017).The word psychology derives from the
Greek words, psychy (meaning soul) and logos, (meaning word or reason)
(Carlson, Martin, & Buskist, 2004, pp. 4).

Important to note that until the 1870’s, Psychology was a branch of philosophy.
After this period a distinct discipline started to arise in Germany and the United
States. Psychology as a scientific field started to rise during the 1880s, with the
work of some of the pioneers of psychology: Wilhelm Wundt, William James, and
Herman Ebbinghaus. The foundations of psychology can be found in the work of
the philosophers Descartes and Locke and the scientist Charles Darwin (Hayes,
2000, pp. 2).

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1.1.2 Descartes
The philosopher René Descartes (1596- 1650) and his well- known idea the
Cartesian Dualism was highly influential for psychology as a field. According to
the philosopher, the body and the mind are two separate and independent parts.
The body is a machine which works in a mechanistic manner whereas the soul is
the ‘seat of the soul’. The soul only interacts with the body through the brain but is
not part of the body. Due to their separate nature, the mind cannot be affected by
the body. Many years after Descartes idea, the scientific work recognized that
mind and body are highly interrelated (Hayes, 2000, pp. 2).

1.1.3 Locke
John Locke (1632-1704) argued that knowledge can only be obtained through the
senses, the experience, and the observations. According to Locke, human beings do
not inherit knowledge or instincts; they are born tabula rasa (black slate meaning
empty canvas), and they are ready to learn from their experience and their
interaction with the environment. This view is known as Empiricism. Empiricists
supported that the internal processes (e.g. thinking) cannot be observed, therefore
are unimportant for the study of human behavior. This approach was further
expanded by David Hume (1711-1776) (Carlson, Martin, and Buskist, 2004, pp.
20).

1.1.4 Darwin
The third theory that influenced psychology, were the ideas described by Charles
Darwin (1859) and the Theory of Evolution. This approach is known as
Functionalism. Essentially, this theory supports that environmental demands result
in a continuous process of development of the species and their adaptation.
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The adaptation happens gradually through genetic change. This is often referred to
as the principle of the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, human beings
are relatives with species such as the apes. This means that human beings are part
of an ‘evolutionary continuum’ and share a number of characteristics with their
close relatives (Hayes, 2000, pp. 2). One of the first psychologists that studied the
influence of genetics on human behavior was Francis Galton (Carlson, Martin, and
Buskist, 2004, pp. 24).

1.2 Psychological School of Thoughts

Since the 17th century, various philosophers became interested on how the human
mind worked and began its experimental evaluation.

1.2.1 Introspectionist Psychology

The Introspectionist school of thought focused on the functions of the brain

through the analyzation and their personal experiences and the experiences of their
assistants. In these initial steps of the scientific study of behavior, this method
provided important information. The three most well-known introspectionist
psychologists were Wilhelm Wundt, William James, and Herman Ebbinghaus.

• Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig (1879).

This scientist examined several problems such as physiological psychology,
reaction time, attention and social psychology. This period is often
considered as the beginning of modern psychology, and hence, Wundt is
often referred to as the father of psychology.

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 • William James investigated mental experience through introspection
focusing on the individuals or personal experiences.
• Herman Ebbinghaus(1885), provided influential findings from his study on
human memory.
(Hayes, 2000, pp. 2)

1.3 Behaviorism

1.3.1 Edward Thorndike

One of the first behaviorists is Edward Thorndike, who studied the behavior of
animals. Through his research work, he supported that ‘acts that produce
satisfaction become associated with the specific situation, therefore, when the same
situation occurs again, the action is more likely to re-emerge. On the other hand,
any action that produces discomfort becomes disassociated from that situation;
then, when the situation occurs again the behavior is less likely to happen again;
this is known as the law of effect (Carlson, Martin, and Buskist, 2004, pp. 24).

1.3.2 John Watson

Another important figure of behaviorism is John B. Watson (also known as the
fathers of Behaviorism). He argued that psychology should be scientific and should
be based on observable measures. Until then, studying the insights of the mind was
impossible. The only observable and the objectively measurable element was the
behavior (Hayes, 2000, pp. 2). Watson’s most well-known and controversial
experiment is the "Little Albert" experiment (see VIDEO: The little Albert
Experiment – YouTube for more information).

