Transistor Amplifiers

The figure shows a single stage transistor amplifier.

When a weak a.c. signal is applied to the base of
transistor, a small base current (which is a.c.) starts
flowing. Due to transistor action, a much larger
(β IB) a.c. current flows through the collector load RC.
As the value of RC is quite high (usually 4-10 kΩ), a
large voltage appears across RC. Thus, a weak signal
applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in
the collector circuit. It is in this way that a transistor
acts as an amplifier.

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 Practical transistor Amplifier

(i) Biasing circuit. The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization
circuit. The biasing circuit must establish a proper operating point otherwise a part of
the negative half-cycle of the signal may be cut off in the output.
(ii) Input capacitor Cin. An electrolytic capacitor Cin (~ 10 μF ) is used to couple the
signal to the base of the transistor. If it is not used, the signal source resistance will
come across R2 and thus change the bias. The capacitor Cin allows only a.c. signal to
flow but isolates the signal source from R2.
2
(iii) Emitter bypass capacitor CE. An emitter bypass capacitor CE (~ 100μF ) is
used in parallel with RE to provide a low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal. If
it is not used, then amplified a.c. signal flowing through RE will cause a voltage drop
across it, thereby reducing the output voltage.
(iv) Coupling capacitor CC. The coupling capacitor CC (~ 10μF) couples one stage
of amplification to the next stage. The coupling capacitor CC isolates the d.c. of one
stage from the next stage, but allows the passage of a.c. signal.

Phase Relationships
The following points regarding the input / output phase relationships between
currents and voltages for the various transistor configurations may be noted :
(i) For every amplifier type (CE, CB and CC), the input and output currents are
in phase.
(ii) The common emitter (CE) circuit is the only configuration that has input and
output voltages 180° out of phase.
(iii) For both common base (CB) and common collector (CC) circuits, the input
and output voltages are in phase.

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Importance of CE
• Suppose RE = 1000Ω and capacitive reactance XC of CE (1/(2π𝑓𝐶)) at the signal frequency is
100Ω. Then 10/11 of a.c. emitter current will flow through CE and only 1/11 through RE.
• The signal voltage developed across RE is, therefore, only 1/11 of the voltage which would
have been developed if CE were not present.
• CE is selected so that it almost entirely bypasses the a.c. signal.
• A good choice for CE is that XC should be at least 1/10 of RE.
• For all practical purposes, CE is a short for a.c. signals.
• The value of CE is selected such that it provides bypassing for the lowest of all the
frequencies. Then it will also be a good bypass for all the higher frequencies.

• The following amplifier is to operate between 200Hz and 10KHz. Determine a suitable value
for CE.

4
DC and AC Equivalent circuit
D. C. equivalent circuit. Only d.c. conditions are to be considered. As capacitors
block dc currents, all the capacitors look like open circuits in the d.c. equivalent
circuit. To draw the equivalent d.c. circuit,
(a) Reduce all a.c. sources to zero.
(b) Open circuit all the capacitors.
The following DC circuit for the amplifier on slide 2 will be obtained

The dc voltages and currents can then be obtained.

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A.C. equivalent circuit.
In the a.c. equivalent circuit only a.c. conditions are to be considered. The capacitors
are generally used to couple or bypass the a.c. signal and are large enough to appear
as short circuits to the a.c. signal. To draw the a.c. equivalent circuit,
(a) Reduce all d.c. sources to zero (i.e. VCC = 0).
(b) Short all the capacitors.
The following ac equivalent circuit will result

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The two-port model
An amplifier can be considered to be a two-port system as shown.

It has an open circuit or

no load voltage gain of
AVNL=AO = AV = VO/VI

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If a load RL is connected at the output, the voltage gain is

vL RL
AVL  and vL   AV vi where vo  Av vi
vi RL  Z o
RL
 AV vi
RL  Z o RL AV vi
 AVL  
vin RL  Z o vi
and since A V  A VO  A VNL then;
RL
 AVL  AVO
RL  Z o  8
The voltage gain taking the source and load into consideration.

vL RL
AVSL  and vL   AV vin
vS RL  Z o
RL
 AV vin
R  Zo RL AV vin Zi
 AVSL  L  and vin   vS
vS RL  Z o vS RS  Z i 
Zi
RL AV vS
 AVSL 
RS  Z i   A RL Zi
RL  Z o vS V
RL  Z o  RS  Z i 
and since A V  A VO then;
Zi RL
 AVSL  AVO
RS  Z i  RL  Z o 

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Transistor Models
• A model is an equivalent circuit that represents the AC
characteristics of the transistor.

• A model uses circuit elements that approximate the

behavior of the transistor.

• There are two models commonly used in small signal AC

analysis of a transistor:
– re model
– Hybrid equivalent model

• BJTs are basically current-controlled devices; therefore the re model

uses a diode and a current source to duplicate the behavior of the
transistor.
• re is the ac dynamic resistance of a forward biased BE junction, this
is similar to the dynamic resistance for a diode
26mV
re 
I E (mA) 10
Common Emitter Model

11
Common Emitter Base-biased amplifier

12
 Common Emitter Small Signal Equations

rin(base) = (+1)re = β re
rin(stage) Zi = RB // (+1)re

rout = rC // RC and since rC >> RC ; then rout ≈ RC

rL = RC // rC // RL and since rC>>RC and RL then:

rL = RC // RL

vO ib( RC rC )  ( RC rC ) RC
AVO    AVO   AVO  
vin   1re  ib   1re re

Notice that the negative sign indicates the output signal is

inverted (180 °) from the input signal.
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The voltage gain taking the load into consideration is

