Understanding Data and Ways to

Systematically Collect Data

 Quantitative Research Methodology
Design Sampling Instrument

It refers to an overall is a process through which instruments are tools

strategy that a researcher a researchers selects used to gather data for
uses to logically and portion or segment from a particular research
coherently integrate the the population at the topic.
various components of a center of the researchers'
study. study.
Threats to Internal Validity
Selection Bias
This results when the subjects or respondents of the
study are not randomly selected.
maturation
This happens when the experiment is conducted
beyond a longer period of time during which most of
the subjects undergo physical, emotional, and/or
psychological changes.
history
this refers to a threat to internal validity which
happens during the conduct of the study when an
unusual event affects the result of an experiment.
Instrumentation change
The instrument used in gathering the data must not be
changed or replaced during the conduct of the study.
The instrument must also be applied to all
respondents or subjects.
mortality
There is a threat to validity when one or more subjects
die; drop out, or transfer asin the case of a student
who has not completed his or her participation in the
experiment.
testing
The testing threat may occur in a study when a pretest
is given to subjects who have knowledge of baseline
data. Testing bias is the influence of the pretest or
knowledge of baseline data on the posttest scores.
Threats to external Validity
Experimenter effect
This threat appears when the characteristics of the
researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or
respondents.
Hawthorne effect
This occurs when the respondents or subjects
respond artificially to the treatment because they
know they are being observed as part of a research
study.
Measurement effect
It is also called the reactive effects of the pretest. It
occurs when subjects have been exposed to the
treatment through taking the pretest. This exposure might
affect the posttest results. If there is a prior
announcement of the conduct of the study, the subjects
might prepare, and this will give a superficial result.
Types of experimental research Designs
True experimental design
A design is considered a true experiment when the
following criteria are present: the researcher manipulates
the experimental variables, that is, the researcher has
control over the independent variables, as well as the
treatment and the subjects; there must be one
experimental group and one comparison or control group;
and the subjects are randomly assigned either to the
comparison or experimental group.
Pretest-posttest controlled group
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the
treatment while the control group does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.
Posttest-only controlled group design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the
treatment while the control group does not
receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.
 Solomon four-group
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups.
2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and
control group 1) are pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and
control group 2) receive the routine treatment or
no treatment.
4. A posttest is given to all four groups.
quasi experimental design
A design in which either there is no control group or the
subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.
Non-equivalent controlled group Time-series
This design is similar to the pretest- The researcher periodically
posttest control group design observes or measures the subjects.
except there is no random
assignment of subjects to the
experimental and control groups.
 Methods used to collect the data

telephone email

text messages

social media Face-to-face interaction

Time Orientation

Retrospective Cross-sectional Longitudinal

Things to remember in sampling technique
Subjects Parameter

Participants or
Sample or sampling size
Respondents

Population Element
 Subjects

• can be individuals or groups to which interventions or

processes are applied. In some studies, the subjects are the
respondents themselves, but in other researches, the
subjects are not necessarily the respondents.
 Participants or
Respondents

• he participants or respondents are individuals or groups of

people that serve as the sources of information during data
collection.
 Population

• The population is composed of persons or objects that

possess some common characteristics that are of interest
to the researcher.

• There are two groups within the population: the target

population and the accessible population.
 Population

• The target population consists of the entire group of people

or objects to which, the findings of the study generally apply.

• The accessible population is the specific study population.

 Parameter

• A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.

 Sample or sampling size

• A sample is a subset of the entire population or a group of

individuals that represents the population and serves as the
respondents of the study.
 Element

• A single member of the sample is called an element.

