FORM FOUR

PHYSICS
HANDBOOK

OBIERO AMOS
+254 706 851 439
 FORM 4 HANDBOOK
[With well-drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
{2020 Edition}

Page 3 of 108
 Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE

GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE

Chapter 1 THIN LENSES

Chapter 2 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Chapter 3 SINKING AND FLOATING

Chapter 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Chapter 5 MAINS ELECTRICITY

Chapter 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

CATHODE RAYS AND CATHODE RAY
Chapter 7
OSCILLOSCOPE
Chapter 8 X-RAYS

Chapter 9 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Chapter 10 RADIOACTIVITY

Chapter 11 ELECTRONICS
Chapter One THIN LENSES
Objectives Effect of lenses on parallel rays of light.
By the end of this lesson the learner A lens relies on the principal of refraction of
should be able to: light. Therefore when parallel rays are
directed towards the lens the rays will be
a) Describe converging lenses and refracted either by being converged or by
diverging lenses. being diverged.
b) Describe using ray diagrams the
principal focus, the optical centre and • When the convex lens is used the rays
the focal length of a thin lens. are converged.
c) Determine experimentally the focal
length of a converging lens.
d) Locate images formed by thin lenses
using ray construction method. • If a concave lens is used then the rays
e) Explain the image formation in the are diverged.
human eye.
f) Describe the defects of vision in the
human eye and how they are
corrected.
g) Describe the uses of lenses in various Definition of terms
optical devises.
h) Solve numerical problems involving a) Centre of curvature – the centre of the
the lens formula and the sphere which the lens is part.
magnification. b) Radius of curvature (r) - the radius of the
sphere of which the surface of the lens is
Introduction part.
c) Principal axis – it is an the line joining
Lens- Is a carefully molded piece of a
the centres of curvature of its surfaces.
transparent material that refracts light in
d) Optical Centre (O) - it is a point on the
such away as to form an image. They
principal axis midway between the lens
normally operate on refractive property
surfaces.
of light.
e) Principal focus (F) – For a convex lens,
• They are made of glass, clear plastic, is a point on the principal axis where all
or Perspex. rays converge after passing through the
• They are found in cameras human eye, lens. While for a concave lens, is a point
spectacles, telescopes, microscope and on the principal axis behind the lens from
projectors e.t.c which rays seem to diverge from after
passing through the lens. Page 3 of 108
Types of lenses f) Focal length (f) – it is the distance
There are two major types of lenses, between the optical centre and the
namely: principal focus.
g) Focal plane – it is a plane perpendicular
1. Convex (converging) - they are to the principal that all the rays seem to
thickest at the middle and thinnest at converge to or seem to appear to diverge
the ends. from. The incident rays in this case are not
2. Concave (diverging) – they are parallel to the principal axis.
thinnest at the middle and thickest at h) Paraxial rays- these are rays that are
theends. parallel and close to the principal axis.
Convex lenses i) Marginal rays- these are rays that are
parallel and far away from the principal
axis.

Concave lenses

1.3 Image Formation

It is important to note:
• Real rays and real images are drawn in
full lines.
• Virtual rays and virtual images are
drawn in broken/dotted lines.
• To locate the image, two or three rays
from the tip of the object are drawn.
• Should the foot of the object cross the
principal axis, the method on 3 above is
used to get the foot of the image. The top
1.2 Ray Diagrams
is joined to the foot to get the image.
For one to locate the image when using a
lens, ray diagrams are of great importance. Example

Page 5 of 108
There are three major rays that are used in
ray diagrams for the location of images
formed by the lens.
These rays are;
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal
axis. • Converging and diverging lenses are
This ray passes through the principal focus represented by the symbols shown
(for convex lens) or seem to appear to below.
emerge from the principal focus (for
concave lens) after refraction by the lens

(ii) A ray of light passing (or appearing to

pass through) the principal focus Characteristics of images formed by
lenses
-the ray emerges parallel to the principal
axis after refraction by the lens Converging lenses.
Object at infinity.

(iii) A ray of light through the optical

centre
This ray passes on un-deviated
The image is
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Diminished
(iv) Formed at F

Object beyond 2F Object between F and lens

The image is The image is
(i) Real (i) Virtual
(ii) Inverted (ii) Erect
(iii) Diminished (iii)
(iv) formed between F and 2F on (iv) Magnified
the other side of the lens (v) Formed on the same side as object
Object at 2F Diverging lenses

The image is
The image is
(i) Virtual
(i) real (ii) Erect
(ii) Inverted (iii) diminished
(iii) Same size as the object
(iv) Formed at 2F, on the other Linear Magnification
side of the lens
• Magnification is a measure of the
extent to which an optical system
Object between F and 2F enlarges or reduces an image.
• Linear magnification is a ratio of
height of image to the height of the
object OR the ratio of the image
distance to the object distance.
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
The image is ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) Real Or 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Magnified
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 (iv) formed beyond 2F on the 𝑉𝑉 hi
Therefore, 𝑚𝑚 = =
other side of the lens 𝑢𝑢 ho

Object at F The lens formula

Consider an image formed by converging
lens as shown below.

The image is at infinity

PO is the object distance, u, PI is the image

distance, v, and PF the focal length, f.
 OB=PH (ii) An object placed 6m from a
converging lens forms an
Triangles POB and PIM are similar. Therefore; erect image that is five times
m

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 larger.State the type of the

= image formed.Find the focal
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 lenght of the lens.
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑣𝑣 Solution
Similarly, triangles PFH and IMF are similar. So;
The image is virtual since it is
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 upright and magnified.

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚, = 5 ⇨ 𝑣𝑣 =
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2) 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 5𝑢𝑢, 𝑢𝑢 = 6𝑚𝑚, 𝑣𝑣 = 5 × 6 = 30𝑚𝑚

But, PF=f 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + , = + , 𝑓𝑓
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃; 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓 6 30
= 5 𝑚𝑚
Substitute these values in equation (2);
Relationship between
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 magnification and focal length
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

𝑓𝑓 We have;
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑓𝑓 1 1 1
= +
Combining equations (1) and (3); 𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣

𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 Multiply both sides by v;

=
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
= +
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣

But, = 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1,
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
therefore,
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢) 𝑣𝑣
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑚𝑚 + 1
= 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑓
Re-arranging;
1 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢
= = + 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚 = −1
1 1 1 𝑓𝑓
Hence
= +
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
(i) An object 0.05m high is placed 0.15m
This is called the lens formula and holds for both infront of a convex lens of focal
converging and diverging lens. lenght 0.1m.find the position and size
of the image.what is the
Examples
 magnification? To determine u and v, real-is –
positive sign convention is
Solution adopted. According to this
𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝒖𝒖 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎, 𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎, 𝒗𝒗 = convention:
I. All distances are measured
from the optical centre.
II. Distances of real objects
and real images are

ual objects and

images are negative.
III. The focal length of a
converging lens is positive
Graphical interprentation of the lens Exercise
formula
Interprete a graph of:
CASE1: 1 1
𝟏𝟏 (i) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
A graph of 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ; (ii) 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣

𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
1 1 1
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, = + CASE 3:
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
Graph of u against 1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚

− 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦 1 1 1

= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐 = +
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
1 1 1 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
= − + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 = +
1 𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
= −1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢 = 1 + 1
=1 𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓
1
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚

Implying that 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢 −

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓
It is a straight line that cuts the vertical axis
at f.

CASE 2
A graph of uv against 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
1 1 1
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = + ,
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
1 𝑣𝑣+𝑢𝑢
=
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (𝑢𝑢
+ 𝑣𝑣)𝑓𝑓
 In the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐 Exercise
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣) + 0 Interpret a graph of:
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (i) m against v
=0 (ii) V against m
It is a graph of a straight line passing
through the origin.

Experimental Determination Of The 2. Adjust the position of the lens holder

Focal Length Of A Converging (Convex) until a sharp image of the object is
Lens formed on the screen alongside the
object itself.
Method (1): 3. Record the distance between the lens
Focusing A Distant Object and the screen.

Apparatus Focal length --------------------- cm

Metre rule, lens, a lens holder, screen NOTE:

Procedure Under these conditions, rays from any

point on the object will emerge from the
1. Mount a convex lens on a lens holder lens as parallel rays. They are therefore
and fix a metre rule on a bench using reflected back through the lens and
plasticine as shown below. brought to a focus in the same plane as the
object. The distance between the lens
and the screen now give the focal length
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 of the lens.
Method (3):
Using A Pin And Plane Mirror/No
Parallax Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown below.

2. Place a white screen at one end of the

metre rule.
3. Move the lens to and fro along the
metre rule to focus clearly the image of
a distant object, like a tree or window
frame.
4. Measure the distance between the lens
and the screen. 2. Adjust the position of the pin up and
down till its tip is at the same horizontal
Focal length ------------------- cm level as the centre of the lens. A
Note: The distance between the lens and position is found for which there is no
the screen gives a rough estimate of the parallax between it and the real image
focal length of the lens. This is because formed. For best results, attention
parallel rays from infinity are converged at should be given to the tilt of the plane
the focal point on the screen. mirror so that the tip of the image of the
object pin appears to touch at the same
Method (2): level as the centre of the lens.
3. The distance between the pin and the
Using an Illuminated Object And Plane lens will then be equal to the focal
Mirror/Reflection Method length of the lens.
Procedure Focal length=-----------------------
1. Set the lens in its holder with a plane cm
mirror behind it so that light passing The power of a lens
through it can be reflected back as
shown below. Is a measure of refractive property of a
lens. It is given by
1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The unit of power of a lens is dioptres (D)
USES OF LENSES IN OPTICAL Defects of vision
DEVICES
Short sightedness (myopia)
Due to their ability to converge or diverge
light rays, lenses are widely used in optical
devices. The devices include;
• Human eye
• Simple microscope
• Compound microscope • Can only clearly see near objects
• The camera • Rays of near objects are focused on the
retina but those for distance objects are
The human eye
focused in front of the retina
It is a natural optical instrument
Causes
• Short focal length of the eye lens
• Long eyeball
Corrected by diverging lenses as shown

1. Sclerotic layer – hard shell that

encloses the eye and is white. Long sightedness (hypermetropia)
The front part is transparent and
spherical known as the cornea. • Can see distant objects but not near
Most bending of light entering the ones
eye occurs at the cornea. • The images of near objects are formed
2. Aqueous Humour – clear liquid behind the retina
between the cornea and the lens. It
helps the eye maintain shape. Causes are:
3. Iris – it is the colouring of the eye. It • Too long focal length of the eye
has pupil which regulates the amount
• Too short eyeball
of light entering the eye.
4. Crystalline lens- it is a converging
lens. It can change its focal length by
Page 13 of 108
 the action of Ciliary muscles
5. Vitreous humour – transparent jelly
like substance filling another chamber
between the lens and the retina
6. Retina – it is where the image is
formed and Made of cells that are light • It is corrected by using converging
sensitive lenses
7. Fovea – central part of the retina that
exhibits best details and colour vision
at this place.
8. Blind spot – this contains cells that are
not light sensitive.
9. Ciliary muscles – these are muscles
that support the lens. They control the
shape of lens by contracting or
relaxing. In relaxing the muscles it
enables the lens to increase hence
focus distance objects. In contraction
the muscles reduce tensions in the lens
to increase its focal length thus focus
near objects. This process is known as
accommodation.
Near point – closest point which the
normal eye can focus. Far point - furthest
point that a normal eye can focus.

