University of Anbar

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

LECTURE NOTE
ENGINEERING SURVEYING

Chapter Three

By
Dr. Maher Shakir Dr. Hameed Aswad
Chapter 3 Leveling

CHAPTER THREE
LEVELING—THEORY AND METHODS
General Definitions

Levelling is an operation in surveying performed to determine the difference in levels of two

points. By this operation the height of a point from a datum, known as elevation, is determined.

Levelling results are used to (1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply
systems, and other facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography; (2) lay
out construction projects according to planned elevations; (3) calculate volumes of earthwork
and other materials; (4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area; (5) develop maps showing
general ground configurations; and (6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

Vertical line: A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

A level surface is a curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts).

Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is
a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to the
local vertical.

A datum is a reference surface of constant potential, called as a level surface of the earth’s
gravity field, for measuring the elevations of the points. One of such surfaces is the mean sea
level surface and is considered as a standard datum. Also an arbitrary surface may be adopted as
a datum.

Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or object.

Geoid. A particular level

surface that serves as a
datum for all elevations
and astronomical
observations.

Benchmark (BM). A
relatively permanent
object, natural or artificial,
having a marked point
whose elevation above or

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below a reference datum is known or assumed.

Height of instrument (HI), defined as the vertical distance from datum to the instrument line of
sight.

Back sight (B.S.): It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting up the level usually to
determine the height of instrument. It is usually made to some form of a bench mark (B.M.) or to
the points whose elevations have already been determined. When the instrument position has to
be changed, the first sight taken in the next section is also a back sight.

Fore sight (F.S.): It is the last reading from an instrument position on to a staff held at a point. It
is thus the last reading taken within a section of levels before shifting the instrument to the next
section, and also the last reading taken over the whole series of levels.

Change point (C.P.) or turning point: A change point or turning point is the point where both
the fore sight and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A change point is required
before moving the level from one section to another section. By taking the fore sight the
elevation of the change point is determined and by taking the back sight the height of instrument
is determined. The change points relate the various sections by making fore sight and back sight
at the same point.

Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term ‘intermediate sight’ covers all sightings and consequent staff
readings made between back sight and fore sight within each section. Thus, intermediate sight
station is neither the change point nor the last point.

Rise and fall: The difference of level between two consecutive points indicates a rise or a fall
between the two points. If level between A and B is positive, it is a rise and if negative, it is a
fall. Rise and fall are determined for the points lying within a section.

Methods of Levelling

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There are several methods for measuring vertical distances and determining the elevations of
points. Traditional methods include barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling and differential
leveling.
1. Barometric levelling
By using special barometers to measure air pressure (which decrease with increasing elevation),
the elevation of points on the earth's surface can be determined within ±1m. This method is
useful for doing a reconnaissance survey of large areas in rough country and for obtaining
preliminary topographic data.
2. Differential levelling
By far the most common leveling method, and the one which most surveyors are concerned with,
is differential leveling. It may also be called spirit leveling, because the basic instrument used
comprises a telescopic sight and a sensitive spirit bubble vial. The spirit bubble vial serves to
align the telescopic sight in a horizontal direction, that is, perpendicular to the direction of
gravity.
Briefly, a horizontal line of sight is first established with an instrument called a level. The level is
securely mounted on a stand called a tripod, and the line of sight is made horizontal. Then the
surveyor looks through the telescopic sight towards a graduated level rod, which is held
vertically at a specific location or point on the ground. A reading is observed on the rod where it
appears to be intercepted by the horizontal cross hair of the level; this is the vertical distance
from the point on the ground up to the line of sight of the instrument.
Generally, if the elevation of point A is already known or assumed, then the rod reading on a
point of known elevation is termed as a back sight reading (plus sight, because it must be added
to the known elevation of point A to determine the elevation of the line of sight).
For example, suppose the elevation of point A is 100.00 m (above MSL), and the rod reading is
1.00m. It is clear that the elevation of the line of sight is 100.00+1.00 = 101.00m. The elevation
of the horizontal line of sight through the level is called the height of instrument (HI).
Suppose we must determine the elevation of point B. The instrument person turns the telescope
so that it faces point B, and reads the rod now held vertically on that point. For example, the rod
reading might be 4.00m. A rod reading on a point of unknown elevation is called foresight
(minus sight). Since the HI was not changed by turning the level, we can simply subtract the