 4 Ways to determine the sample size

1. Heuristics 3. Formulas

2. Literature Review 4. Power Analysis

1. Heuristics Normally used in
qualitative
studies because it
utilizes
“Introspection”;

-In n, it refers to the

rule of thumb for the
sample size used in a
study.
2. Literature Review
Read similar
studies to yours
and check the
sample size that
they used.
3. Formula
Determining the
size with the
use of formula.

http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
4. Power Analysis
Most précised

From the principle

of
Statistical Power
 Kinds of sampling

Probability Sampling Non-Probability

Sampling
 Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling 3. Cluster Sampling

2. Stratified Sampling 4. Systematic Sampling

Types of non- Probability Sampling
1. Convenience Sampling

2. Quota Sampling

3. Purposive Sampling
 Instrument of the study

Interview and Test Questionnaire

Observation
 3 WAYS TO DEVELOP YOUR RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Adopting Modifying Creating your own

This means that you To change its create your own and
will utilize an content base on your undergo to the
instrument that has study. validity and reliability
been used in well- tests.
known institutions or
reputable studies
and publications.
 Types of questionnaire

Structured Unstructured

Provide possible Do not provide

answers and options and the
respondents just respondents are free
have to select from to give whatever
them answer they want
Types of questions
Recognition type

Alternative responses are already

provided, and the respondents simply
choose among the given choices. It also
contains close-ended questions.
Types of questions
Completion type

The respondents are asked to fill in the

blanks with the necessary information.
Questions are open-ended.
Types of questions
Coding Type

Numbers are assigned to names,

choices, and other pertinent data. This
entails knowledge of statistics on the part
of the researcher, as the application of
statistical formulas is necessary to arrive
at the findings.
Types of questions
Subjective type

The respondents are free to give their

opinions about an issue of concern.
Types of questions
Combination type

The questionnaire is a combination of

two or more types of questions.
Wordings of questions
State questions in an affirmative rather
than in a negative manner.
Avoid ambiguous questions
Avoid double negative questions
Avoid double-barreled questions
Scales commonly Used in an instrument

Likert Scale

SA – Strongly Agree
A – Agree
D – Disagree
SD – Strongly Disagree

Semantic differential scale

Competent – 5 4 3 2 1 - Incompetent
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed

data. According to Shelley (1984), the length of a
questionnaire must be two to four pages and the maximum
time of answering is ten minutes. A desirable length of each
question is less than 20 words.
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from

other sources like documents that are available at hand.
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

3. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from the

simplest to the most complex.
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

4. It must also be arranged according to the

questions posed in the statement of the problem.
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

5. It should pass validity and reliability.

Characteristics of a good data collection instrument

6. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

METHODOLOGY PART 4

Data Processing
Technique
Prepared by:
Estrella, Laurence Ralph V.
Research Data
Research data is any information that has
been collected, observed, generated or
created to validate original research findings.

means the result of observations or

experimentation that validate research findings
and that are published separate to the Article,
which can include but are not limited to raw
data, processed data, software, algorithms,
protocols, and methods
Types of
01 Observational Data

Research Data
02 Experimental Data

03 Simulation Data

04 Derived/ Compiled Data

 Types of Research Data

01 OBSERVATIONAL DATA 02 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

are captured through observation of a
are collected through active intervention by the
behavior or activity. It is collected using
researcher to produce and measure change or to
methods such as human observation, open-
create difference when a variable is altered.
ended surveys, or the use of an instrument or
sensor to monitor and record information

03 SIMULATION DATA 04 DERIVED/ COMPILED DATA

are generated by imitating the operation of a involves using existing data points, often from
real-world process or system over time using different data sources, to create new data through
computer test models. some sort of transformation, such as an arithmetic
formula or aggregation.
 What is Data
Processing Technique?

This stage of the research process involves

the organization of the collected information
as well as the elimination of unnecessary
and problematic ones. Specifically data
processing involves editing, coding,
tabulating, and summarizing information
through graphs and tables.
 Data Processing Technique
01 02 03

EDITING CODING TABULATION

Is a process wherein the Is a process where the Is a process of condensing
data collected are checked gathered data are the raw data into a more
for consistency, accuracy, classified into categories, compact form.
organization, and clarity. numerals, symbols, or
other systems of labelling. Table is used for this
purpose.
TABULATION FOR DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
TABULATION FOR CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
TABULATION FOR EXPO-FACTO RESEARCH
TABULATION FOR QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Presentation &
Interpretation
of Tables &
Graphs
NON PROSE MATERIAL
is a graphic or visual representations of sets of data or
information.
Two Non-Prose
Materials
TABLES GRAPHS
Classify information using Unlike tables, graphs do not
columns and rows. merely list down the
collected data with respect
to a certain category.