Camera Compound microscope

• The camera has lenses that focus light There are two cases under which a
from the object to form an image of the converging lens can produce magnified
object on the film. images;
• Focusing is done by adjusting the
When the object is between F and 2F.
distance between the lens and the film
.the diaphragm controls the amount of When the object is between the lens and F.
light entering the eye.
• The shutter allows light to reach the film A compound microscope combines the
only for a precise period when the camera above two cases. It consists of converging
is operated. lenses of short focal length .The focal length
• The inside is blackened to absorb any next to the object is called objective lens and
the one next to the eye is called the
 stray light. eyepiece or ocular. The objective lens is of
short focal length.
Similarities between the eye and the
camera
Eye Camera
Has crystalline Has a convex lens
convex lens
Choroid layer is Box painted black
black inside The eye piece is also of short focal length but
The retina where Light-sensitive longer than that of the objective lens. A
images are formed film where images compound microscope overcomes the
are formed. limitations of a simple microscope by use of
objective lenses with many lenses and an
Iris which controls Diaphragm which eyepiece with more than one lens.
the amount of controls the
light entering the amount of light Total magnification produced by a
eye entering the compound microscope is given by;
𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣
camera. ( 𝑒𝑒 − 1) ( 𝑜𝑜 − 1) Where 𝑣𝑣 is the image
𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜

distance from I and 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 the image distance

Differences between the eye and the from I’.
camera REVISION QUESTIONS
Eye Camera 1. The diagram below shows an
Varable focal Fixed focal arrangement of lenses, Lo and Le used in
length length a compound microscope FO and Fe are
principal foci of Lo and Le respectively.
Constant image Variable image
distane distance
Constantly Only one
changing pictures photograph can
be taken at at time

Draw the rays to show how the final image

Simple microscope
is formed in the microscope
It is sometimes referred to as a magnifying
Page 15 of 108
glass. When the object is placed between a
convex lens and its principal focus, the
image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified.

Chapter Two

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Content
Specific Objectives • The radian, angular displacement,
By the end of this topic, the learner should angular velocity
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
be able to: • Centripetal force; 𝐹𝐹 = , 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑟𝑟
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 (derivation of formulae not
• Define angular displacement and
required) (experimental treatment is
angular velocity
necessary)
• Describe simple experiments to
• Applications of uniform circular
illustrate centripetal force motion
• Explain the application of uniform
• Centrifuge, vertical, horizontal
circular motion circles banked tracks (calculations on
• Solve numerical problems involving banked tracks and conical pendulum
uniform circular motion not required)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
• Problem solving (Apply 𝐹𝐹 = ,
𝑟𝑟
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2)

Definition of Terms Convert the following into radians:

(A) Angular Displacement, 𝜽𝜽 a) 800C
b) 1200C
It is the angle swept through a line joining to
the centre of circular path. It is measured in (b) Angular Velocity
radians.
It is the rate of change of angular
 displacement. It is denoted by Greek letter
omega (ω).
θ
ω =
𝑡𝑡
Is measured in radian per second
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ Example
=
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 1. A particle moving in a circular path
𝑠𝑠 covers one revolution in ten seconds.
𝜃𝜃 =
𝑟𝑟 Calculate its angular velocity.
Radian
Is defined as an angle of sector of the Period/Periodic Time
circumference whose length is equal to its
radius or is the ratio of arc length to the Is the time taken to complete one
radius of a circular. revolution.

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

r𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟 Frequency (f)
= 2𝜋𝜋 1
Frequency, 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 = 3600 1 2𝜋𝜋
= →ω=2πf
𝑓𝑓 𝜔𝜔

Relationship between angular

displacement, 𝜽𝜽 and angular velocity. Centripetal Acceleration
∆S
V= ------------------------------------------ • An object going through a circular
∆t
path is said to accelerate.
Page 17 of 108
---------- (i) • If the velocity of such object is
∆S constant the object still accelerates
∆θ = ---------------------------------------- because there is continuous change in
∆r
--------- (ii) velocity as the object continuously
changes direction. From Newton’s
For small change in equation (ii) second law of motion, the body
∆𝛳𝛳 =∆𝑆𝑆 experiences a resultant force as it
𝑟𝑟 moves rounds path .This resultant
------ (iii) force is directed towards the circular
Dividing equation (iii) by ∆t path.
• Acceleration of this body is in the
∆𝜃𝜃 ∆𝑠𝑠 direction of force applied to it i.e. it
=
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟∆𝑡𝑡 accelerates towards the centre of the
𝑣𝑣 circular of the circular path. This
𝜔𝜔 = → 𝒗𝒗 = 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎 acceleration is called centripetal
𝑟𝑟 acceleration.
Anybody in circular motion has both linear
The centripetal acceleration is given by the
velocity in m/s and angular velocity in
rads/s. following equation.
𝑣𝑣 2
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 =
Examples 𝑟𝑟

1. A turn table rotates at the rate of 60 But 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

revolutions per minute. What is its
angular velocity in rads/s 𝑎𝑎 = 𝜔𝜔2𝑟𝑟
2. A model car moves around a circular Centripetal Force
path of radius 0.6m at 25 Rev/s.
Determine its; Is a force that is required to keep a body
(a) period moving in a circular path and is directed
(b) Angular velocity (𝜔𝜔) towards the centre of the circular path.
(c)Speed (v) If an object moving through a circular path is
3. The car moves with uniform velocity released suddenly it flies off tangentially.
of 3m/s in a circle of radius 0.2m.
Find its angular velocity and Factors Affecting Centripetal Force.
frequency.
1. Mass of the object, m- the heavier the
4. Distinguish between angular and object the more the centripetal force needed
linear velocity. to maintain it in circular path.
2. Angular velocity of the object, 𝝎𝝎- an
increase in centripetal force needed to
maintain the object in circular path.
3. Radius of the path r-the shorter the
 radius of the path the larger the centripetal
force required to maintain the object in
circular path.

Example Examples of Uniform Circular Motion

The figure below shows the diagram of set A car rounding a level circular bend
up to investigate the variation of
centripetal with the radius r, of the circle When a car is going round in a circular
in which a body rotated path on a horizontal road, the centripetal
force required for a circular motion is
provided by the frictional force between
the tyres and the road
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
Therefore- 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

If the road is slippery then frictional force

may not be sufficient so to provide
centripetal force
Describe how the set up can be used to
carry out the investigation To prevent skidding the car should not
exceed certain speed limits referred to as
• Keep angular velocity 𝜔𝜔 the critical speed
constant;

Page 19 of 108
 • Centripetal force provided This critical speed depends-
by mg;
Radius of the bend i.e. one may negotiate
• Fix the mass m and measure
the a bend at higher critical speed the
of m;
radius of the bend is big
• Repeat for different values
of m; Condition of the tyre and the nature of the
The above factors are proofed using a road surface this will produce the
turntable. frictional force need to negotiate the bend
The turntable has the following features Banked tracks
• Increase in speed of the turn table Condition in which a road is raised
increases length of the spring gradually from the inner side of the bend.
(increase in centripetal force)
• When using a shorter spring there is
more extension of the spring than
using along spring.
• When using a heavier metal bar will
produce more extension than using
a lighter ball.
This is a proof to the above factors.
The graph of force against the square of
angular velocity is a straight line through
the origin.
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2
𝐹𝐹 ∝
𝑟𝑟
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾2
𝐹𝐹 =
𝑟𝑟
2
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
When k=1,𝐹𝐹 = , but 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑟𝑟
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟2 2
Hence,𝐹𝐹 = , thus,𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 -Is the horizontal component which BY principle of moments
is responsible for providing centripetal
force. R.x = Fry
2
𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 -Is the vertical component that is =
𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
responsible for balancing the weight of the 2
vehicle. 𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣
=
𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
If a vehicle of mass m is travelling a long 2
a circular path of radius r at uniform speed Tan 𝜃𝜃 =𝑣𝑣
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
v, then
Making v the subject of the formula
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣 = √𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Tan 𝜃𝜃= 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Divide (i) by (ii) Mg tan 𝜃𝜃 = Fr

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 1 Fr = µR
= ×
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Mg tan 𝜃𝜃 = µ mg
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 Tan 𝜃𝜃 =µ
= 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Where µ is coefficient of friction
𝑣𝑣 2
Hence tan 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Skidding occurs when tan 𝜃𝜃 is greater
than µ
The maximum speed required for a body
moving in a circular path whose angle of
banking is 𝜃𝜃 is given by;

𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑣𝑣 = √𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

A cyclist moving round a circular track

Frictional force (Fr) is provided by
Page 21 of 108
centripetal force which is directed towards
the car however if frictional force is not
sufficient to provided centripetal force
skidding takes place. To avoid skidding
the cyclist leg inwards so that normal
reaction of frictional force produces the
turning effect to the clockwise and
anticlockwise directions.
Taking moments about G

Conical pendulum Example:

If a pendulum bob moves in such a way (a) The figure below shows an object at
that the string sweeps out a cone, then the the end of a light spring balance connected
bob will describe a horizontal circle. to a peg using a string. The object is
moving in a circular path on a smooth
horizontal table with a constant

speed.