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According to Watson, a behavior occurs through simple associations (connections)
between stimuli of the external environment, and responses made by the organism.
Therefore, human behaviors are merely learned through stimulus-response (S-R)
associations. Watson’s assumptions were based on five fundamental pylons:

• Behavior can be understood through learning

• Learning occurs from the associations between an external stimulus and a
behavioral response
• Only objective and measurable information count as valid scientific data
• Any mental process (that is not observable) should be rejected

1.3.3 Ivan Pavlov- Classical Conditioning

Pavlov observed animals and their learned response to environmental stimuli; this
is known as the ‘Classical Conditioning’. Pavlov observed how dogs salivated
when they saw their food. Initially, salivation occurred only as a response to the
food itself. Then Pavlov reasoned that the dogs must have learned this association.
By ringing a bell each time food was delivered to the dogs, he managed to support
how new stimulus-response associations can be formed. The scientist found out
that a dog could be trained to salivate at the sight of completely arbitrary stimuli
e.g. the sound of a bell if the arbitrary stimulus speedily followed by the food being
handed to the animal (Carlson, Martin, and Buskist, 2004, pp. 24).

1.3.4 Skinner- Operant Conditioning

In line with the previous ideas, B.F. Skinner introduced another form of stimulus-
response associations named as Operant Conditioning. According to Skinner,
learning happens as a result of the consequences that follow an action. In brief, if

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an organism was rewarded in any way for performing an action, then the action is
more likely to be repeated. This reward might be positive (e.g. receiving a food,
shelter, sex) or it might be negative, i.e. removing some unpleasant stimulus.

These mechanisms were later used by Skinner to form new actions, a process
known as Behavior Shaping. An organism is rewarded for performing an action
similar to the one that is aimed. Gradually, the behavior occurs more often and
even more similar to the goal. This process gradually shapes a behavior.

1.4 Gestalt
Gestalt psychology was developed in Germany in response to behaviorism and the
Stimulus- Response approach. Psychologists investigated aspects of human
experience which they felt were whole in them. According to Gestalt theorists, the
whole was much more than just the sum of its parts, whether in perception, in
thinking, or in learning.

1.5 Genetic Epistemology

Another important approach that emerged in Europe is the Genetic Epistemology.
One of the pioneers of this approach is Jean Piaget who examined how humans’
thinking evolves. He aimed to identify how formal logic is developed through
studying children’s thinking in every developmental stage.

1.6 Psychoanalysis
The pioneer of this approach is Sigmund Freud. The focus of psychoanalysis was
the unconscious mind (consciousness processes that are visible and observable to

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the self vs unconsciousness the inaccessible part of the brain) and how it affects a
person’s thinking and physical well-being. According to Freud, the human mind
has three distinct constructs that interact and form the personality:

A. Ego: is the self that controls behavior. It is the part that acts as a
mediator, negotiating between the other two constructs, and is driven by
the reality principle
B. Id: is the part of the self that involves all of the human impulses,
emotions and desires that demand instant gratification. The Id contains
the libido (the primary source of instinctual motivation for all psychic
forces). This part of the brain obeys only to one rule the pleasure
principle (obtain immediate gratification)

C. Superego: is the part of the self that involves the social duty, the
responsibility. It is divided into the conscience and the ego-ideal. The
conscience is the internalization of the society’s rules which clarifies the
acceptable behaviors and punishes inappropriate behaviors through
feelings of guilt. The ego-ideal is the internalization of the ideal-self i.e.
what a person would like to be.
(Carlson, Martin & Buskist, 2004, pp. 599)
Another important concept of Psychoanalysis is the theory about the Defense
Mechanisms. According to Freud, the Ego contains defense mechanisms that are
activated whenever unconscious drives of the id come into conflict with
internalized prohibitions of the superego. Whenever anxiety is produced by such a
conflict the Ego signals in motion one of the defense mechanisms.

