DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY BIRNIN-KEBBI

Second Semester 2019/2020 Session

BIO 102: General Biology 11 [3 UNITS] [L30:P0:T30]

Lecture Notes

1.0 Kingdom Plantae

1.1 General Characteristics and Features of Kingdom Plantae

1. Members of the kingdom Plantae belongs to the eukaryotic domain of life
2. Plants are multicellular organism with the exception of algae
3. Plant body is either thalloid (as seen in algae and some of bryophytes) or differentiated into
root, stem and leaves and they show no active locomotion
4. They possess a cellulose cell wall and a central vacuoles
5. They play the ecological role of producers
6. They are mostly green photosynthetic autotrophs which manufacture their own food by
converting light energy into chemical-bond energy and providing oxygen for all aerobic
organisms
7. Some members of the Plantae are non-photosynthetic heterotrophs which can either be
saprophytic (example, Dutchmen’s pipe, Monotropa hypopitys ), parasitic (example,
Dodder or Cuscuta, Loranthus, Sandle wood etc) or insectivores (Examples, Nepenthes or
Pitcher plant, Drosera or Sundew, Dionaea or Venus’s fly-trap)
8. They carried out both asexual and sexual mode of reproduction. An embryo stage is present
except in algal group
9. Plants have haplodiplontic life cycles (i.e, they have both a diploid sporophytic stage and
a haploid gametophytic stage). The diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores which
develop into haploid gametophytes that produce haploid gametes.
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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
1.2 Divisions of the Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom is made up of 12 divisions. These divisions are broadly grouped into two (2)
based on the presence or absence of vascular tissues which facilitate the transport of water and
nutrients within the plants body. These are;

1. Vascular or higher plants: Those that have vascular tissues (water-conducting xylem and
food-conducting phloem strands of tissues in their stems, roots, and leaves), and
The vascular plants are further divided into;
i. Seed vascular plants (Phanerogams)
ii. Seedless vascular plants (Cryptogams)
2. Non-vascular or lower plants: Those that lack vascular tissues

1.2.1 The vascular seed plants (Phanerogams)

The vascular seed plants are grouped into five (5) division. They are;

A. Gymnosperms: The name gymnosperm means “naked seed.” The seeds are held in a cone or
fleshy structures and are not protected by an enclosed structure such as the fruit in angiosperms.
They do not bear flowers.
1. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo): This is a heterosporous (different spore bearing) vascular
seed plants. Only a single living species of tree exist, Ginkgo, a deciduous tree with
fan-shaped leaves that have evenly forking veins.
2. Cycadophyta (Cycad): This is a subtropical and tropical group of plants with a large
palm tree-like crown of compound pinnate leaves and a stout trunk. They are also
heterosporous individual vascular seed plant. There about 10 genera and 206 species.
3. Pinophyta (Coniferophyta): These are cone-bearing trees and shrubs. There are about
50 genera and 601 species. Examples are Juniper and Yew.
4. Gnetophyta: These are the only gymnosperms with vessels. They are a very diverse
group of trees, shrubs and vines plants across 3 genera (Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia)
with about 65 species.

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
B. Angiosperms: These are the well-known flowering plants. They are heterosporous individual
that bear seeds within a protective structure, a ripened ovary called the fruit.
5. Anthophyta or Magnoliophyta They comprises of a largely diverse groups of
herbaceous, shrubs, trees and vines. There are about 14,000 genera and 250,000
species. The flowering plants. The angiosperms are further grouped into dicotyledons
(magnoliidae, rosidae, asteridae) and monocotyledons (liliidae).

1.2.2 The vascular seedless plants (Cryptogams)

The vascular seed plants are grouped into four (4) divisions. They are;

1. Pterophyta (Fern): These are primarily homosporous (a few heterosporous) vascular

seedless plants. There are about 365 genera and 11, 000 species.
2. Psilophyta (Whisk Ferns): They are homosporous vascular seedless plants. There are 6
species.
3. Lycophyta (Club Mosses): These are homosporous or heterosporous vascular seedless
plants. There are about 12–13 genera and 1,150 species.
4. Arthrophyta (Horsetails): They are also homosporous vascular seedless plants. There is
only one genus, Equisetum and about 15 species.