As it can be clearly seen, there are two (i) What provides the force that keeps the
forces acting on the pendulum bob; object moving in the circular path?
(i) its weight (mg) (ii) Indicate with an arrow on the figure
 (ii) The tension in the string. the direction of centripetal force .
Centripetal force is provided by the (iii) The speed of the object is constant,
horizontal component of the tension (F why is there acceleration?
Sinθ). Hence from Newton's second law;
(iv) Although there is force acting on the
𝑭𝑭 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆θ = object, NO, work is done on the object.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ............................................................ Explain.
(1)(Where
𝑟𝑟
symbols have their usual meaning). Since (v) Given that the mass of the object is
there is no vertical acceleration 0.5kg and it is moving at speed of 8m/s at
a radius of 2m.Determine the reading on
𝑭𝑭 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶θ the spring balance.
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝟐𝟐)
(vi) State what happens to the reading if
Again, from the two equations; 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 θ = the speed of rotation is reduced.
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓

Note that this equation is similar to the one

we got earlier for banked tracks.
When the angular velocity W the cork
rises hence Q increases. This concept is
applied in merry go round and speed
governors.
Motion in a Horizontal Circe
The tension in the string provides the
centripetal force.
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑭𝑭𝑪𝑪
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝟐𝟐
𝑻𝑻 =
𝒓𝒓
𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
= 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓

Page 23 of 108
Motion in Vertical Path Example
A car travels over a humpback bridge of
radius of curvature 40m. Calculate
maximum speed of the car if its wt are to
staying contact with bridge. g =10m/s2

Tension on the spring changes its

magnitude depending on the position of
the ball. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
=mg-R
When the ball is at A, the sum of tension 𝑟𝑟
TA and weight Mg acting in the same R=0
direction provide centripetal force.
Mv2 =mg
= T + Mg -
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2
a
𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔
(i)
V= √𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
When the ball is at A it attains minimum
speed because Ta = 0 = √40 × 10
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2
= mg = 20 m/s
𝑟𝑟

V min = √𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Examples of Centripetal Force

At B, tensional force TB provides

Example Source(what
centripetal force.
provides centripetal
force)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2
𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵 = Cyclist moving Frictional force
𝑟𝑟 along a circular between the tyre and
path the road
At C, tension and weight acts in different
direction and hence the resultant force
between the two forces provides the Car moving a Horizontal component
centripetal force long a banked of reaction force
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2 road
= T - Mg -
c
𝑟𝑟 Electron Electrostatic force of
-------------- (ii)
orbiting around attraction between the
2
Ta = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 – Mg -------------------------------- the nucleus of proton and the electron
𝑟𝑟 an atom
(iii)
2 Electron Magnetic field
Tc = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + Mg-------------------------------- moving in a
𝑟𝑟
- (iv) magnetic field

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2 Satellite Gravitational force

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷, 𝑇𝑇𝐷𝐷 = orbiting around exerted by the earth
𝑟𝑟 the earth
1. A pilot not stripped to his seat in a
loop manoeuvre without falling. A string whirled Tensional force
2. A bucket of water whirled in a in a horizontal
vertical without water spilling. track
3. A ball bearing ‘looping the loop’ on a
rail lying in vertical plane.

Application of Circular Motion 3. Speed Governors

1. Centrifuges Principle of conical pendulum is used in
operating the speed governors.
It is used to separate particles in
suspension in liquids of different
densities. It consists of small metal
containers tubes that can be rotated.

As the angular velocity of the drive shaft

increases .the masses m rises and moves the
collar up as the angle 𝜃𝜃 increases. The up
Centripetal will be too great according to and down movement of the collar is
Page 25 of 108
the equation F = mrω2 transmitted through a system of levers to
the device that controls the fuel intake.
And r will thus be smaller for lighter Since the angular velocity of the drive shaft
particles and longer for heavier particles. increases with speed of the vehicle, the fuel
2. Satellites supply will cut off when the speed exceeds
a certain limit.
Two bodies with mass m1 and m2 at a
distance r from each other experience a
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑀𝑀
force of attraction. 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑅𝑅1 2 2 G is equal
to universal gravitational constant
Attraction between earth and satellite
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺1𝑀𝑀2
gives centripetal Force𝑀𝑀1𝑣𝑣2 =
𝑅𝑅2
Where M1 is mass of satellite and m2 mass
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
of the earth 𝑣𝑣 2 = 2 𝑅𝑅2

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺2
𝑣𝑣 = √
𝑟𝑟

The velocity of the satellite increases with

decrease in the radius of the orbit.
If periodic time of the satellite is equal to
that of the earth the satellite appear
stationary as seen from the earth surface
such satellite are said to be in parking
orbit and are used in weather
forecasting and telecommunications.
Chapter Three SINKING AND FLOATING
Specific objectives Content
• Archimedes‟ principle,
a) state Archimedes‟ principle
• Law of flotation (experimental
b) verify Archimedes principle treatment)
• Relative density
c) state the law of flotation • Applications of Archimedes‟
d) define relative density principle and relative density.
e) describe the applications of
• Problems on Archimedes‟ principle
Archimedes‟ principle and relative density.
• Project Work- Construct a
f) Solve numerical problems involving
hydrometer.
Archimedes‟ principle.
Upthrust force
Upthrust is an upward force acting on an Precisely: Upthrust = Real weight –
object floating or immersed in a fluid. An Apparent weight.
object immersed or floating in a fluid
appears lighter that its actual weight due to Cause of upthrust
upthrust force (force of buoyancy). Consider the figure below.
Archimedes principle.
The principle states: When a body is totally
or partially immersed in a fluid it
experiences an up thrust equal to the
weight of displaced fluid.
To verify Archimedes’ principle Pressure at the bottom > pressure at the top
Apparatus PB = Pa+h2ρg
• An overflow can PT = Pa + h1ρ g
• A metal block
• A beaker Force = pressure x area
• A spring balance FB = PBA = (Pa+h2 ρ g) A
• A string
• Water FT = PTA = (Pa+ h1ρg) A

Procedure Resultant force = FB – FT

(i) Weigh the block in air.

Page 27 of 108
 (ii) Note the weight of the block in air as U= (Pa+h2 ρ g) A- (Pa+h1ρ g) A
w1.
(iii) Immerse the block in water in U= (h2-h1) ρgA
the overflow can as shown in the U= hρgA But A h =v
diagram below
𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯, 𝑼𝑼 = 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
Upthrust therefore depends on:
(i) Volume of fluid displaced.
(ii) Density of fluid displaced.
• Note the weight of the block when
fully immersed as w2
• Measure the volume of water
displaced and calculates its weight as
w3
• Apparent loss of weight=𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 − 𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐
• The upthrust U=W3
• Upthrust=apparent loss of
weight;𝑼𝑼 = 𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 − 𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐

Example 3.(a) Distinguish between pressure

and up thrust force.
A stone of weight 3N in air and 1.2N
when totally immersed water. (b) A solid metal block of density
Calculate: 2500kg/m3 is fully immersed in water,
supported by a thread which is attached
(a) Volume of the stone to the spring balance as shown below.
(b) Density of the stone
Upthrust = Real weight- Apparent weight
= 3N – 1.2N
= 1.8 N
But 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
1.8 = V x 1000 x 10
V= 0.00018 m3
𝑚𝑚 (i) Calculate the force due to the
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑣𝑣 liquid on the top face of the
= 0.3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 block.
0.00018 (ii) If the upward force on the
=1,666.67 kg/m 3 bottom face is 1.5N, calculate
QUESTIONS
the volume of the block.
(iii) Calculate the apparent weight
1. A Solid of density 2.5g/cm3 is weight of the block in water.
in air and then when completely
immersed in water in a measuring Up thrust in gases
cylinder the Level of water rises from
40cm3 to 80cm3. Determine Gases exert small upthrust on objects
because of their low density.
(a) Volume of the solid
A balloon filled with hydrogen or helium
(b) Its apparent weight. rises up because of low density.
2 a)State the Archimedes’ principle
b) A right angled solid of
dimensions 0.02m by 0.02m by 0.2m
and density 2700kgm-3 is supported
inside kerosene of density 800kgm-3 by
a thread which is attached to a spring
balance. The long side is vertical and
the upper surface is 0.1m below the
surface of kerosene.
(i) Calculate the force due to the
liquid on:
(ii) The lower surface of the solid
(iii) The upper surface of the solid
(iv) Calculate the upthrust and
hence or otherwise determine
the reading on the spring
balance.

In the figures above the balloon filled weight of block in air. They are equal
with air will not float because the
Page 29 of 108
weight of the balloon fabric and air is (same).
greater than the weight of air displaced
(upthrust) i.e. w>u. The balloon filled Therefore we conclude that a floating
with helium or hydrogen floats because object displaces its own weight of the
the weight of the balloon fabric and fluid in which it floats. This law of
helium or hydrogen is less than the flotation.
weight of the air displaced(upthrust) Explanation
i.e. u>w
When a body is submerged in water,
Law of Flotation there are two forces acting on the body;
(i) The weight of the body acting
downwards
(ii) Upthrust on the body due to
displaced liquid acting upwards.
Case 1
If the weight of the body is greater than
In this case we consider the floating object
upthrust, the density of the body is greater
and weight of the fluid displaced.
than the density of the displaced liquid, the
A comparison of the weight of the object body sinks.
and that of fluid displaced.
Case2
Experimentally this can be done by:
If the weight of the body is equal to
• ½ fill measuring cylinder with upthrust, the density of the body is equal
water and record the reading. to the density of the liquid, the body
• Place a clean dry test tube into the remains in equilibrium.
beaker and add some sand in it so Case3
that it floats upright.
• Records the new level of the liquid If the weight of the body is less than the
determine the volume of displaced upthrust, density of the body is less than
water the density of the liquid, the body floats
• Measure its weight (dried) and partially in the liquid.
content.
Example:
• Calculate the weight of displaced
water. A boat of mass 2000kg floats on fresh
water. If the boat enters sea water.
It is observed that the weight of the test
Determine the volume that must be added
tube and its consent is equal to weight of
to displace the same volume of water as
displaced water.
before.(Fresh water-=1000kg/m3, sea
OR water= 1030 kg/m3)
 Apparatus: Weight of fresh water = 2000kg
A block of wood, A spring balance, Thin Displaced Volume of fresh water =2000
thread, Overflow can, A small measuring 1000

cylinder and Some water. =2m3

Using the apparatus above, describe an Mass = Density x Volume
experiment to verify the law of floatation.
= 1030 x 2