Graphs use bars, lines,

circles and picture in
representing the data.
 01 02 03

BAR GRAPH LINE GRAPH CIRCLE GRAPH

contains vertical and shows trends and changes also known as PIE GRAPH –
horizontal bars and in the data. shows the relationship of
comparisons of amounts parts to a whole, usually in
and quantities. percentages and
proportions.
 Several Date and time

Factors to Start your graph

Consider in
interpretation by
naming the figures

Interpreting you are

attempting to
Graphs explain.

Begin with
explaining what
the graph is about.
 Observe the following when
organizing your results/data:

INTELLECTUAL FALSIFICATION FABRICATION

HONESTY

utmost objectivity and refers to the changing refers to making up

integrity in one’s of data. data or results.
research.
Things to do:
1. Tabulation of Data
2. Group Update Report
3. Individual Report
4. Accomplished Peer Evaluation
Thank you!
Do you have any questions?
Guide for Statistical
Treatment Selection

Practical Research 2

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How we will
choose our
Statistical
Treatment?

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 Terms used in Research

Term Level of Measurement

Categorical Nominal, Ordinal

Continuous Interval, Ratio

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 Choosing the Right Statistical Treatment
Independent Dependent Statistical
Purpose
Variable Variable Treatment
Continuous Continuous Association Peasons-r
1 Continuous Continuous Prediction/ Simple
Impact/ Effect Regression
2 or more Continuous Prediction/ Multiple
Continuous Impact/ Effect Regression
Categorical Continuous Difference T-test
(2 groups)
Categorical (3 or Continuous Difference ANOVA
more groups)

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Pearson-r Correlation Coefficient
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is the
most common way of measuring a linear
correlation. It measures the strength and
direction of the relationship between two
variables.

Example: The Relationship between self-

confidence and Exam Score
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Direction of Relationship
Positive Relation – if X Time spent in
increases, Y also increase. Review and
Exam Score

Negative Relation – if X Duration of

increases, Y decrease Class and
Attention Span

No Relationship – no Gcash Users

association between the and Murder
variables This template has been created by Slidesgo Rate
Strength of Relationship
Strength: The greater the absolute
value of the Pearson correlation
coefficient, the stronger the
relationship. The extreme values of -1
and 1 indicate a perfectly linear
relationship where a change in one
variable is accompanied by a perfectly
consistent change in the other.
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Hypothesis

Ho: There is no correlation

between Self-confidence and
Exam Score
Ha: There is a correlation between
Self-confidence and Exam
Score
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Data
Self Confidence Exam Score
49 81
50 88
53 87
55 99
60 91
55 89
60 95
50 90

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Step 1: Compute the total of X and Y
X Y
49 81
50 88
53 87
55 99
60 91
55 89
60 95
50 90
ΣX = 432 ΣY = 720
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Step 2: Compute the Deviation from the mean
X Y (X – x) (Y – y)
49 81 Mean of X -5 -9
50 88 54 -4 -2
53 87 -1 -3
55 99 1 9
60 91 Mean of Y 6 1
55 89 90 1 -1
60 95 6 5
50 90 -4 0
ΣX = 432 ΣY = 720
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Step 3: Multiply the Deviation of X and Y
X Y (X – x) (Y – y) (X – x) (Y - y)
49 81 -5 -9 45
50 88 -4 -2 8
53 87 -1 -3 3
55 99 1 9 9
60 91 6 1 6
55 89 1 -1 -1
60 95 6 5 30
50 90 -4 0 0
ΣX = 432 ΣY = 720 SP=100
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Step 4: Square the Deviation of X and Y

