University of Anbar

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

LECTURE NOTE
ENGINEERING SURVEYING

Chapter Two

By
Dr. Maher Shakir Dr. Hameed Aswad
Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

CHAPTER TWO
DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS USING TAPE

CHAIN SURVEYING
This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements only.
It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a
chain.
Equipment Used in Chain Surveying
This equipment can be divided into three, namely
a) Those used for linear measurement.
(Chain, steel band, linear tape)
b) Those used for slope angle
measurement and for measuring right
angle (eg. Abney level, clinometer,
cross staff, optical squares)
c) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).
1. Chain:-
The chain is usually made of steel wire and consists of long links joined by shorter links.
It is designed for hard usage and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and
offsets of small surveys.
They are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to centre of each middle
connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end.
2. Steel Bands:
This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and
13mm wide. It has handles similar to those on
the chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is
more accurate but less robust than the chain.
The operating tension and temperature for
which it was graduated should be indicated on
the band.

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

3. Tapes:
Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements is required, such as when setting
out buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long, marked in metres, centimetres and
millimetres. Tapes are classified into three types;

i. Linen or Linen with steel wire woven into the fabric;

ii. Fibre Glass Tapes
iii. Steel tapes:
4. Arrows:
They comprise a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long and are
used for marking temporary stations.

5. Pegs
They are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used for
points that must be permanently marked, like intersection points of survey lines.

6. Ranging Rod:
These are poles of circular sections 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with
characteristic red and white bands, which are usually 0.5m long and tipped
with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be driven into the ground. They
are used to measure lines with the tape and to mark any points that need to
be seen.

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

7. Optical Square:
This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used
where greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using two
mirrors and the other a prism.

General Procedure for Making a Chain Survey

a) Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position
of features and the shape of the area.
b) Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to
mark the stations selected.
c) Station Marking: Station marks, where possible should be tied - in to a permanent objects so
that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground
wooden pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.
d) Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station
showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and
designation. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the
station point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again
at much later date even by others after a long interval.
e) Offsetting: - Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles
on the chain line.
f) Sketching: - the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the
name of the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is
measured first.

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

Corrections to Linear Measurement and their Application: -

The corrections are to be applied to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape where such
accuracy is required. Systematic errors in taping are due to:
(1) incorrect tape length, (2) tape not horizontal, (3) fluctuation in temperature of the tape, (4)
incorrect tension or pull, (5) sag in tape, (6) incorrect alignment and (7) tape not straight.

1. Correction for Absolute Length

Due to manufacturing defects, the absolute length of the tape may be different from its
designated or nominal length. Also, with use, the tape may stretch, causing a change in the
length, and it is that the tape is regularly checked under standard conditions to determine its
absolute length. The correction for absolute length or standardization is given by
𝑐
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐿
𝑙
where
c = the correction per tape length,
l = the designated or nominal length of the tape, and
L= the measured length of the line.
If the absolute length is more than the nominal length, the sign of the correction is positive and
vice versa.
2. Correction for Temperature
If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature then the
temperature correction to the measured length is
𝑐𝑡 = 𝛼(𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 )𝐿

where
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material,
𝑡𝑚 = the mean field temperature, and
𝑡0 = the standardization temperature.
The sign of the correction takes the sign of(𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 ).

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

3. Correction for Pull or Tension

If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standardization pull, the pull
correction is to be applied to the measured length. This correction is
𝑃 − 𝑃0
𝑐𝑝 = 𝐿
𝐴𝐸
where
P = the pull applied during the measurement,
𝑃0 = the standardization pull,
A = the area of cross-section of the tape, and
E = the Young’s modulus for the tape material.
The sign of the correction is same as that of (𝑃 − 𝑃0 ).
4. Correction for Sag
For very accurate measurements, the tape can be allowed to hang in the catenary between two
supports. In the case of long tape, intermediate supports as shown in the below figure, can be
used to reduce the magnitude of correction.

The tape hanging between two supports, free of ground, sags under its own weight, with
maximum dip occurring at the middle of the tape. This necessitates a correction for sag if the
tape has been standardized on the flat to reduce the curved length to the chord length. The
correction for the sag is
1 𝑊 2
𝑐𝑔 = [ ] 𝐿
24 𝑃
where
W = the weight of the tape per span length.
The sign of this correction is always negative.
If both the ends of the tape are not at the same level, a further correction due to slope is required.
It is given by
𝑐𝑔́ = 𝑐𝑔 cos 𝛼