• Using the spring balance, weigh = 2060 kg

and record the weight of the block = 2060- 2000
in air
• Fill the eureka completely with = 60kg
water
2. A sphere of radius 3 cm is floating
• Place the measuring cylinder under between liquid A and B such that ½ is at
the spout A and ½ at B. If of liquids A and B are
• Lower the block of wood slowly 0.8g/cm3 and 1.0g/cm3 respectively
into water until the string slackens determine mass of the sphere.
(the block floats)
• Collect the displaced water using
the measuring cylinder
• Repeat the procedure to attain more
results
• Compare the weight of displaced
water with the

Upthrust and Relative Density

Mass of sphere= volume x density Relative density is the ratio of the mass of any
volume of a substance to the mass of an equal
Volume = 4 𝜋𝜋33 volume of water OR the ratio of the density of
3
a substance to the density of water.
= 113.14 cm3
To find relative density of a solid or a liquid
Volume of liquid A displaced = ½
several methods or formulas are used.
x 113.14
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
56.57 cm2 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Page 31 of 108
Mass displaced of A = 56.57 x 0.8 Relative density of a solid.
45.256g If equal volumes of the substance and water are
considered,
Mass of liquid B displaced =
56.57g 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Total mass of sphere displaced = =
45.256 + 56.57 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

101.826g Because mass is directly proportional to the

weight the relative density of a solid may be given
3. A stone eights 2N in air and 1.2N as:
when totally immersed in water
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Calculate 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
(a) Volume of the stone 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
(b) Densities of the stone 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(a) Up thrust = weight of water =
displaced 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
= 2-1.2 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 =
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
=0.8N
Relative density of solid which sinks in water
Mass of water displaced = 0.8/10
If the weight of the substance in air is 𝑊𝑊1and in
= 0.08kg 𝑊𝑊
water is,𝑊𝑊 , then 𝑅𝑅. 𝐷𝐷 = 1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑊𝑊1−𝑊𝑊2
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Relative density of solid which floats in water

=
0.08
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−3 The sinker is used as follows:
1000
Weight of the sinker in water=𝑊𝑊1
1000 kg/m3
Weight of the sinker in water + weight of
= 0.00008m3 floating object in air=𝑊𝑊2
Volume of stone = 0.00008m3 Weight of the sinker +weight of floating object
(b) Density=
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
0.2 in water=𝑊𝑊3
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 0.00008
Weight of floating object in air =𝑊𝑊2 − 𝑊𝑊1
= 2500 kg/m3
Weight of floating object in water=𝑊𝑊3 − 𝑊𝑊1
Up thrust of the floating object in water=(𝑊𝑊2 −
𝑊𝑊1) − (𝑊𝑊3 − 𝑊𝑊1)
 Up thrust of the floating object in water=𝑊𝑊2 −
𝑊𝑊1 − 𝑊𝑊3 + 𝑊𝑊1
Up thrust of the floating object in water=𝑊𝑊2 −
𝑊𝑊3
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 =
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑊𝑊2 − 𝑊𝑊1
𝑊𝑊2− 𝑊𝑊3

Relative density of a liquid

To find relative density of the liquid we determine:
a) Weight (w1) of solid in air.
b) Weight (w2) of the same solid when totally
immersed in water.
c) Weight (w3) of the same solid when totally
immersed in a liquid whose relative density is
to be determined. Volume of y displaced = 4 x 5 x 3
𝑅𝑅. 𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 60 cm3
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
=
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 0.00006 m
3

Or 𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

𝑅𝑅. 𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = 800 x 0.00006 x 10

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= = 0.48N
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Volume of x displaced = 0.04 x
Or 0.05 x 0.06
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑹𝑹. 𝑫𝑫 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = = 0.00012 m3
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝑤𝑤1 − 𝑤𝑤2
𝑅𝑅. 𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
𝑤𝑤1 − 𝑤𝑤3
Page 33 of 108
Or = 0.00012m3
Example = 1.2N
1. A solid of mass 800g is suspended by a string is Total up thrust = 1.2 x 0.48
totally immersed in water. If the tension in the
string is 4.8N. Calculate = 1.68N
(a) Volume of solid Weight of block = total up thrust
(b) Relative density of the solid.
= 1.68N
Weight of solid = 8N
= 0.168 kg
W1 = 8N 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
(b) 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 =
W2= 4.8N 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

Up thrust = 3.2N = 0.168

Volume of water displaced = 0.32 = 0.04 x 0.05 x

0.12
1000
=700 kg/m3
= 0.00032 m3
Volume of the solid = 0.00032m3
1. The wooden block below floats in two liquids
x and y if the densities of x and y are 1g/cm3
and 0.8g/cm3 respectively determine:
(i) Mass of the block
(ii) Density of the block

Applications of Archimedes’s Principle (b) Balloons

and Relative Density
Used by metrologists where a gas which is
(a) The hydrometer less dense than air like hydrogen is used.
The balloon moves upwards because up
thrust force is greater than weight of the
balloon. It rises to some height where
density is equal to that of the balloon. At
this point the balloon stops rising because
up thrust is equal to weight of the balloon
and therefore resultant force is equal to
zero.
 (c) Ships
They are made of steel which is denser
than water but floats because they are
hollow thereby displacing a large volume
of water than the volume of steel which
provides enough up thrust to support its
weight.
The average density of sea water is greater
It is an instrument used to find relative than the average density of fresh water.
densities of density of liquids. It applies Due to this difference, ships are fitted with
the law of flotation in its operation. primsol lines on their sides to show the
It has a wide bulb to displace large volume level that a ship should sink to when on
of liquid that provide sufficient up thrust various waters.
to keep hydrometer floating. (d) Sub-marine
Lead shots at the bottom- to make It can sink or float. It is fitted with ballast
hydrometer float upright. tanks that can be filled with air or water
Narrow stem- to make hydrometer more hence varying its weight .To sink, ballast
sensitive. tanks are filled with water so that its
weight is greater than up thrust.
To float compressed air is pumped into the
tank displacing water so that up thrust is
greater than weight of the submarine.
Examples
1. A hydrometer of mass 20g floats in oil
of density 0.7g/cm3.with 5cm of its stem
above the oil. If the cross sectional area of
Hydrometers are designed for specific the stem is 0.5cm2. Calculate:-
purposes lactometer range 1.015 – 1.0045
so as to measure density of milk. (a) Total volume of the hydrometer

The bulb is squeezed and released so that (b) Length of the stem out of water if it
the acid is drawn into the glass tube. floats in water.
Solutions to questions
(a) Volume of oil displaced =
Page 35 of 108
 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

20
=
0.8
= 25 cm3
Volume of hydrometer above oil = 5 x
0.5
= 2.5 cm3
Total volume = 25 + 2.5
= 27.5 cm3

(𝑏𝑏) 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Volume of 1.00g/cm3 liquid

= 2 𝑥𝑥 10 − 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 displaced = m/ρ = 165/1 = 165 cm3;
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Volume of 1.10g/cm3 displaced =
= 2 𝑥𝑥 10 − 1𝑁𝑁 165/1.1 = 150 cm3;
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Change in volume displaced = 165 – 150
= 2 𝑥𝑥 10 − 1𝑁𝑁 = 15 cm3 ;

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 𝑥𝑥 10−1 Volume = Area x Height ;

= 20𝑔𝑔 0.75 x h ; therefore h = 20 cm.

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (ii) State two ways of improving the
20𝑔𝑔 sensitivity of the above hydrometer.
= 𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
1 -Using a hydrometer with
= 20𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 a narrow stem.

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 - Using a hydrometer with

= 27.5 − 20 a large bulb

= 7.5𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 2. When a body of mass 450g is

completely immersed in a liquid, the
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 upthrust on the body is 1.6N. Find the
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 weight of the body in the liquid.
7.5 3. The figure below shows a lever
= = 15𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
0.5 arrangement with the rod balanced
by a knife edged at as centre of
 gravity. The 5N weight on one side
balances the solid S (volume
The densities of liquids may be measured
using hydrometers. The hydrometer in the 100cm3) which lies immersed in a
figure consists of a weighted bulb with a beaker of water on the other side.
thin stem.

The beaker of water is then removed and

while keeping the 42cm distance
The hydrometer is floated in the liquid and constant, the position of solid S is
the density is read from a scale on its stem. adjusted to obtain balance
The hydrometer in the figure is designed conditions again.
to measure densities between 1.00 g cm – 3
a) Determine the new position of S.
and1.10 g cm – 3.On the diagram, mark
with the letter M the position on the scale
of the 1.10 g cm – 3 graduation. The b) What would be the new position of
hydrometer has a mass of 165 g and the
S if it was immersed in a liquid of
stem has a uniform cross-sectional area of
0.750 cm2.Calculate; relative density 0.8?

(i) The change in the submerged

volume of the hydrometer when
it is first placed in a liquid of
density 1.00 g cm – 3 and then in
a liquid of density 1.10 g cm – 3.

Chapter Four ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Page 37 of 108
Specific objectives Content
By the end of this topic, the learner  Simple experiments to illustrate
should be able to: electromagnetic induction
 Induced emf:
a) Perform and describe simple
experiments to illustrate • Faraday’s law
electromagnetic induction • Lens’s law
b) State the factors affecting the  Mutual induction
magnitude and the direction of  Alternating current generator,
induced emf direct current generator
c) State the laws of electromagnetic  Fleming’s right hand rule
induction  Transformers
d) Describe simple experiments to  Applications of electromagnetic
illustrate mutual induction explain induction
mutual induction • Induction coil
e) Explain the working of an • Moving coil transformers
alternating current (a.c) generator
and a direct current (d.c) generator
f) Explain the working of a
transformer
g) Explain the application of
electromagnetic induction
h) Solve numerical problems involving
transformers

Introduction Magnetic Flux

Electric current passing through a
conductor has an associated magnetic It is the product of magnetic field strength
field. The reverse is also true in that a and perpendicular area covered by the
change in magnetic field induces an field lines.
electric current in a conductor a The direction of induced emf by a
phenomenon known as electromagnetic conductor is predicted by two laws of
induction. electromagnetic induction;
This is attributed to Michael Faraday and Faraday’s law-The magnitude of
has led to production of electrical energy induced e.m.f. is directly proportional
in power station. to the rate of change of magnetic flux
Experiment to Show Induced linkage.
Electromotive Force (Emf) Lenz’s law – direction of induced e.m.f.
is such that the induced current which
it causes to flow produces a magnetic
effect that opposes the change
 producing it.