1.2.3 The non-vascular plants (Crytogams)

These are known as unspecialized groups of plants called bryophytes. They consist of three (3)
divisions;

1. Bryophyta (Mosses): These are small, leaf-like non vascular plants. There are about 12,000
species. Example is the hair-cup moss, Polytrichum, and daisy
2. Hepaticophyta (Liverworts): Some common members of the liverworts have flattened
gametophytes with lobes resembling those of animal liver hence, the combination name
“liverwort.” About 8000 species exist. Example, Marchantia.
3. Anthocerotophyta (Hornworts): These are photosynthetic sporophytes, but they also depend
on the gametophyte for nutrition. About 300 species.
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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
 Kingdom Plantae

Nonvascular Plants
Vascular Plants (Bryophytes)
(Tracheophyte)

Seed Vascular Plants Seedless Vascular

(Spermatophytes/Phanerog Plants (Cryptogams)
ams)

Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
(Naked seed plants
(Flowering plants
with enclosed
seeds)
Cycadophyta (Cycad)

Psilophyta (Whisk
Pterophyta (Fern)
(Coniferophyta)

Anthocerotophyta
Lycophyta (Club
Anthophyta

Gnetophyta

Mosses
Arthrophyta
Ginkgophyta

Pinophyta

(Horsetails)

(Hornworts)

Hepaticophyta
(Ginkgo)

Mosses)
Ferns)

(Liverworts)

Figure 1: Divisions of Kingdom Plantae

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
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 Table 1: Differences between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
Angiosperms Gymnosperms

Definition These are seed-bearing These are seed-seed bearing

flowering plants with an non-flowering plants with
enclosed seed within an ovary naked seed bore on scales,
leaves or cones

Life cycle They are seasonal plants They are perennial evergreen
which can either be annual or plants
perennial

Cotyledons Present; one seed leaf or two Absent

seed-leaf

Tissue system Triploid (endosperm produced Haploid (endosperm produced

during triple fusion before fertilization)

Leaves Flat Scale-like, needle-like

Wood Hardwood Softwood

Reproduction Mostly rely on insects for Mostly rely on wind

pollination

Uses Used for medicine, foods, Used for paper, lumber etc
clothing production

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
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Table 2: Differences between Monocots and Dicots

1.3. Evolutionary origin of plants

An early algal line that developed the means of photosynthesis by primary endosysmbiosis evolved
into the green algae known as Charophytes and later diverged into the land plants: bryophytes,
seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms and then lastly the most successful group the angiosperms.
Algae are photosynthetic aquatic protists and they differ from plants in that they do not have true
roots, stems, or leaves. The whole algal body photosynthesizes and absorbs nutrients, and carbon
dioxide from the surrounding water whereas plants use leaves to photosynthesize, roots to draw
up water and nutrients, and vascular tissue to transfer materials through the stem.
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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
As plants began to transition and make their way onto land the environment that they encountered
was one that supported limitless growth and expansion. Tremendous solar energy and gaseous
carbon dioxide was available providing for high rates of photosynthesis. During this time animals
were also transitioning onto land and relatively few of them were herbivorous and plant pathogens
were also few in number. It was a good time to be a plant.

Life on land required plants to develop adaptations for which their green algal ancestors did not
have need in their aquatic habitat (Figure 2 below)

Land Plants
Liverworts
Origin of land Plants

Nonvascular Plants
(Bryophytes)
(~475 mya)

Ancestral
Green
Alga Hornworts

Mosses

Seedless Vascular
Lycophytes

(Cryptogams)
Plants
Vascular Plants Evolve
(~425 mya)

Pterophyte
s

(Tracheophytess)
Vascular Plants
(Spermatophytes/Phanerogams
Seed Plants Evolve

Gymnosperms
(~360 mya)

Angiosperms Seed Vascular Plants

)

Figure 2. Evolutionary origin of land plants

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
2.0. Kingdom – Monera General Characteristics and features

1. The kingdom belongs to the prokaryotes and they include eubacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae) and archebacteria.