X Y (X – x) (Y – y) (X – x) (Y - y) (X – x)^2 (Y – y)^2
49 81 -5 -9 45 25 81
50 88 -4 -2 8 16 4
53 87 -1 -3 3 1 9
55 99 1 9 9 1 81
60 91 6 1 6 36 1
55 89 1 -1 -1 1 1
60 95 6 5 30 36 25
50 90 -4 0 0 16 0
ΣX = 432 ΣY = 720 SP=100 SSx=132 SSy=202

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Step 5: Compute for r

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Step 6: Find the Critical Value

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Step 7: Find the Critical Value r: by looking for the df and
comparing it to the correspoding value of alpha

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Step 8: Compare the computed value of r to
critical value from the table

*Decision: If the computed r is greater than the critical

value r from the table reject the Ho
*Rule: Always use the absolute value
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Conclusion:

There is no significant
correlation between self-
confidence and exam scores

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This template has been created by Slidesgo
What is independent t-test?
The samples of independent t-tests are selected
independent of each other where the data sets in the two
groups don't refer to the same values.

Example: They may include a group of 30 randomly

unrelated patients split into two groups of 15 patients each.
One of the groups becomes the control group and is
administered a placebo, while the other group receives a
prescribed treatment. This constitutes two independent
sample groups that are unpaired and unrelated to each
other.
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What is Significant Difference?

When t-statistic tells that there is unexpected changes or

differences between the samples

There are expected changes and unexpected changes that’s

why we conduct experimentation

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Example

Impact of Counselling to Life Satisfaction of students

There are 20 students, 10 who were experienced

counselling and 10 who were not.

Hypothesis
Ho - µ = µ1 2

Ha - µ = µ1 2

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Data
With Counselling Without Counselling
7 5
8 4
10 7
8 6
7 7
6 5
4 3
7 4
8 4
9 5

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Step 1: Get mean score of each group
X1 Y2
7 5
8 4
10 7
8 6
7 7
6 5
4 3
7 4
8 4
9 5
Total = 74 Total = 50
M = 74/10 = 7.4 M = 50/10 = 5
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Step 2: Compute the Square of Each group
X1 X1² Y2 Y1²
7 49 5 25
8 64 4 16
10 100 7 49
8 64 6 36
7 49 7 49
6 36 5 25
4 16 3 9
7 49 4 16
8 64 4 16
9 81 5 25
Total = 74 ΣX1² = 572 Total = 50 ΣY1² = 266
M = 74/10 = 7.4 M = 50/10 = 5
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Step 2: Compute the Variance of each group

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Step 3: Compute the Standard Error of
Difference Between the Means

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Step 3: Compute for t-statistic

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Step 4: Compute for degree of freedom

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Step 5: Find the Critical Value by looking for the df and
comparing it to the correspoding value of alpha

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Step 6: Compare the computed value or to
critical value from the table

*Decision: If the computed value is greater than the

critical value from the table, reject the Ho
*Rule: Always use the absolute value for r
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Conclusion:

There is a significant difference

between the students who
undergone counselling to those
who do not in terms of life
satisfaction
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This template has been created by Slidesgo
What is Paired t-test?
The Paired Samples t Test compares the means of two
measurements taken from the same individual, object, or
related units.