The galvanometer reflects when

conductor AB cuts the magnetic field.
• There is no flow of current when the
conductor is stationary.
• The magnitude of induced current
increases with the angle of which
conductor cuts magnetic field.
• The direction of deflection reverses
when the direction of motion is
reversed.
FACTORS AFFECTING
MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED E.m.f.
(i) The magnitude or strength of
magnetic field.
(ii) The rate of change of flux
linkage/rate of relative motion
between the conductor and
magnetic field.
(iii) The number of turns of
coil/length of the conductor
(iv) The nature of the core

Page 39 of 108
The mechanical energy of a moving Mutual Induction
magnet inside a coil is converted to
electric energy inform of induced current. It occurs when change of current in one coil
The person pushing the magnet towards induces a current in another coil placed close
the coil must exert force to do work in to it. The changing magnetic flux in the
against repulsion of induced pole of coil first coil (Primary) links to secondary coil
magnet. inducing an EMF in it.

Fleming Right Hand Rule (Dynamo

Rule)
If the thumb and first two fingers of the
right hand are held manually at right
angle with 1st finger pointing direction
of magnetic field, the thumb pointing in
the direction of motion then the second
finger points in direction of induced
current.
Example
(i) A square looped conductor is pulled at
speed across a uniform magnetic field as
shown below.

When a switch is closed, current in the

primary coil increases from zero to a
maximum current within a very short time.
The magnetic flux in the primary coil linking
with the secondary coil increases from zero
Determine direction of induced current in to a maximum value in the same interval of
time inducing an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
(a) AB – from B to A Current flows hence the reflection on the
(b) AD - no induced current galvanometer.

(c) CD-C to D Likewise when the switch is opened the

current in the primary takes a very short time
(d) BC- no induced current to fall from maximum value to zero. The
magnetic flux in primary coil linking
Question secondary also falls from maximum value to
(a) State Faraday’s laws of zero inducing an e.m.f. on the secondary coil.
electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil is
(b) The figure below shows a conductor higher when current in the primary coil is
XY moving in a region of uniform switched off than when it is switched on
magnetic field. because the current in the circuit takes a much
shorter time to die off than build up. The
above explanation is called mutual
induction. The induced e.m.f. in the
secondary coil can be increased by:
(i) Having more turns in the secondary
coil.
(ii) Winding the primary and secondary
coils on a soft iron rod.
(iii) Winding both primary and
(i) State the direction of the induced secondary coils on a soft iron ring in
current in the conductor and the order for the magnetic flux in the
rule used in arriving at the answer. primary to form concentric loops
(ii) Suggest one way of increasing the within it thus reaching the secondary
magnitude of the induced current in point. Soft iron concentrates magnetic
the conductor. flux in both coils that is why it is used.

Application of Electromagnetic Useful transformer equations

Induction Secondary voltage
From experiment; =
It is applied in many areas some of these no.of secondary turns
Primary voltage

are: no.of secondary turns

(i) Transformer This is called turns rule.

A transformer transfers electrical energy Mathematically;
form one circuit to another by mutual
induction. VS NS
=
It consists of a primary coil where an VP NP
alternating current is the input and Assuming negligible resistance
secondary coil forming the output.
Power = Voltage x current
The coils are wound on a common soft
Page 41 of 108
iron. 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Types of Transformers 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
= 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Step down transformers
𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝
Power output= secondary voltage x
secondary current
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (%)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 𝑥𝑥 100
It has more turns in primary coil (Np) 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
than in the secondary coil (Ns)
VSIS
VS η= × 100%
= n(Turns ratio) VPIP
VP

Turns ratio is less than one For ideal transformer there is no energy
lost and therefore efficiency is 100%
Step up transformer
V SI S
100 = × 100
It has less turns in primary coil and more V PI P
in the secondary coil.
VPIP = VSIS
The turn’s ratio is greater than one.
I VSIS
P= V
P
IP VS NS
= =
IS VP NP
Examples

NOTE – In a step-down transformer 1. A transformer is to be used to provide

power of 24V ceiling bulb from a.c.
current in the in the secondary coil is
supply of 240. Find the number of turns
greater than in the primary coil while in secondary coil if the primary coil has
in the step-up transformer current in 1000 turns.
the primary coil is greater than in the
VS NS
secondary coil. =
VP NP
24 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
=
240 1000

1000
 = 100 turns

2. A power station has an output of 10KW Resistance of Coils (Copper Losses)

at a p.d of 500v. The voltage is stepped
up to 15 KV by transformer T1, for This can be prevented by use of thick
transmission along a grid of resistance copper wire to reduce heating effect.
3 k and thin stepped down to p.d 240v Eddy Currents in the Core
by transformer T2 at the end of grid for
use in a school. Given that efficiency of Eddy currents have associated fluxes that
T1 is 95% and T2 90%, find: tend to oppose the flux change in primary.
(i) The power output of T1 This reduces power transfer to the
(ii) The current in the grid. secondary. To reduce eddy currents the
(iii) The power loss in grid. core is laminated (using thin sheets of
(iv) The input voltage of T2 insulated soft iron plates) causes minimal
heating effect.
(a) The maximum power and current
available for use in school Hysteresis Loss
(b) Why is it necessary to step up the It is energy losses inform of heat in
voltage at power station? magnetizing and demagnetizing the soft
iron core every time the current reverses.
3. Power station has an output of 33K at It can be minimized by using a core of soft
a p.d of 5k V a transformer with a magnetic material which magnetized and
primary coil of 2000 turns is used to demagnetize easily.
stop up the voltage of 132 KV for
transmission along a grid. Assuming Practical Transformer
there s no power loss in the transformer
A transformer used in power stations and
calculate
along transmission lines generates a lot of
(a) Current in the primary coil heat. They are therefore cooled by oil
which does not easily evaporate. Small
(b) Number of turns of secondary coil transformers are cooled by use of air. A
(c) Current in the secondary coil. well-designed transformer can have an
efficiency of up to 99%.However; the
presence of air reduces its efficiency.

Page 43 of 108
Energy Losses in a Transformer (i) Alternating current generator
There are four main causes of energy It converts mechanical energy into
losses in a transformer. electrical energy. It has a rectangular
curved permanent magnet poles, two slip
Flux Leakage rings and carbon (graphite) brushes.
All magnetic flux produced by the primary
may not link up with the secondary coil
hence reducing e.m.f induced in
secondary. Flux leakage is reduced by
efficient design of transformers to ensure
maximum flux leakage.
The secondary coil is wound over the The poles of the magnet are curved so that
primary coil or coils are wound next to magnetic field is radial. Induced Current
each other on a common core. enters and leaves the coil through the
brushes which presses against the slip-
rings. The brushes are made of graphite
because:
(i) It is a good conductor of
electricity-
(ii) It is slippery and therefore can
act as a lubricant.
When coil rotates in clockwise direction
side AB moves up and CD downwards.
The two sides are cutting the magnetic
field perpendicularly and produce
maximum induced e.m.f (E) when the coil
is horizontal.

Applying Fleming’s right had rule, the (ii) Direct Current Generator
flow of induced current is in the direction
ABCD Direct current (d.c) generator differs from
an a.c generator in that it has a split-ring
The current flow through the external (commutator) while in ac generator has
circuit via the slip – ring 2 and brush x. slip-ring.
Brush Y and slip-ring 1 complete the
circuit. Brush x is thus positive terminal
which Y is negative. When coil rotates
from horizontal to vertical position the
angle at which the sides of the coil cuts
magnetic field reduces from 90o to 0o
Likewise the induced emf reduces from
maximum to zero. When the coil rotates
past the vertical position side AB moves
downwards as side CD moves upwards.
The angle ϴ at which the sides of the coil
cuts the magnetic field increases from 0o
to 90o when coil is horizontal. The induced
emf increases from zero to maximum If the coil rotates into the vertical position
value and direction of current in the coil induced current and e.m.f though resistor
reverses from D C B A brush Y now R decreases from maximum value to zero.
becomes positive and X negative. The polarity of brush Y is positive and X
is negative. The brushes touch the gaps
The magnitude of induced e.m.f obeys the within the commutators
sinusoidal equation
The vertical position ensures that rings
E= Eosin ϴ exchange brushes since the induced
Where Eo is maximum e.m.f and ϴ is the current change direction but direction of
inclination of the coil to the vertical. current through the external resistor
remains the same. The polarity does not
The graph below shows the variation of change and output of d.c generator is
induced emf with time for one revolution shown below.
of the coil starting with the coil in vertical
position.

𝐸𝐸
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚’𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅 The induced e.m.f or current of both a.c
and d.c generator can be increased by;
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝛳𝛳
(i) Increasing speed of rotation of
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼0𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
coil.
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼0𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (ii) Increasing no of turns of coil.
(iii) Increasing the strength f the
The graph of induced current against the magnetic field.
angle of inclination is similar to one (iv) Winding the coil on a laminated
Page 45 of 108
above. soft iron core.
In a bicycle dynamo the magnet rotates
while coil remains stationary. It has
advantages over other generators because
there are no brushes which get worn out.

(iv) Moving Coil Microphone

Sound waves from the source set
diaphragm in vibration which in turn
causes the coil to move to and from cutting
the magnetic field.
Induced e.m.f of varying magnitude sets
up varying current in coil so that coil is
perpendicular to it for maximum flux
linkage.
An amplifier is used to increase the
amplitude of this current before it is fed
into the loudspeaker to be converted back
to sound. Assignment to the student.

Do the exercise at the end of the topic

(iv) The Induction Coil in KLB.
It is used to ignite petrol-air mixture in a
car engine.
When the switch is closed the soft iron rod
is magnetized due to current on the
primary coil and attracts the soft iron
armature.
The armature opens the contact and cuts
off primary currents reducing magnetic
field to zero. This is turn induces a large
emf in the secondary coil by mutual
induction. The spring pulls the armature
back to make the contact again and
process repeats itself.
The induced emf in the secondary coil is
higher when primary current is switched
off than when it is switched on. This is
because current takes a longer time to
increase from zero to maximum than to
decrease from maximum to zero.
Sparking occurs at the contact due to
magnetic field of the primary. A capacitor
is therefore connected across the contacts
to minimize sparking effects by decaying
magnetic flux to zero. Sparks forms across
gap between the ends of secondary coil
and can be used to ignite petrol-air mixture
in a car engine.

