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Advance Computer Network

About Subject ACN ( elective ) -:

In Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education (MSBTE) diploma programs, an elective
subject is a course that students can choose from a set of options, in addition to the core
curriculum. Elective subjects allow students to tailor their education to their interests and
career goals by selecting topics that are not mandatory but are available as part of the broader
curriculum. These subjects often provide specialized knowledge and skills that can enhance a
student's expertise in a particular area of their field.

The "Advanced Computer Network" subject in a diploma or engineering program typically covers in-
depth topics related to computer networking. The curriculum aims to provide students with a
comprehensive understanding of advanced networking concepts, protocols, and technologies.

Chapters / Syllabus

1. Network Layers & Protocols

2. Next Generation IP

3. Unicast & Multicast Routing Protocols

4. Transport Layer Protocols

5. Application Layer Protocols

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Chapter 1 -: Network Layers & Protocols ( Part 2 )

2.1 Explain Internet Protocol -:

In advanced computer networks, the Internet Protocol (IP) is a critical component that
enables devices to communicate across diverse networks. It’s the foundation of the Internet,
responsible for addressing, routing, and delivering packets of data from a source to a
destination.

IP determines the best path for data to travel from the source to the destination. Routers,
devices that connect different networks, use routing tables and protocols (like OSPF, BGP) to
manage and optimize this process.

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Key Concepts of Internet Protocol (IP):

1. IP Addressing:

Each device on a network is assigned a unique IP address, which acts like a postal address for
data packets. There are two main versions: IPv4 and IPv6.

▪ IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, allowing for about 4.3 billion unique addresses (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
▪ IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses, vastly expanding the number of possible addresses
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

2.2 Datagram Format -:

In advanced computer networks, a datagram is a basic unit of data that is transmitted across a
network, particularly in connectionless communication protocols like the Internet Protocol
(IP). The datagram format is crucial for understanding how data is structured and transmitted
between devices on a network.

Datagram Format Overview

A datagram typically consists of two main parts:

1. Header: Contains control information such as source and destination addresses, error
checking, and other metadata.
2. Payload: Contains the actual data being transmitted, often referred to as the "data
field."

Detailed Breakdown of an IPv4 Datagram Format

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An IPv4 datagram has a specific structure, consisting of a fixed-size header (minimum 20
bytes) and a variable-size payload. Here's a breakdown of the main fields in an IPv4
datagram:

1. Version (4 bits):
o Indicates the IP version being used. For IPv4, this value is 4.
2. Header Length (4 bits):
o Specifies the length of the IP header in 32-bit words. This is important because
the header can include optional fields that extend its length beyond the
standard 20 bytes.
3. Type of Service (8 bits):
o Also known as the Differentiated Services (DS) field, this specifies the priority
of the datagram and can be used to define Quality of Service (QoS) settings,
such as prioritizing voice or video traffic.
4. Total Length (16 bits):
o Indicates the total length of the IP datagram, including the header and payload.
The maximum size is 65,535 bytes.
5. Identification (16 bits):
o A unique identifier assigned to each datagram, used in the fragmentation and
reassembly process. If a datagram is fragmented, all fragments carry the same
identification number to be correctly reassembled by the destination.
6. Flags (3 bits):
o Controls fragmentation. The first bit is reserved, the second bit (Don't
Fragment, DF) indicates whether the datagram can be fragmented, and the
third bit (More Fragments, MF) indicates whether more fragments are coming.
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits):
o Indicates the position of a fragment within the original datagram. This is used
to reassemble the datagram correctly at the destination.
8. Time to Live (TTL) (8 bits):
o Limits the datagram's lifespan, measured in hops (i.e., the number of routers
the datagram can pass through). Each router that forwards the datagram
decreases the TTL by one. If TTL reaches zero, the datagram is discarded to
prevent it from circulating indefinitely.
9. Protocol (8 bits):