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foresight reading of 4.00 from the HI of 101.00 to obtain the elevation of point B, resulting here
in 101.00 - 4.00 = 97.00m.

3. Trigonometric Leveling
The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring (1) the inclined
or horizontal distance between them and (2) the zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point
from the other. (Zenith and altitude angles are measured in vertical planes. Zenith angles are
observed downward from vertical, and altitude angles are observed up or down from horizontal.)
Thus, in the below figure, if slope distance S and zenith angle z or altitude angle between C and
D are observed, then V, the elevation difference between C and D, is

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Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is

𝑉 = 𝐻 cot 𝑧
or
𝑉 = 𝐻 tan 𝛼
The difference in elevation (Δelev ) between points Aand B in the figure is given by
Δelev = hi + V- r
where hi is the height of the instrument above point A and r the reading on the rod held at B
when zenith angle z or altitude angle is read.

Levelling Equipment
Instruments used for differential leveling can be classified into four categories: dumpy levels,
tilting levels, automatic levels, and digital levels. Although each differs somewhat in design, all
have two common components:
1. A telescope to create a line of sight and enable a reading to be taken on a graduated rod.
2. A system to orient the line of sight in a horizontal plane.

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Dumpy and tilting levels use level vials to orient their lines of sight, while automatic levels
employ automatic compensators. Digital levels also employ automatic compensators, but use
bar-coded rods for automated digital readings.
TELESCOPES
The telescopes of leveling instruments define the line of sight and magnify the view of a
graduated rod against a reference reticle, thereby enabling accurate readings to be obtained. The
components of a telescope are mounted in a cylindrical tube. Its four main components are the
objective lens, negative lens, reticle, and eyepiece. Two of these parts, the objective lens and
eyepiece, are external to the instrument, and are shown on the automatic level illustrated in the
below figure.

Objective Lens. This compound lens, securely mounted in the tube’s object end, has its optical
axis reasonably concentric with the tube axis. Its main function is to gather incoming light rays
and direct them toward the negative focusing lens.
Negative Lens. The negative lens is located between the objective lens and reticle. Its function is
to focus rays of light that pass through the objective lens onto the reticle plane. During focusing,
the negative lens slides back and forth along the axis of the tube.
Reticle. The reticle consists in a pair of perpendicular reference lines (usually called crosshairs)
mounted at the principal focus of the objective optical system. The point of intersection of the
crosshairs, together with the optical center of the objective system, forms the so-called line of
sight, also sometimes called the line of collimation. The crosshairs are fine lines etched on a thin
round glass plate. The glass plate is held in place in the main cylindrical tube by two pairs of
opposing screws, which are located at right angles to each other to facilitate adjusting the line of

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sight. Two additional lines parallel to and equidistant from the primary lines are commonly
added to reticles for special purposes such as for three-wire levelling and for stadia.
Eyepiece. The eyepiece is a microscope (usually with magnification from about 25 to 45 power)
for viewing the image.
Level vial
Level vials are used to orient many different surveying instruments with respect to the direction
of gravity. There are two basic types: the tube vial and the circular or so-called “bull’s-eye”
version. Tube vials are used on tilting levels (and also on the older dumpy levels) to precisely
orient the line of sight horizontal prior to making rod readings. Bull’s-eye vials are also used on
tilting levels, and on automatic levels for quick, rough leveling, after which precise final leveling
occurs.