2. The organisms are unicellular, colonial, mycelial and filamentous in form.

3. They lack true nuclei and other membrane bound organelles such as mitochondrion, chloroplast,
Golgi bodies, lysosomes etc. and DNA, which is the genetic material and is called nucleoid, is not
found associated with histone proteins; cell wall is often present but chemically made up material
other than cellulose.

4. Mode of nutrition varies from autotrophy to heterotrophy.

5. Sexual reproduction is absent and asexual reproduction may take place through fission,
fragmentation, budding and sporulation.

Bacteria were first observed by Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 using a single- lens microscope
of his own design; he called them "animalcules". Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 the
fermentation process caused by growth of microorganism and this growth is not due to
spontaneous generation. Robert Koch , was proved the germ theory and in 1910 Paul Ehrlich
developed the first antibiotic by using dyes to stained Treponema palliadium a spirochetes that
causes syphilis disease which result in killed this pathogen , with his work being the basis of the
Gram stain later.

Morphology of bacteria

Morphology of bacterial cell are not always constant on contrary to higher organisms because it
affected by many factors such as composition of media , temperature of incubation and pH values
etc., so, the description of bacteria usually restricted to young actively growing cultures under the
optimum conditions of growth but old cultures might show diverted characters of the organism.

When viewed under the light microscope, most bacteria appear in variations of four different
shapes:
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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
1- Spherical bacteria (cocci)

Cocci (coccus) a term derived from Greek (Kokkos), they are usually round but they may be oval
elongated have several groups arranged according to the manner in which the resulting cells
attaches together after division such as pairs

For example: Neisseria sp.

Or chains like Streptococcus sp.

Or clusters such as Grape like irregular clusters ex.

Staphylococcus

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
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2 - Rod shape (Bacilli)

The shape of the cells is like rod or bacilli on the base of cell arrangement.

Example Bacilli like E. coli, Salmonella

Or Streptobacilli ex. Bacillus anthrax

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Or Coma shaped bacilli like Vibrio cholera

3- Spirilla

Have a corkscrew shape with rigid cell wall and hair like projections called flagellum that assistant
movement

Example:. Treponema, Spirochete

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
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4 - Filamentous bacteria

The body of this type of bacteria consists of mycelium which resembles a mass of branched thin
non-septate hyphae similar to that of fungi such as Actinomycetes as seen in figure below.

Archaeabacteria

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko
These are tiny prokaryotic cells like bacteria, usually less than one micron long. Fortunately, the
electron microscope can magnify even these tiny microbes enough to distinguish their physical
features. The archaeal shapes are quite diverse, some are spherical, a form known as coccus, and
these may be perfectly round or lobed and lumpy. Some are rod-shaped, a form known as bacillus,
and range from short bar-shaped rods to long slender hair-like forms. Some oddball species have
been discovered with a triangular shape, or even a square shape like a postage stamp.

Archaea may have one or more flagella attached to them, or may lack flagella. The flagella are
hair-like appendages used for moving around, and are attached directly into the outer membrane
of the cell. Like bacteria, archaeans have no internal membranes. As with other living things,
archaeal cells have an outer cell membrane that serves as a barrier between the cell and its
environment. Within the membrane is the cytoplasm, where the living functions of the archean
take place and where the DNA is located.

Around the outside of nearly all archaeal cells is a cell wall, a semi-rigid layer that helps the cell
maintained its shape and chemical equilibrium. All three of these regions may be distinguished in
the cells of bacteria and most other living things, but when you take a closer look at each region,
you find that the similarities are merely structural, not chemical, for instance the cell walls of all
bacteria contain the chemical peptidoglycan.

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Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
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Fig. Basic archaeal structure

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Course coordinator: Prof. K. Shehu
Lecture time: Tuesday, 4pm-6pm
Lecture Venue: SLH Compiled by: Mr. OBADIAH, Caleb Dikko