Page 47 of 108
Chapter Five MAINS ELECTRICITY
Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic the learner should  Sources of mains electricity
be able to:  Power transmission (include
dangers of high voltage
a) State the sources of mains transmission)
electricity  Domestic wiring system
b) Describe the transmission of  Kw-hr, consumption and cost of
electricity power from the electrical energy
generating station  Problems on mains electricity
c) Explain the domestic wiring system
d) Define the kilowatt hour
e) Determine the electrical energy
consumption and cost
f) Solve numerical problems involving
electricity
Sources of Mains Electricity Advantages of A.C Voltage over D.C
Voltage
1. Water in high dams
2. Geothermal energy (i) Can be transmitted over long
3. Coal or diesel distances with minimum power
4. Winds loss.
5. Tidal waves in the seas (ii) Can be stepped up to very high
6. Nuclear energy voltage.
The type of power generation chosen for
a given location depends on the most
abundant source of energy available in Electrical Power
that area. 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Power Transmission = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 × 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

The National Grid System 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• It is a system of power cables 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
connecting all the stations in a
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
country to each other and to 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
consumers.
• Advantage of national grid 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
system 𝑉𝑉×𝐼𝐼×𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑃𝑃 =
Ensures that power is available 𝑡𝑡
to consumers even when one of
⇒ 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
the power stations fails.
 • Most power stations generate Power loss during transmission
electricity in form of alternating
Power dissipated in a circuit is given by P
current (a.c) at voltage between
= VI.
11kV and 25kV.The voltage is then
stepped up between 132kV to But V = IR (Ohm’s law)
400kV for transmission so as to
minimize power loss. Thus P = I2 R
• The electrical energy is then The above equation shows that when
transmitted over long distance to current is high power loss is also high
substations where the voltage is
stepped down to 11kV. Power loss is therefore low when
• The power can be stepped down to transmitted at high voltage and low
appropriate value for domestic and current.
other users. In Kenya domestic
applicant operate at 240V.
• An 𝑎𝑎. 𝑐𝑐 source voltage is
represented by the symbol shown
below:

Example In most cases aluminium is preferred

because:
1. A generator produces 100kW power
which is transmitted through a cable (a) Good conductor of electricity
of resistance 5Ω.if the voltage (b) It is light
produced is (c) It is cheap and available
5,000V,calculate;
(i) The current transmitted
(ii) Power loss through the cables Dangers of high voltage transmission.
(iii) Power received by the
Page 49 of 108
 consumer (i) Harmful effects of strong
electric fields.
During transmission power loss can be (ii) The risk of fire on nearby
minimized by: structures and vegetation when
(i) Stepping up output voltage from cables get too low.
power station. (iii) The risk of electric shock in case
(ii) Use of thick and good conductor the poles collapse or hang too
transmission cable to minimize low.
resistance.

Domestic Wiring
Electrical power is usually supplied at 240V
from a step-down transformer.
This power is connected to the house using
two wires;
Neutral cable which earthed at zero
potential.
Live cable which is at full potential Example
The life cable is connected to a higher fuse House has a lighting circuit operated
value. The cables are then connected to a from 220V mains. Nine bulbs rated at
meter where energy consumed is registered. 120W 240V are switched on at the same
From meter cable passes on to consumers time. What is the most suitable fuse for
fuse box. this circuit?
Consumer fuse box consist of: P = VI
Main switch I = 𝑃𝑃
𝑣𝑣
It disconnects both live and neutral wires 9𝑃𝑃
Total current 𝐼𝐼 =
simultaneously. 𝑉𝑉
9 𝑋𝑋 120
Live bus bar =
220
It is connected to live wire and the fuse. = 4.91A
Neutral bus bar The suitable fuse is a 5A fuse
It is connected to all neutral wires
Earth Terminal
It is earthed through a thick copper bar buried
deep in the earth or through water piping.
Fuse
 Fuse is a thin wire (made alloy of
copper and tins) which melts when
current exceeds its rating.
 Its function is to safeguard
components against excess current in

Page 51 of 108
 the circuit.
 It has low melting point.
 It is usually connected on a live wire
because live wires are at full potential
The fuse can blow due to the following:
(i) Overloading the circuit
(ii) Short circuiting
(iii) Use of wrong fuse rating
The fuse is normally represented by any of
the following symbols:

Circuit Breakers
Is an electronic device which disconnects the
circuit when current exceeds a certain value
by electromagnetism. It is more efficient than
a fuse in that it can be reset when power goes
off unlike a fuse which must be replaced with
a new one.

Lighting and Cooking Circuits

For lighting circuit the lamps are The Rings Mains Circuit
connected in parallel so that:
Is a circuit where power in various rooms
(i) They are operated tapped at convenient point from a loop.
independently.
(ii) To reduce the effective The arrangement of the cable enable double
resistance. path for current arrangement also increases the
(iii) They can be operated at the thickness of wires used reduces the risk of
same potential overloading when several sockets are used.

The cables are relatively thin because

lamps consume small amount of
current.
For cooking circuit, power is taped
from the rings mains circuit.
These circuits are earthed and their
wires are relatively thicker than those
for the lighting circuit, since they carry
large currents.

Page 53 of 108
Two Way Switch Circuit The insulation on the three cables are
coloured so that they link correctly when
Is used to put off on lights by one switch connected to power circuit.
and put off by the other.
Live lead – red/brown
Example
Neutral – Black/ blue
The diagram below shows staircase double
switches. Earth – Green/green with yellow stripes
Fuse is used to safeguard appliance from
damage due to excessive
The value of the chosen fuse should be
slightly above the value of the operating
current of the appliance.
The earth pin is longer so as to open
On the table given below write down whether valves or shutters of the live and neutral
the lamp will be ON or OFF for various pins.
combinations of switch positions.
This protects the user from shock. Three
pin-plugs have the earth pin which
provides the path for excess current.
Question
The figure shows a three-pin plug
Identify the mistakes in the wiring
A Three – Pin Plug What would happen if this plug was
connected to mains socket.
Why is the earth pin normally longer
than the other two pins
a) Study the figure below:- Electrical Energy Consumption and
Costing
Commercial companies charge for
electrical energy supplied to consumers.
Amount of energy used by consumers
depends on:
Power rating of appliances
Time for which they have been in use.
Energy = Power x time
(i) What name is given to the fitting in The unit is used for costing 1 unit =
the diagram? 1kWh
(ii) Identify the parts labelled.
Kilowatt – hour (KWh) is amount of
electrical energy spent in one hour at rate

Page 55 of 108
 A - of 1000 J/S (watts).
B - A consumer has the following
components in his house for the times
C - indicated in one day.
D - Appliance Time
iii) State the colours A, B and C. Two 40w bulbs 30min
One 3kw electric heater 4hrs
A -
One 500w fridge 15hrs
B -
C -
Calculate;
Total power the components use
Total cost of power consumed in 30 days
if one unit costs Ksh 6.50
(2 x 40) + (3000) + (500)
= 3580W

Chapter Six ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic. The learner • Electromagnetic spectrum
should be able to: • Properties of electromagnetic
waves
a) Describe the complete
• Detection of electromagnetic (emf)
electromagnetic spectrum radiations
b) State the properties of • Application of e.m radiations
electromagnetic waves (include green house effect)
• Problems involving 𝑐𝑐 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
c) Describe the methods of detecting
electromagnetic radiations

d) Solve numerical problems

involving c = λf
Electromagnetic Spectrum - this is the Examples of E.M Waves
arrangement of the electromagnetic waves
according to their frequencies or wave They include light, x-rays, ultra violet,
length. infrared and gamma rays when this wave
is arranged in terms of wavelength or
Electromagnetic Waves frequency .They form electric magnetic
spectrum. The wavelength range from
Are transverse waves which results from about 1 x 106 m to 1 x 10 -14m.
oscillating electric and magnetic fields at
right angle to each other.

Page 57 of 108
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Example
(i) They are transverse in nature. . Green light has a wavelength of
(ii) They do not require a medium 5 𝑥𝑥10−3𝑚𝑚.Calculate the energy it emits.
for transmission. . A radio is tuned into a radio station 144
(iii) They travel through space km away.
(vacuum) with the speed of light
(3 x108 m/s) (a) How long does it take a signal to
(iv) They carry no charge hence not reach the receiver?
affected by electric or magnetic (b) If the signal has a frequency has a
fields. signal of 980 kHz, how many wavelengths
(v) They undergo interference, is the station away from your receiver?
reflection, and diffraction,
refraction and polarization
effects.
(vi) They possess energy in different
amounts. According to
𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑓𝑓 where h is planets
constant (6.63 x 10-34 Js) and f is
frequency.
(vii) They obey the wave equation
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Production and Detection of Electromagnetic Waves.
EM wave Production Detection
Radio waves oscillating electrical Diodes and earphones.
circuits and transmitted
through aerials or
antennae
Microwaves Special vacuum tubes Dry crystal detectors or
called magnetrons in solid state diodes.
microwave ovens or with
a mass.

Infrared Radiation the sun or any hot body Heating effect produced
on the skin, thermopile,
bolometer and
thermometer with
blackened bulb.
Visible light Sun is the major source the eye, photographic
other sources are hot film and photocell
objects, lamps and laser
beams.
Ultraviolet (u. v) rays By the sun, sparks and by photographic films,
mercury vapour due to photocells, fluorescent
large energy chances in materials (quinine
the electrons of an atom. sulphate) and paper
lightly smeared with
Vaseline
X-rays action of beam of fast- Using fluorescent screen
moving electrons or photographic film.
hitching a metal target
Gamma Rays By radioactive Detected by
substances in the nucleus photographic plates and
of an atom radiation detectors e.g.
The G.M tube.