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Tripods
Leveling instruments, whether tilting, automatic, or digital, are all mounted on tripods. A sturdy
tripod in good condition is essential to obtain accurate results. Several types are available. The
legs are made of wood or metal, may be fixed or adjustable in length, and solid or split.
Level Rods
A variety of level rods are available, some of which are shown in the figure. They are made of
wood, fiberglass, or metal and have graduations in feet and decimals, or meters and decimals.

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Dumpy level
Dumpy levels are rarely used today, having been replaced by other newer types.

Tilting level
Tilting levels were used for the most precise work. With these instruments, an example of which
is shown in the figure, quick approximate leveling is achieved using a circular vial and the
leveling screws. On some tilting levels, a ball-and socket arrangement (with no leveling screws)
permits the head to be tilted and quickly locked nearly level. Precise level in preparation for
readings is then obtained by carefully centering a telescope bubble. This is done for each sight,
after aiming at the rod, by tilting or rotating the telescope slightly in a vertical plane about a
fulcrum at the vertical axis of the instrument. A micrometer screw under the eyepiece controls
this movement.

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Automatic Level
Automatic levels of the type pictured in the below figure incorporate a self-leveling feature.
Most of these instruments have a three-screw leveling head, which is used to quickly center a
bull’s-eye bubble, although some models have a ball-and-socket arrangement for this purpose.
After the bull’s-eye bubble is centered manually, an automatic compensator takes over, levels
the line of sight, and keeps it level.
The system consists of prisms suspended from wires to create a pendulum. The wire lengths,
support locations, and nature of the prisms are such that only horizontal rays reach the
intersection of crosshairs. Thus, a horizontal line of sight is achieved even though the telescope
itself may be slightly tilted away from horizontal. Damping devices shorten the time for the
pendulum to come to rest, so the operator does not have to wait.
Automatic levels have become popular for general use because of the ease and rapidity of their
operation. Some are precise enough for second-order and even first-order work if a parallel-plate
micrometer is attached to the telescope front as an accessory. When the micrometer plate is
tilted, the line of sight is displaced parallel to itself, and decimal parts of rod graduations can be
read by means of a graduated dial.

Digital Level
The newest type of automatic level, the electronic digital level, is pictured in the figure. It is
classified in the automatic category because it uses a pendulum compensator to level itself, after
an operator accomplishes rough leveling with a circular bubble. With its telescope and
crosshairs, the instrument could be used to obtain readings manually, just like any of the

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automatic levels. However, this instrument is designed to operate by

employing electronic digital image processing.
After leveling the instrument, its telescope is turned toward a special bar-
coded rod and focused. At the press of a button, the image of bar codes in
the telescope’s field of view is captured and processed. This processing
consists of an on board computer comparing the captured image to the
rod’s entire pattern, which is stored in memory. When a match is found,
which takes about 4 sec, the rod reading is displayed digitally. It can be
recorded manually or automatically stored in the instrument’s data
collector.

TESTING AND ADJUSTING LEVELS

1. Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments
To properly test and adjust leveling instruments in the field, the following rules should be
followed:
1. Choose terrain that permits solid setups in a nearly level area enabling sights of at least 200 ft
to be made in opposite directions.
2. Perform adjustments when good atmospheric conditions prevail, preferably on cloudy days
free of heat waves. No sight line should pass through alternate sun and shadow, or be directed
into the sun.
3. Place the instrument in shade, or shield it from direct rays of the sun.