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Defense Description Example
Mechanism

Repression The mind’s effort to Failing to remember an extremely

prevent traumatic memories upsetting event that occurred
from reaching conscious earlier in life
awareness

Reaction Substituting an anxiety- Disliking a person but acting in a

Formation provoking idea with its friendly manner towards them

opposite

Projection One does not accept his/her Denying that you have negative
negative feelings then see feelings about someone instead
them as projections from supporting that the other person
the others has negative feelings towards you

Sublimation Channeling psychic energy Diverting energy from the sex

from an unacceptable drive drive to produce a work of art
into a more acceptable one

Rationalisation Creating an acceptable Donating money to charities

reason for a behavior that because you are a generous
actually has an person but intend to receive a tax
unacceptable motive relief for the donation

Conversion A psychic conflict appears A conflict causes you to develop

in terms of physical symptoms of deafness or
symptoms blindness to avoid contact with
them

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Among others, Freud described the personality development involving the passage
through distinct psychosexual stages (each stage involves seeking pleasure from
specific parts of the body called erogenous zones).
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage
3. Phallic Stage
4. Genital Stage
(Carlson, Martin, & Buskist, 2004, pp. 601)

1.7 Humanistic Psychology

After the WW1 a third school of thought emerged, known as the Humanistic
Psychology. Two key theorists were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. A central
part of the humanistic approach is the idea that human beings are not just passive
victims of the circumstances, or their early experiences. Humanists argue that
human beings strive to develop themselves and to fulfil their intellectual and
emotional potential, this is known as self-actualization.

According to Maslow (1970), self-actualization achieved when all needs are

satisfied and individuals are able to realize their full potential. In addition, he
supported in order to understand ones needs; one should evaluate the person’s
hierarchy of needs. The basic level of needs is the physiological needs (e.g. food,
water, oxygen, rest etc.). These needs need to be met in order to be motivated by
the needs of the next level. The second level includes the safety needs (e.g.
security, comfort, peace and freedom from fear). The third level incorporates the
attachment needs (need to love and be loved, have friends and to be a friend). The
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fourth step involves esteem needs (e.g. competency and recognition), and lastly the
self- actualization (achieving ones full potential).

(Carlson, Martin, & Buskist, 2004, pp. 604)

(McLeod, 2016)

1.8 Cognitive Psychology

During the late 1950s and early 1960s and the beginning of the technological
revolution, led to a growing interest towards the human cognition (e.g. vigilance,
attention and memory).

(Hayes, 2000, pp. 12)

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The table below summarizes the five main areas of Psychology, established by the

British Psychological Society:

Area of Description

Psychology

Cognitive Studies how people think, learn and remember. Cognitive

psychology Psychologists typically study language, learning, perception,

attention, decision-making, memory and problem-solving

Biological Studies how brain, neurons, and nervous system influence

psychology feelings, thoughts and behaviors. This field covers many

different disciplines including basic psychology, neuroscience,

biology, physiology etc. Biological Psychologists often study

the impact of brain injuries and brain diseases on human

behavior

Focuses on the group behavior and elements such as social

Social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and

psychology prejudice. Also, is concerned with social influences on

behavior and how people perceive and interact with others

Developmental Studies how people change and grow throughout their lifespan.

psychology They typically focus on physical growth, intellectual

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 development, social growth, emotional changes and perceptual

changes that occur throughout the lifespan. This field covers a

variety of topics from prenatal development to Alzheimer's

disease.

Differential Studies the ways individuals differ in their behavior and the

psychology processes underlying their behavior. This field is concerned

with many different topics including personality research,

intelligence studies, and research on self-perception,

understanding motivation, etc.

(McLeod, 2008)

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References:

American Psychological Association. (2017). How does the APA define

"psychology”? Available at http://www.apa.org/support/about-apa.aspx

Carlson, N. R.,Martin, G. N., & Buskist, W. (2004). Psychology (2nd ed). Harlow.

England: Pearson.

Hayes, N. (2000). Foundations of psychology. Cengage Learning EMEA.

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Psychology as a Science. Retrieved from

www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html

McLeod, S. A. (2016). Id, Ego and Superego [Online image]. Retrieved from

www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html

McLeod, S. A. (2016). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs [Online image]. Retrieved

from www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Psychestudy. (2017). Pavlov Classical Conditioning [Online Image]. Retrieved

from https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/classical-

conditioning/pavlov

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