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Application of Electromagnetic Waves
Properties Type of radiation Uses
Highest frequency Gamma rays In medicine used to kill
cancerous tissues
Highest energy content
Sterilize medical
equipment and pests
High energy Content x-rays Crystallography,
study fractures and
detect forgeries in art
and flaw in metals
Low energy content U.V radiations In medicine they supply
vitamin D
treatment of skin cancer
mineral analysis and
detecting forgeries
Easily reflected visible light Seeing,
have average photography,
wavelengths
Fibre optics, lasers
(light amplification by
the stimulated emission
of radiations)
Long wavelength Infrared and microwave Used in cooking
 high heating effect heating and drying
Long medium TV waves In communication with
wavelength the aid of satellite,
penetrates the
atmosphere easily
Longest wavelength, Radio waves Widely used in radio
shortest frequency, communication.
Easily diffracted

Diffraction of TV Radio Waves

Large wavelengths and low frequency radio waves are easily diffracted. They are also
easily detected by receivers in deep valleys and behind hills. Radio waves of longer
wavelength, amplitude modulation (AM) are reflected easily by ionosphere. Shorter
wavelength waves (frequency modulations (FM) are transmitted over short distances
and received directly from the transmission.

Microwaves Hazards of Some Electro-Magnetic

Waves.
In cooking microwaves produces
magnetron at a frequency of about 2500 UV rays and gamma rays carry high
MHZ. These waves are directed to a energy which damages cells, skin burn of
rotating metal shiner which reflects them effect eyes when absorbed. There are
to different parts of the oven. In the oven delayed effect of radiation such as cancer,
food is placed in a turntable where it leukemia and hereditary effects in
absorbs the waves evenly. The wave’s children.
heat cooks it. The wire mesh on the door
reflect the microwave back inside. The Minimising the Hazards
device is switched off before opening the
Page 61 of 108
door. Microwaves of shorter wavelength (i) Reduce dosage by minimising
are used in radar communication. exposure time.
(ii) Keep a safe distance from the
radiations
(iii) Use shielding materials such as
lead jackets.

Micro waves which have shorter wave

lengths are used for radar (Radio detection
and Ranging) communication. This
communication is useful in locating the
exact position of aero planes and ships.
Radio Waves
They have varying range of wavelength
which makes their application wide.
Medium and short wavelength is used in
radio transmission signals. Amplitude
modulation (AM) radio transmission has a
longer range because of reflection by the
ionosphere. TV and frequency modulation
(FM) radio waves are received all a shorter
wavelength than normal radio broadcasts.
Very high frequency (VHF) transmission
(Used in TV and FM radios are
transmitted over short distance and
received direct from the transmission.
Green House Effect (Heat Trap)
Transparent glass allows visible light of
short wavelength radiations emitted by the
sun to pass through. On the other hand
glass cannot transmit the long
wavelength given out by cooler objects.
Heat from the sun is therefore trapped
inside the green house. This makes inside
of the green house warmer than outside.

Chapter Seven CATHODE RAYS AND CATHODE RAY

OSCILLOSCOPE
By the end of this topic, the learner should Content
be able to:
• Production of cathode rays,
a) Describe the production of cathode cathode ray tube.
rays • Properties of cathode rays.
b) State the properties of cathode rays • C.R.O and T.V tubes.
c) Explain the functioning of a cathode • Uses of C.R.O.
Ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)and of a • Problems on C.R.O.
Television tube (T.V tube)
d) Explain the uses of a cathode Ray
Oscilloscope
e) Solve problems involving Cathode
Ray Oscilloscope

Cathode Rays Properties of Cathode Rays

They are streams of high velocity electrons (i) They travel in a straight line in absence
emitted from the surface of a metal when a of magnetic or electric fields. Hence form
cathode (negative electrode) is heated sharp shadows of objects put on their way.
inside a vacuum tube by thermionic
emission. Electrons are able to leave the
metal surface because they gain enough
kinetic energy to break loose from the force
of attraction of the nuclei.
Thermionic emission is the process of
Page 63 of 108
emitting electrons from a metal surface due
to heat energy. See the figure below:

ii) Cathode rays cause fluorescence in

some substances e.g. zinc sulphide
Before the heater current is switched on, no (phosphor).
current is registered by the milliameter. iii) They possess kinetic energy. The
When the switch is put on, the cathode is kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
heated and emits electrons which complete is converted into light energy by a
the gap between the electrodes and a process called fluorescence. This is the
current is registered at the milliameter. main reason why the screen is not
Production of cathode rays heated.
iv) They are charged because they are
deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields (not waves).
v) The path of cathode rays in a
magnetic field is circular so that the
force acting on them is perpendicular
to both the magnetic field and the
direction of current.

In the above discharge tube electrons

produced at the cathode by thermionic
emission are accelerated towards
fluorescent screen by an anode of an extra
high tension (EHT) source. The tube is
evacuated so that the emitted electrons do
not collide with air molecules which would
ionise them making them lose kinetic
energy. Ionisation is a process where
electrons are completely removed from
atoms of an element. The cathode is coated
with barium and strontium oxides to give a
ready and continuous supply of electrons.
 vi) cathode rays have momentum and energy given
by 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 and 1 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2 respectively
2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(C.R.O.)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
= 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 It is an electrical instrument
1 used to display and analyse
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝓋𝓋 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
2 wave forms as well as to
2 measure electrical potentials
vii) cathode rays produce x rays when they strike a i.e. voltages that vary with
metal target time.
viii) Cathode rays slightly ionise gases.
It consists of the following
ix) Affect photographic papers.
parts;
(a) Electron gun.
(b) Deflecting system.
(c) Display system

Electron Gun • If the grid is made more

negative with respect to the
(a) It produces an electron beam which is highly a cathode, the number of
concentrated stream of high speed electrons. electrons per second
Page 65 of 108
 (b) It has the following components; passing through the grid
decreases and the spot
-Cathode becomes darker. The effect
-Cylindrical grid is reversed if the grid is
made more positive in
-Two anodes potential with respect to the
cathode.
Function of Cathode
Anodes
To emit electrons by thermionic emission (when
heated). It is coated with oxides of thorium and The two anodes have positive
strontium (the two are preferred because they have low potentials relative to cathode.
work functions hence can emit electrons easily) Anode 1 is at a higher potential
than anode 2. The difference in
Function of Cylindrical Grid.
potential between the two
• Controls the rate of flow of electron hence the anodes creates an electric field.
brightness of the spot on the screen. The electric field converges the
• The negative voltage on grid can be varied to diverging beam from anode 2.
control the number of electrons reaching the anode. Functions

(a) Attract electrons from

cathode.
(b) They accelerate the
electrons by providing
enough energy to cause
emission of light as they hit
the screen.
(c) They focus electron beam
by converging electrons to a
sharp point on the screen.

Deflecting System Display System (screen).

Function of the deflection system Inside of the screen is coated with
To determine position of electron phosphor (zinc sulphide) which
beam on the screen fluoresces or glows when electrons strike
it hence producing a bright spot on the
Types of deflections screen.
(i) Vertical deflection ( by Y-plate) The inside of the tube is coated with
(ii) Horizontal deflection ( by X-plate) graphite which has the following
Vertical deflection( Y-plates) functions;
• It deflects electron beam vertically across • Earthing – conduction of electrons to
the screen in the following ways when the the earth.
time base(X-plates) is switched off; • It is used to shield the beam from
• When d.c potential across the two plates external electric field.
is zero a spot is produced on the screen • It accelerates electrons towards the
i.e. no deflection. screen since it is in the same potential
• When d.c. voltage is applied across the y- as the anode.
plate with top plate positive the electrons
are deflected upwards and a spot therefore Uses of CRO
appears on the upper part of the screen. • It is used as a voltmeter.
• When lower plate is positive a spot • Time base of switched off, the x-
appears on the lower part of the screen. plates earthed and the voltage to be
• If a.c voltage is applied cross y plate the measured connected across the y-
spot oscillate up and down depending on plates. The voltage is calculated
frequency such that what is seen on the using the formula:
screen is a vertical straight line if the
frequency is very high. 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Horizontal deflection (x -plates) × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
X-plates are internally connected to the time- Advantages of CRO over voltmeter
base circuit, which applies a saw-tooth
voltage to the x-plates. The voltage increases • Can measure large voltages
uniformly to a peak (sweep) and drops without being destroyed.
suddenly (fly back). The speed with which • It responds instantaneously unlike
the electron beam is “sweep” can be adjusted ordinary meter whose pointer is
with the help of the time base knob. affected by inertia.
• Can measure both a.c and d.c
voltages.
• It has extremely high resistance
and does not therefore alter current
or voltage in the circuit to which it
is connected.
• Measuring the frequency of a
wave(a.c signal)
When a d.c voltage is applied to the
The signal is fed into the y-plates of a
C.R.O. with the time base on. The time
Page 67 of 108
input(Y-plates) of the cathode ray base control is then adjusted to give one
oscilloscope and the time base on, then the or more cycles of the input signal on the
horizontal line is seen to move toward the screen. The time T of the signal is then
positive plate. determined by relating the trace of the
signal on the screen with the time base
When an a.c voltage is applied to the input of setting. The frequency can be calculated
a CRO and time base on, then due to 1
interaction of the saw-tooth voltage at the x- as 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
plates and a.c voltage at the y-plates, a ‘sine-
Examples
curve’ is seen on the screen.
1. The figure below shows a display of an
The purpose of time-base is to move
a.c signal on the CRO screen.
electrons across the screen at a particular
Determine the frequency, given that
speed enabling the study of variation between
the time base setting is 200ms/div.
voltages with time.

2. On the grid provided below, show the display on

the CRO screen of an a.c signal, peak voltage
300v and frequency 50Hz when time base is on
(Take-gain at 100 V/div, time base setting at
10ms/div).
300
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
100
=3 4. The control knobs of CRO have
been adjusted to get a bright
1
𝑇𝑇 = electron ‘spot’ on the screen.
𝑓𝑓 Explain how you get the
1 following traces:
𝑇𝑇 =
50 (i) A horizontal line at the
𝑇𝑇 = 0.02 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 centre.
(ii) A vertical line at the centre.
(iii) A sine curve
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 5. The time base on a CRO is set at
0.02 1ms/cm and Y-gain at
= =2
0.01 100v/cm.When an alternating
voltage is applied to the input
terminals, the beak value of the
sine curve on the screen is
2.9cm.calcuate:
(i) The amplitude of the ac
voltage.
(ii) The frequency of the ac
input signals, if two full
waves are formed in a
3. A.d.c voltage of 50v when applied to the Y- length of 5cm on the
plates of a CRO causes a deflection of the spot screen.
on the screen as shown. 6. The figure below shows the
deflection of a spot by
alternating voltage signal

(i) Determine the sensitivity of the Y-gain.