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4. Make sure the tripod shoes are tight and the instrument is screwed onto the tripod firmly.
Spread the tripod legs well apart and position them so that the tripod plate is nearly level. Press
the shoes into the ground firmly.
2. Adjusting for Parallax
The adjustment is done by carefully focusing the objective lens and eyepiece so that the
crosshairs appear clear and distinct.
3. Testing and Adjusting Level Vials
- For leveling instruments that employ a level vial, the axis of the level vial should be
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument. Then once the bubble is centered, the
instrument can be turned about its vertical axis in any azimuth and the bubble will remain
centered.
- To correct any maladjustment, turn the capstan nuts at one end of the level vial to move
the bubble halfway back to the centered position. Level the instrument using the leveling
screws. Repeat the test until the bubble remains centered during a complete revolution of
the telescope.
Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight
- For tilting levels, when the bubble of the level vial is centered, the line of sight should be
horizontal. In other words, the axis of the level vial and the line of sight must be parallel.
If they are not, a collimation error exists.
- For the automatic levels, after rough leveling by centering the circular bubble, the
automatic compensator must define a horizontal line of sight if it is in proper adjustment.
If it does not, the compensator is out of adjustment, and again a collimation error exists.
- The collimation error will not cause errors in differential leveling as long as backsight
and foresight distances are balanced. However, it will cause errors when backsights and
foresights are not balanced, which sometimes occurs in differential leveling, and cannot
be avoided.
- Whether or not there is a collimation error, the difference between the rod readings at 1
should equal the difference of the two readings at 2.

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Example 5.1: A horizontal collimation test is performed on an automatic level following the
procedures just described. With the instrument setup at point 1, the rod reading at A was 5.630 ft,
and to B was 5.900 ft. After moving and leveling the instrument at point 2, the rod reading to A
was determined to be 5.310 ft and to B 5.560 ft. As shown in above figure, the distance between
the points was 100 ft. What is the collimation error of the instrument, and the corrected reading
to A from point 2?
Solution
The collimation error is

Thus the corrected reading to A from point 2 is

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Leveling Mistakes and Errors

As with any surveying operation, blunders must be eliminated and errors minimized while
running levels. Misreading the rod is a common blunder; it can be avoided by always having the
rod person check the reading with pencil point or target. Note keeping mistakes can be
particularly troublesome. The computations of HI and turning point (TP) elevation should be
done in the field, as the work progresses. A simple arithmetic check at the end of the levelling
run can be made to avoid addition or subtraction errors.
a. Random Errors
Unavoidable accidental errors may occur when running levels, for several reasons. For example:
 The level rod may not be precise when the reading is taken.
 Heat waves from the ground make it difficult to read.
 On windy day, slight vibration of the cross hair can cause small errors in the reading.
 The instrument may be slightly out of level if the spirit level is not perfectly centred.
Accidental errors can be minimized with a properly maintained and adjusted instrument if the
following steps are taken:
1. Make sure the tripod legs are secure and firmly anchored before levelling the instrument.
2. Check to see that the bubble is centred before each reading; re-centre it if necessary.
3. Do not lean on the tripod legs when reading the rod.
4. Have the rod person use a rod level, to make sure it is held vertically.
5. Try to keep the line of sight about 0.5m above the ground when positioning the
instrument.
6. Do not use very long BS and FS reading.
b. Systematic / Instrumental Errors
 Incorrect length of the rod.
 When the bubble tube axis is not perpendicular to the standing axis of the instrument
 When the line of sight of the telescope is not parallel to the bubble axis.
If the line of sight of a level is not exactly horizontal when the bubble is centred, but slopes
either up or down, it will slope by the same amount for any direction of the telescope. As long as
the horizontal lengths of the BS and FS are the same, from any given instrument position to the
rod, the line of sight will intercept the rod held on each point with exactly the same error in

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height. But since one of the sights is a plus sight (+) and other a minus sight (-), the two errors
will cancel each other out in the levelling computation.