RL
AVL  AVO OR
RL  rout

vL ib  rL rL rL
AVL     AVL  
vin   1re  ib   1re re

Taking the source into consideration

vL Zi RL
AVSL  and recall that AVSL  AVO
vS rS  Z i  RL  rout 
If rS<< Zi then:  RL 
AVSL  AVO  
 RL  rout 
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Load Lines and Compliance (maximum output signal swing)
IC (mA)

ic(sat)

AC Load Line
IC(sat)

Q-Point
ICQ DC Load Line

VCEQ vce(off) VCE(off) V (Volts)

CE
(VCC)

DC Load Line: Limit #1 (Cutoff) When VCE(OFF) = VCC

Limit #2 (Saturation) when VCE (sat) = 0.2 or 0.3

VCC  VCE ( sat ) VCC  (0.2)

 I C ( sat )  therefore I C ( sat ) 
RC RC
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 IC (mA)

ic(sat) AC Load Line:

AC Load Line
Limit # 1 (AC Cutoff)
IC(sat)
When:
Q-Point
ICQ DC Load Line vce(off) = VCEQ + ICQ rL
Limit
VCE(Volts) #2 (AC Saturation)
VCEQ vce(off) VCE(off)
(VCC) When:
VCEQ
ic ( sat)  I CQ 
rL

Maximum Undistorted Signal Swing (compliance) occurs when:

whichever of the following is the smallest.
2VCEQ OR 2(vce(off) - VCEQ)

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If an emitter resistor is added as shown

KVL at the input gives Here Zb is the input impedance at the

base and Zi the input impedance of
the stage.

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The input impedance Zb looking in at the base of the transistor is

Since β is much greater than1, this approximates to

and RE  re, it further reduces to

The input impedance of the stage is Zi = RB//Zb

The output impedance is Zo = RC.
The open circuit voltage gain AV is
𝑉𝑜 −𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐶 −𝛽𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐶 −𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉 = = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑏 𝑍𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝛽𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
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Notice that by adding RE, the gain becomes much more dependent
on RE rather than re. This makes the gain much more predictable
and is now a function of external components (specifically RE ).

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 Voltage Divider Biased CE Amplifier
+VCC
R1 RC

C2
rS C1 RL
vS R2 RE

All equations are the same as the base biased CE with emitter resistor with the
exception of the input impedance.
The input impedance of the stage is Zi = RB//Zb where Rb is now
R1//R2 and Zb = (re +RE) as before.
The output impedance is Zo = RC.
The open circuit voltage gain AV is
𝑉𝑜 −𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐶 −𝛽𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐶 −𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉 = = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑏 𝑍𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝛽𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸 20
 Voltage Divider Biased CE Amplifier with RE bypassed

Note that RE is short

circuited by CE for
AC

AC Equivalent Circuit

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Voltage Divider Equations (Emitter resistor bypassed)

Recall that RTH = R1 // R2

vin
ZB  but vin  ib (   1)re
ib

ZB 
ib (   1)re 
ib
Z B  (   1)re  re
The input impedance of the stage is
Zi  R1 R2 Z B

rout = RC //rC and if rC is >>RC then;

rout  RC

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 vo ibRC RC R
AVO     C
vin ib(   1)re (   1)reE re
RC
 AVO  
re
vL ibRC // RL   RC // RL   RC // RL 
AVL    
vin ib(   1)re (   1)re re
R // RL  and if we let r  R // R
 AVL   C L C L
re
r
 AVL   L
re

The current gain is the same as the base biased CE.

Where RB is RTH=R1//R2 and Zb =βre

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For the circuit shown, draw the DC and AC load lines. Determine the Maximum
symmetrical swing, the input and output impedances and the voltage gain.

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25
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Example:
Determine the Q-point, rin(stage), rout, AVO, and AVSL . Draw the DC and
AC load lines.

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Universal Biased CE Amplifier with the Emitter Partially Bypassed
+VCC
R1 RC C2
vL
rS C1 RL
vO
RE1
vS R2 vin
RE2
CE

Note that the AC Equivalent Circuit will include RE1 but exclude RE2
as it is bypassed.
For DC calculations the full RE = RE1 + RE2 must be used.
Hence the AC equations for input and output impedance will be as
calculated previously and the gain will now be
𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = −
𝑅𝐸1
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 Small Signal CC or Emitter Follower Amplifier Model

AC Equivalent Circuit

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The input impedance is

𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 ฮ𝑍𝑏
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑏 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 + 𝛽 + 1 𝑅 𝐸
and if 𝑅𝐸 ≫ 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 ≫ 𝛽 + 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 ฮ𝛽𝑅𝐸

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This equation represents the following circuit and using Thevenin’s
method to find Zo we get
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝐸 ฮ𝑟𝑒 ≈ 𝑟𝑒

The voltage gain can be found from the

𝑍𝑜 𝑉𝑖
circuit since 𝑉𝑜 = hence rearranging to
𝑍𝑜 +𝑟𝑒
𝑉𝑜 𝑍𝑜
get = = 𝐴𝑣𝑜 ≈ 1
𝑉𝑖 𝑍𝑜 +𝑟𝑒

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•In summary then, the CC amplifier has a gain<1, a medium to high
input resistance, a very low output resistance and NO signal phase
inversion from input to output. This type of circuit is used as a
buffer to match a high resistance device to a low impedance load.
This circuit configuration is also called an Emitter Follower.
Example: For the following CC amplifier circuit, determine re, the
input and output impedances and AVO

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