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

where
𝛼 = the angle of slope between the end supports.
5. Correction for Slope
If the length L is measured on the slope as shown in the figure, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent L cos θ. The required slope correction is
𝑐𝑠 = (1 − cos 𝜃) 𝐿 (𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡)
ℎ2
𝑐𝑠 = (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒)
2𝐿
where
θ = the angle of the slope, and
h = the difference in elevation of the ends of the tape.
The sign of this correction is always negative.
6. Correction for Alignment
If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with ends of the line, a correction for
alignment given below, is applied to the measured length.
𝑑2
𝑐𝑚 = (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒)
2𝐿

where
d = the distance by which the other end of the tape is out of alignment.
The correction for alignment is always negative.
7. Reduction to Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)
In the case of long lines in triangulation surveys, the relationship between the length
AB measured on the ground and the equivalent length A′B′ at mean sea level has to
be considered. Determination of the equivalent mean sea level length of the
measured length is known as a reduction to mean sea level. The reduced length at
mean sea level is given by
𝑅
𝐿́ =
(𝑅 + 𝐻)

where

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

R = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km), and

H = the average elevation of the line.
When H is considered small compared to R, the correction to L is given as
𝐻𝐿
𝑐𝑚𝑠𝑖 = (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝑅
The sign of the correction is always negative.
The various tape corrections discussed above, are summarized in the below.

Example 2.1: A line AB between the stations A and B was measured as 348.28 using a 20 m
tape, too short by 0.05 m. Determine the correct length of AB, the reduced horizontal length of
AB if AB lay on a slope of 1 in 25, and the reading required to produce a horizontal distance of
22.86 m between two pegs, one being 0.56 m above the other.
Solution:
(a) Since the tape is too short by 0.05 m, actual length of AB will be less than the measure
length. The correction required to the measured length is
𝑐
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐿
𝑙
It is given that

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

c = 0.05 m, l = 20 m, L=348.28 m
0.05
𝐶𝑎 = × 348.28 = 0.87 𝑚
20
The correct length of the line
= 348.28 − 0.87 = 347.41 𝑚
(b) A slope of 1 in 25 implies that there is a rise of 1 m for every 25 m horizontal distance. If the
angle of slope is α then
1
tan 𝛼 =
25
1
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 2° 17̇26̈
25
Thus, the horizontal equivalent of the corrected slope length 347.41 m is
°
𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝛼 = 347.41 × cos (2 17̇ 26̈ ) = 347.13 𝑚

We have

𝐴𝐵 = √𝐴𝑐 2 + 𝐶𝐵 2 = √(22.86)2 + (0.56)2 = 22.87

Therefore the reading required

Example 2.2: A tape of standard length 20 m at 85°F was used to measure a baseline. The
measured distance was 882.50 m. The following are the slopes for the various segments of the
line:

Calculate the true length of the line if the mean temperature during measurement was 63°F and
the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material is 6.5 × 10–6 per °F.
Solution:

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

Correction for temperature

Correction for slope

Example 2.3: A base line was measured by tape suspended in catenary under a pull of 145 N,
the mean temperature being 14°C. The lengths of various segments of the tape and the difference
in level of the two ends of a segment are given in the below table.

If the tape was standardized on the flat under a pull of 95 N at 18°C determine the correct length
of the line. Take Cross-sectional area of the tape = 3.35 mm2; Mass of the tape = 0.025 kg/m;
Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.9 × 10–6 per °C; Young’s modulus = 14.8×104MN/m2; Mean
height of the line above M.S.L. = 51.76 m; Radius of earth = 6370 km.
Solution:
P0 = 95 N, P = 145 N
t0 = 18°C, tm = 14°C
A = 3.35 mm2, α = 0.9 × 10–6 per °C
w = mg = 0.025 × 9.81 kg/m
14.8×104 ×106
E = 14.8 × 104 MN/m2 = N/mm2 = 14.8 × 104 N/mm2
106

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Chapter 2 Distance Measurement Using Tape

H = 51.76 m, R = 6370 km

Total length of the tape L = 29.988 + 29.895 + 29.838 + 29.910 = 119.631 m

Temperature correction
ct = α(t m − t 0 )L = 0.9 × 10–6 × (14 – 18) × 119.631 = – 0.0004 m

Pull correction
(P − P0 )L (145 − 95) × 119.631
cp = = = 0.0121 m
AE 3.35 × 14.8 × 104

Sag correction
1 W 2 1 wl1 2 1 wl2 2 1 wl3 2 1 wl4 2
cg = − ( ) L = − [ ( ) l1 + ( ) l2 + ( ) l3 + ( ) l4 ]
24 P 24 P 24 P 24 P 24 P
w2
=− (l 3 + l2 3 + l3 3 + l4 3 )
24 P 2 1
(0.025 × 9.81)2
=− (29.9883 + 29.8953 + 29.8383 + 29.9103 ) = – 0.0128 m
24 1452
Slope correction
h2 1 0.3462 0.2142 0.3092 0.1062
cs = − =− ( + + + ) = – 0.0045 m
2L 2 29.988 29.895 29.838 29.910
M.S.L. correction
HL 51.76 × 119.631
cmsl = − =− = – 0.0010 m
R 6370 × 1000
Total correction = Ct + Cp + Cg + Cs + Cmsl
= – 0.0004 + 0.0121 – 0.0128 – 0.0045 – 0.0010 = – 0.0066 m
Correct length = 119.631 – 0.0066 = 119.624 m

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