Stadia
The stadia method determines the horizontal distance to points through the use of readings on the
upper and lower (stadia) wires on the reticle.
In stadia, the line of sight may be kept horizontal or inclined depending upon the field
conditions. In the case of horizontal line of sight (Fig. 2.6), the horizontal distance between the
instrument at A and the staff at B is
D = ks + c
Where k and c = the multiplying and additive constants, and s = the staff intercept, = ST – SB,
where ST and SB are the top hair and bottom hair readings, respectively.
Generally, the value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0 (zero), respectively, for making the
computations simpler. Thus
D = 100 s

The elevations of the points, in this case, are obtained by determining the height of instrument
and taking the middle hair reading. Let
hi = the height of the instrument axis above the ground at A,
hA, hB = the elevations of A and B, and

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Section: A section comprises of one back sight, one fore sight and all the intermediate sights
taken from one instrument set up within that section. Thus the number of sections is equal to the
number of set ups of the instrument. (From A to B for instrument position 1 is section-1 and
from B to C for instrument position 2 is section-2 in figure).

In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of
instrument (H.I.) for the each section highlighted by different shades, is determined by adding
the elevation of the point to the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains
unchanged for all the staff readings taken within that section and therefore, the levels of all the
points lying in that section are reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S.
or F.S., from the H.I. of that section.

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In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within each
section. Adding or subtracting the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the backward station
obtains the level for a forward station. In the table, r and f indicate the rise and the fall,
respectively, assumed between the consecutive points.

Loop Closure and Its Apportioning

A loop closure or misclosure is the amount by which a level circuit fails to close. It is the
difference of elevation of the measured or computed elevation and known or established
elevation of the same point. Thus loop closure is given by
e = computed value of R.L. – known value of R.L.
If the length of the loop or circuit is L and the distance of a station to which the correction c is
computed, is l, then
𝑙
𝑐=−
𝐿
Alternatively, the correction is applied to the elevations of each change point and the closing
point of known elevation. If there are n1 change points then the total number points at which the
corrections are to be applied is
n = n1 + 1
and the correction at each point is
𝑒
=−
𝑛
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The corrections at the intermediate points are taken as same as that for the change points to
which they are related.
Another approach could be to apply total of –e/2 correction equally to all the back sights and
total of +e/2 correction equally to all the fore sights. Thus if there are nB back sights and nF fore
sights then

Profile Leveling
Before engineers can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroads, transmission
lines, aqueducts, canals, sewers, and water mains, they need accurate information about the
topography along the proposed routes. Profile leveling, which yields elevations at definite points
along a reference line, provides the needed data.
Staking and Stationing the Reference Line
Depending on the particular project, the reference line may be a single straight segment, as in the
case of a short sewer line; a series of connected straight segments which change direction at
angle points, as with transmission lines; or straight segments joined by curves, which occur with
highways and railroads. The required alignment for any proposed facility will normally have
been selected as the result of a preliminary design, which is usually based on a study of existing
maps and aerial photos. The reference alignment will most often be the proposed construction
centerline, although frequently offset reference lines are used.
To stake the proposed reference line, key points such as the starting and ending points and angle
points will be set first. Then intermediate stakes will be placed on line, usually at 10-, 20-, 30-, or
40-m spacing, depending on conditions.
In route surveying, a system called stationing is used to specify the relative horizontal position
of any point along the reference line. If the metric system is used, full stations are 1 km (1000 m)
apart. The starting point of a reference line might be arbitrarily designated as 1+000 or 10+00 but
again 0+000 could be used.
- Profile leveling consists simply of differential leveling with the addition of intermediate
minus sights (foresights) taken at required points along the reference line.

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Drawing and Using the Profile

- Prior to drawing the profile, it is first necessary to compute elevations along the reference
line from the field notes.
- An adjustment has been made to distribute any misclosure in the level circuit.
- The profile is then drawn by plotting elevations on the ordinate versus their
corresponding stations on the abscissa. By connecting adjacent plotted points, the profile
is realized.
- Until recently, profiles were manually plotted, usually on special paper like the type
shown in the figure.
- The rate of grade (or gradient or percent grade) is the rise or fall in feet per 100 ft, or in
meters per 100 m. Ascending grades are plus; descending grades, minus. A gradeline of
0.15%, chosen to approximately equalize cuts and fills. Along this grade line, elevations
drop at the rate of 0.15 ft per 100 ft.