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o Specifies the higher-level protocol encapsulated in the payload (e.g., TCP,
UDP, ICMP). This helps the receiving system know how to interpret the data.
10. Header Checksum (16 bits):
o Provides error-checking for the header. The checksum is calculated for the
header only, not the entire datagram. If an error is detected, the datagram is
discarded.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits):
o The IP address of the sending device.
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits):
o The IP address of the receiving device.
13. Options (Variable length):
o Optional field that can be used for various network control features like
security, timestamping, and routing options. This field increases the header
length when used.
14. Padding (Variable length):
o Ensures the header is a multiple of 32 bits. Padding is used when the Options
field doesn’t fill out to a complete 32-bit word.
15. Payload (Variable length):
o Contains the actual data being transmitted. The length of this field is
determined by subtracting the header length from the total length. This field
can be up to 65,515 bytes, as the header takes up the remaining 20 bytes.

Datagram Transmission Process

1. Creation:
o The sender’s network stack creates the datagram, encapsulating the payload
with the appropriate header information.
2. Fragmentation (if necessary):
o If the datagram exceeds the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of the
network path, it’s fragmented into smaller pieces, each with its own header but
sharing the same identification number.
3. Transmission:
o The datagram (or its fragments) is routed through the network, with each
router examining the header to forward it toward its destination.

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4. Reassembly:
o If the datagram was fragmented, the destination reassembles the fragments
into the original datagram using the identification number and fragment offset.
5. Processing:
o The destination extracts the payload from the datagram and processes it
according to the protocol specified in the header (e.g., TCP, UDP).

Importance of the Datagram Format

• Efficiency: The datagram format ensures efficient use of network resources, allowing
data to be routed independently of the sender or receiver's state.
• Scalability: Datagram networks can easily scale, as each datagram is self-contained
and can be handled independently.
• Flexibility: The use of fragmentation and reassembly allows datagrams to traverse
networks with different MTU sizes, ensuring data delivery even in complex
environments.

2.3 Fragmentation -:

Fragmentation in advanced computer networks refers to the process of breaking down a large
data packet into smaller fragments so that it can be transmitted over a network that has a
smaller maximum transmission unit (MTU) size than the original packet. This process is
necessary when a packet is larger than the MTU supported by the network layer or the data
link layer of the underlying network.

Fragmentation is a crucial process in network communication, especially when dealing with

varying MTU sizes across different network segments. However, due to its inefficiencies,
advanced networks often use techniques like PMTUD to minimize or eliminate the need for
fragmentation.

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How Fragmentation Works:

1. Packet Size and MTU:

o The MTU is the largest size of a packet that a network protocol can handle.
For example, Ethernet has an MTU of 1500 bytes.
o If a packet exceeds the MTU, it needs to be fragmented.
2. Fragmentation Process:
o The original packet is divided into smaller fragments. Each fragment is small
enough to pass through the network's MTU.
o Each fragment is treated as an independent packet with its own headers,
including a fragment offset field that specifies the position of the fragment
within the original packet.
o The fragmentation process occurs at the network layer (Layer 3 of the OSI
model), typically by the router.
3. Reassembly:
o Once the fragments reach the destination, they are reassembled into the
original packet by the network layer protocol (usually IP).
o The reassembly is guided by the fragment offset field in each fragment.

Issues with Fragmentation:

1. Overhead:
o Fragmentation adds overhead because each fragment requires its own headers.
This increases the total amount of data sent across the network.

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2. Latency:
o Reassembling fragments at the destination can introduce delays, especially if
fragments arrive out of order or are lost.
3. Packet Loss:
o If one fragment is lost, the entire packet may need to be retransmitted, leading
to inefficiencies.
4. Security:
o Fragmented packets can be exploited by attackers to evade intrusion detection
systems (IDS) or to execute certain types of attacks, such as buffer overflows.

Use in Advanced Networks:

• Path MTU Discovery (PMTUD):

o To avoid fragmentation, modern networks often use Path MTU Discovery.
PMTUD determines the smallest MTU along the path between the source and
destination so that the source can send appropriately sized packets without the
need for fragmentation.
• IPv6 and Fragmentation:
o In IPv6, fragmentation is handled only at the source. Routers do not fragment
packets, so the source must ensure that packets are sized according to the
path's MTU.

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