These "paired" measurements can represent things like: A

measurement taken at two different times (e.g., pre-test
and post-test score with an intervention administered
between the two time points)

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Example:
The impact of Religious Retreat to
Religiosity of Students
Ho – there is no significant difference between the pre-
test and post-test religiosity scores

Ha – there is a significant difference between the pre-test

and post-test religiosity scores

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Data
Pre-test Post-test
5 7
6 6
7 9
4 7
3 5
5 9
6 8
4 6

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Step 1: Get mean score of the 2
condition

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Step 2: Compute the difference score
and difference square

Subract the pre-test to post-test then

square the difference

Get the total score (Summation)

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Data
Pre-test Post-test Difference Difference
5 7 -2 4
6 6 0 0
7 9 -2 4
4 7 -3 9
3 5 -2 4
5 9 -4 16
6 8 -2 4
4 6 -2 4
ΣD = 17 ΣD² = 45

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Step 3: Compute the Mean difference
score

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Step 4: Compute the Sum of squares

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 Step 5: Compute for t-statistics

Mean of population of difference scores = 0

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Step 5: Compute for t-statistics

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Step 6: Compute the degree of freedom

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Step 7:Find the Critical Value by looking for the df and
comparing it to the corresponding value of alpha

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Step 8: Compare the computed value or to
critical value from the table

*Decision: If the computed value is greater than the

critical value from the table, reject the Ho
*Rule: Always use the absolute value
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Conclusion:

there is a significant
difference before and after
the religious retreat.

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Conclusion:

there is a significant
difference before and after
the religious retreat.

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This template has been created by Slidesgo
What is ANOVA?
Analysis of variance, or ANOVA, is a statistical method that
separates observed variance data into different components
to use for additional tests.

A one-way ANOVA is used for three or more groups of

data, to gain information about the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables

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Example:
The effects of temperature on Exam
scores
Ho – µ1=µ2=µ3

Ha – At least 1 group is different from another

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Data

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Step 1: Get mean score

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Step 2: Complete the table

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Step 2: Complete the table

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Step 3: Compute the Summation square

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Step 4: Complete the ANOVA table

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Step 4: Complete the ANOVA table

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Step 4: Complete the ANOVA table

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Step 4: Complete the ANOVA table

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Step 4: Complete the ANOVA table

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Step 5: Find the tabular value of F

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Step 6: Compate the tabular F or to computed
value of F

*Decision: If the computed value is greater than the

value of F from the table, reject the Ho
*Rule: Always use the absolute value for F
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Conclusion:

there is a significant
difference on exam scores of
the 3 group.

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REPORT AND
SHARING THE
FINDINGS
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
• It reports and • It can be
explains the considered the
data that you “MEAT” of your
have paper.
obtained in
your
research.
RESULTS

Presents the data that you have collected.

This portion limits itself to the
presentation of facts and key findings as
they are.
Example
DISCUSSION

provides the explanation for the results that you have

reported. The discussion portion is an important part of a
research paper because it tests your skills in thinking
critically, solving problems, as well as in understanding
and explaining phenomena.
Example
 CONCLUSION

To make a lasting impression

0 Summary of
Findings 0
Limitation of the
study

1 Conclusion
Drawn
3 Useful
recommendations.
0 0
 SUMMARY

Briefly states your major findings

that correspond to each of the
research questions or objectives.
Example
Example
 CONCLUSION
Discusses the generalizations, deductions and inferences that
can be obtained from your findings.

Practical Implication Theoretical Implications Methodological Implications

Relate to the issues
relate to the issues concerning the support, Relate to the issues
in real-life contexts refutation and concerning materials and
processes in research.
that can be supplementation of
addressed through existing models and
concepts in your field of
the findings.
study.
Example
LIMITATION OF THE
STUDY

Refers to the factors that the researchers fail

to control or use and can be addressed by
subsequent studies.
RECOMMENDATIONS
First Section

Provide an actual course of action through which

these areas of concern can be addressed.