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Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling

Grid leveling is a method for locating contours. It is accomplished by staking an area in squares
of 10, 20, 50, 100, or more feet (or comparable meter lengths) and determining the corner
elevations by differential leveling.
Cross sections are lines 90 degrees perpendicular to the alignment (centerline), along which the
configuration of the ground is determined by obtaining elevations of points at known distances
from the alignment.
Cross sections are used to determine the shape of the ground surface through the alignment
corridor. The shape of the ground surface helps the designer pick his horizontal and vertical
profile. Once the alignment is picked, earthwork quantities can be calculated. The earthwork
quantities will then be used to help evaluate the alignment choice.
In addition to earthwork calculations, cross sections are used in the design of storm sewers,
culvert extensions and the size and location of new culverts. Because of this fact it becomes
more important to get the additional sections at the points of interest that do not fall on the 50
foot stations.
The traditional method of taking cross sections starts with an alignment staked out in the field. A
profile is run over the centerline stations by differential leveling. Cross section lines are laid out
90 degrees to the alignment, often with a right angle prism. Usually elevations are determined
with an engineer’s level and rod in level terrain or with a hand level and rod in rough, irregular
country. For each cross section, the height of instrument is determined by a backsight on the
centerline station. The rod is then held on the cross section line at breaks in the surface slope,

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where rod readings are observed and distances measured with a tape. Cross sections are usually
taken at even stations and points of interest or irregularity along the alignment.

Example 5.2: The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level
book page and reduce the levels by the height of instrument method.
0.578 B.M. (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and
0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.

Solution:
The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change point, 2.005 is
fore sight reading and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the first and fifth
readings are intermediate sight-readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a change point, 3.679
is fore sight reading, 0.612 is back sight reading, and 1.888, 1.181 are intermediate sight
readings. The last reading 1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate sight-readings. All the
readings have been entered in their respective columns in the following table and the levels have
been reduced by height of instrument method. In the following computations, the values of B.S.,
I.S., H.I., etc., for a particular station have been indicated by its number or name.

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Example 5.3: Reduce the levels of the stations from the readings given in the Example 5.2 by
the rise and fall method.

Solution:

Section-1

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Example 5.4: A page of level book is reproduced below in which some readings marked as (x),
are missing. Complete the page with all arithmetic checks.

Solution:
The computations of the missing values are explained below.

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Example 5.5: The readings given in the table, were recorded in a levelling operation from points
1 to 10. Reduce the levels by the height of instrument method and apply appropriate checks. The
point 10 is a bench mark having elevation of 66.374 m. Determine the loop closure and adjust
the calculated values of the levels by applying necessary corrections. Also determine the mean
gradient between the points 1 to 10.

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Solution:

Loop closure and loop adjustment

The error at point 10 = computed R.L. – known R.L. = 66.354 – 66.374 = –0.020 m
Therefore correction = +0.020 m
Since there are three change points, there will be four instrument positions. Thus the total
number of points at which the corrections are to be applied is four, i.e., three C.P.s and one last
F.S. It is reasonable to assume that similar errors have occurred at each station. Therefore, the
correction for each instrument setting which has to be applied progressively, is

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The corrections for the intermediate sights will be same as the corrections for that instrument
stations to which they are related. Therefore,

Applying the above corrections to the respective reduced levels, the corrected reduced levels are
obtained. The results have been presented in the table:

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Example 5.6: Determine the corrected reduced levels of the points given in Example 5.6 by two
alternative methods.
Solution: Method 1
𝑙
The correction 𝑐 = −𝐿

The total correction at point 10 (from Example 5.6) = + 0.020 m

The distance between the points 1 and 10 = 180 m

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Method 2
In this method half of the total correction is applied negatively to all the back sights and half of
the total correction is applied positively to all the fore sights.
Total number of back sights = 4
Total number of fore sights = 4

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