Second Section

Considered with stating how future studies can address

the limitations encountered in your research.
Example
ABSTRACT AND APPENDINCES MAKING
(WITH SAMPLES OF PRELIMINARY PAPERS,
ABSTRACT, AND APPENDICES)
 ABSTRACT
IS CONSIDERED THE OVERVIEW OF A RESEARCH PAPER.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR
RESEARCH ABSTRACT?
 1. INTRODUCE THE TOPIC
EXPLAIN AND DEFINE YOUR TOPIC BRIEFLY. IT SHOULD BE FORMAL AND THE
WORDS SHOULD BE COMING FROM RESEARCHER HIM/HERSELF.
 2. CITE IMPORTANT RRL/RRS
FOUND IN YOUR RESEARCH PAPER
BRIEFLY INDICATE THE MOST HELPFUL LITERATURE OF YOUR RESEARCH THAT
WILL SUPPORT YOUR CLAIM.
3. SUMMARIZE THE CONTENT OF YOUR
METHODOLOGY
BRIEFLY SHARE THE DESIGN, SAMPLING TECHNIQUE, INSTRUMENT, DATA
ANALYSIS, AND DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE.
 4. STATE THE FINDINGS, MAIN
CONCLUSION, AND
RECOMMENDATION
BRIEFLY STATE THE MAIN FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
OF YOUR RESEARCH.
 NOTE:
250 WORDS ARE EXPECTED TO BE THE
MAXIMUM COUNT OF WORDS FOR YOUR
ABSTRACT.
PUT YOUR ABSTRACT INSIDE AN OPEN BOX AND CHOOSE 5 DISTINCT
WORDS FROM YOUR RESEARCH PAPER THAT WILL SERVE AS YOUR
KEYWORDS.
 APPENDICES MAKING
A COMPILATION OF ALL PERTINENT DOCUMENT YOUR RESEARCH PAPER HAS.
THIS IS SEEN AFTER THE REFERENCE LIST OF YOUR RESEARCH PAPER.
 APPENDIX A
SAMPLE LETTERS

INCLUDE HERE THE PLAIN COPY OF YOUR CONSENT FORM OR ANY LETTER THAT YOU
USED IN THE SCOPE OF YOUR RESEARCH PAPER.
 APPENDIX B
SAMPLE INSTRUMENT

INCLUDE HERE THE COPY OF YOUR CLEAN INSTRUMENT.

 APPENDIX C
RAW DATA

INSERT HERE THE TABLES AND/OR THE TABULATION/S YOU USED THAT YOU NEVER GOT
TO INCLUDE IN YOUR MANUSCRIPT.
 APPENDIX D
CURRICULUM VITAE

A DOCUMENT FOR A PERSON’S BACKGROUND AND AUTHENTIC INFORMATION.

 GUIDELINES ON
APPENDICES MAKING
 1. PROVIDE 2X2 PICTURE
EACH OF THE RESEARCHERS SHOULD PROVIDE A COPY OF THEIR MOST RECENT PICTURE WITH
WHITE BACKGROUND.
PASTE IT ON THE UPPER RIGHT CORNER OF THE PAPER.
ON THE UPPER LEFT, INCLUDE YOUR FULL NAME, ADDRESS, EMAIL AD, AND CELLPHONE NUMBER
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING
INDIVIDUALLY:
 EDUCATION

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL / 2019- PRESENT

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL/
ELEMENTARY/
AWARDS/RECOGNITION RECEIVED
FOLLOW THE FORMAT:
EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE CAVITE – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
BEST IN MATHEMATICS
JULY 20, 2020
SCHOOL YEAR 2019-2020
PUT A MINIMUM OF 3 AWARDS PER RESEARCHER.
PERSONAL INFORMATION
FULL NAME:
NICKNAME:
BIRTHDATE:
BIRTHPLACE:
NAME OF MOTHER:
OCCUPATION:
NAME OF FATHER:
OCCUPATION:
 DON’T FORGET THIS SENTENCE..
I HEREBY CERTIFY THAT ALL INFORMATION ABOVE ARE TRUE AND CORRECT
WITH THE BEST OF MY KNOWLEDGE AND ABILITY.
WRITE DOWN YOUR FULL NAME
AND AN E-SIGNATURE ABOVE
YOUR NAME
UNDER YOUR NAME WRITE, RESEARCHER AS YOUR DISTINCTION.
APPENDICES SHOULD
NOT HAVE ITS PAGE
NUMBER
SAMPLE PRELIMINARIES