(ii) Show what will be observed on the
screen if an a.c of peak voltage 40v is fed
onto the Y-plates If the sensitivity is 30v/division
.Find the voltage of the signal

Page 69 of 108
TV Tube or Computer Monitor Question
1. The figure below shows the main
parts of a television receiver tube
with the electron guns deflection
coils and the fluorescent screen
labelled.

• In TV tube magnetic coils (fields)

are used instead of electric field
because they provide wider
deflection to light the whole screen.
• The tube has two tiny plates which
combine to light the entire screen
instead of just a line.
• In a colour –TV 3 electron guns are (i) Name the parts of the electron
used each producing one primary gun
colour (red, blue and green) screen (ii) Why are magnetic fields in the
is coated with different chemicals to coils preferred in the television
produce the colours. set instead of electric fields?
(iii) Name a suitable substance used
Coils are mounted outside the neck of the to coat the screen.
tube so that they can be treated and
adjusted while set is being assembled and
tested.
Differences between TV screen and CRO

TV CRO
Deflection is by Deflection is by
magnetic field electric field
It has two time It has one time
base base
Electrons lights Electrons produce
the whole screen a line or a dot
There are 625 There are 25 lines
 lines per second per second

Chapter Eight X-RAYS

Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic, the learner • Production of X-rays X-ray tube
should be able to: • Energy changes in an X-ray tube
a)Explain the production of X-rays • Properties of X-rays, soft X-rays
and hard x-rays
b)State the properties of X-rays
c)State the dangers of X-rays • Dangers of X-rays and precautions
d)Explain the uses of X-rays • Uses of x-rays
e)Solve numerical problems • Problems on x-rays
involving x-rays
 X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895 when he was conducting a
research of cathode rays. He called them x-rays because their nature was
unknown at the time of discovery. X-rays are produced when fast moving
electrons are suddenly stopped by matter.
Production Of X-Rays.
Page 71 of 108
  Modern x-rays have a rotating
target during operation to change
 When a Cathode is heated, it the point of impact thereby
produces electrons by thermionic reducing the wear and tear on it.
emission. Emitted electrons are  The target is set at an angle (450) to
accelerated to the anode (target) by direct x-rays out of the tube
high potential difference i.e. 100kv through a window on the lead
between cathode and anode. shield. See the figure below:
 When first moving electrons are
stopped by the anode (target) part of
their kinetic energy is converted to x-
rays.
 An x-ray tube is really a high voltage
diode valve.
 Cathode is concave so as to focus
electron beam to the tungsten target.
 The cathode is coated with oxides of
low work function so that electrons
are easily emitted from its surface
when it is heated.
 The anode target has a high melting
point to withstand a lot of heat
generated e.g. tungsten or
molybdenum
 Most of kinetic energy of electrons is
converted to heat energy but about
0.5% is transferred to x-rays
radiation.
 Anode is made of good conductor of
heat i.e. copper for efficient (fast)
dissipation of heat energy. However,
oil circulation and fins
 enhances cooling process.
Lead shielding has high density so as
to prevent x-rays from penetrating
into undesirable targets.

Properties of X-Rays Applications of x-rays (uses)

1. Travel in straight line at a speed of (i) In medicine (Radiography and
light in a vacuum. Radiotherapy).
2. X-rays are dangerous, they can  Due to the penetrating property of
cause cancer. x-rays, fractured bones and
3. X-rays penetrate substances but are dislocated joints can be seen from
absorbed by dense solids e.g. bones x-ray photograph called radiograph.
or lead. Foreign objects like swallowed
4. X-rays affect photographic films. coins or pins can also be located.
5. X-rays ionise gases, so that the  Hard X-rays can treat cancer,
gases become conductors. tumours and other skin diseases by
6. X-rays can cause photoelectric destroying the infected cells.
emission. (ii) Science/ Crystallography
7. X-rays cause fluorescence in  Study of crystal structure which
certain substances. explains the arrangement of atoms
8. X-rays are not deflected by a in different materials. Incase there
magnetic or electric fields. are fractures in the structure of the
9. X-rays can be diffracted and plane material, they can easily be revealed
polarised so they are waves. by the X-rays
10. X-rays are electromagnetic waves of (iii) In industry
very short wavelengths and hence obey  Inspect cracks/flaws in metal
the wave equation 𝑐𝑐 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 and energy casting.
equation 𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑓𝑓.  Sterilize surgical equipment before
Types of X-Rays packaging.

Hard x-rays (iv) Security e.g. in Airports.

 To inspect luggage for any weapon
 Have high frequency (short
hidden in them.
wavelength) hence high penetrating
power. This is achieved by increasing
the anode voltage, in order to give the
Page 73 of 108
 cathode rays more kinetic energy. Dangers of X–ray
 These x-rays penetrates the flesh but
are absorbed by the bones.  Because of their ionizing property, X-
rays can cause serious damage to the
Soft x-rays body cells. Excess exposure of living
tissue to X-ray can lead to damage or
 The soft x-rays are produced by killing of the cells.
electrons moving at a lower velocity  The penetrating property can also
compared to those producing hard x- cause genetic changes and even
rays. This is achieved by lowering the produce serious diseases like cancer if
accelerating voltage. one is exposes to them for a long time.
 These x-rays are used to show
malignant growth in tissues because
they only penetrate the soft tissues.
 Quality and type of x-rays produced is Precautions when using x-ray machine
determined by the accelerating (i) X-ray machines have lead shield to
potential. protect the operator from stray X-
Intensity (Quantity) of x-rays rays.
(ii) The rooms of operation have
 The Intensity of x-rays is controlled concrete walls to absorb any
by amount of heating current. leaking radiations (X-rays).
 The greater the heating current, the (iii) Reduce exposure time.
greater the number of electrons ENERGY OF X-RAYS
produced hence more x-rays. To give Energy of an electron can be
a more intense beam of x-rays, the calculated by the formula E = hf
cathode is made hotter, to give more where h is Plank’s constant and f
electrons leading to more x-rays. frequency.
NOTE: The strength of the X-rays c
But from c = fλ; f = thus E =
depends on the accelerating λ
potential difference between the hc
anode and the cathode. λ
But E = eV where e is the electron
charge and V is the accelerating
potential difference.
hc
Thus eV =
λ
The energy of the electron is
maximum when the wavelength is
shortest.

Calculations 4. The figure below shows the

1. Calculate the wavelength of x-rays essential components of an X – ray
whose frequency is given by 2.0
tube
× 1020𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.
2. Find the energy of x-rays whose
wavelength is 10−10m in a vacuum
(𝑐𝑐 = 3.0 × 108𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠, and ℎ =
6.63 × 10 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽).
−34

3. An x-ray tube is operated with

anode potential of 50kV and current
of 15mA,calculate;
(i) The rate at which energy is
a) (i) Briefly explain electrons are
converted at the target of the
x-ray tube. produced by the cathode
(ii) Kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons before hitting the b) (ii) How are the electrons produced
target. accelerated towards the anode?
(iii) The maximum velocity of the
electrons. (iii) Why is the target made of
(iv) The frequency of the x-rays
tungsten?
produced if 0.5% of the
energy is converted into x- (iv) How is cooling achieved in this
rays. kind of X – rays machine.
(v) The number of electrons (v) Why would it be necessary for
hitting the anode after one the target to rotate during
second. operation of this machine?
4. An x-ray tube operates at a potential (vi) Why is the tube evacuated?
of 80kV. Only 0.5% of electron
(vii) Why is the machine surrounded
energy is converted to X- rays at the
anode at a rate of 100J/s. by a lead shield?

Determine;
(a) If the accelerating voltage is 100 kV
(i) The tube current. calculate;
(ii) The average velocity of (i) Kinetic energy of the electrons
electrons hitting the target. arriving at the target (e = 1.6 x 10 -
(iii) The minimum wavelength of x- 19
C).
rays
5. An x-ray tube operating at 50kV (ii) If 0.5 % of the electron energy is
converted into X – rays determine

Page 75 of 108
 has a tube current of 20mA. the minimum wavelength of the
(Take𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑒𝑒 = emitted X- rays ( h = 6.63 x 10 -34
1.6 × 10−19𝐶𝐶, 𝑐𝑐 = 3.0 × 108𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) JS, and C = 3.0 x 10 8 ms -1) .
.How many electrons are hitting
target per second.
(i) If 0.5% of energy of electron is
converted to x-rays, estimate the
quantity of heat energy
produced per second.
(ii) Find x-ray power output.
More
1. State one agricultural use of x-rays.
2. Name the property of x-rays that
determines the type of x-rays
produced.
3. An ex ray-tube is operated at 125kV
potential and 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.If only 1% of
the electrical power is converted to
x-rays, at what rate id the target
being heated? If the target has 0.3kg
and is made of a material whose
specific heat capacity is
150𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽−1𝐾𝐾−1,at what average rate
would the temperature rise if there
were no thermal loses?

Chapter Nine PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic, the learner should  Photoelectric effects, photons,
be able to: threshold frequently, work
function, planks constant, and
a) Perform and describe simple electrons-volt.
 experiments to illustrate the  Factors affecting photoelectric
photoelectric effect emission.
b) Explain the factors affecting  Energy of photons.
photoelectric emission 1
 Einstein equation hf = hf0 + m ev 2
c) Apply the equation E=hƒ to 2
calculate the energy of photons  Applications of photoelectric
d) Define threshold frequency, work effects:
function and the electron volt
• photo emissive,
e) Explain photoelectric emission
using Einstein equation • Photo conductive
f) (h ƒ +h ƒ0 + ½ mv2) • Photo voltage cells
g) Explain the applications of  Problems on photoelectric emissions
photoelectric effects
h) Solve numerical problems involving
photoelectric emission
When an electromagnetic radiation of (b) Using charged electroscope
sufficient frequency is radiated on a metal
surface electrons are emitted. These
electrons are called photoelectrons and the
phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric effect is therefore a
phenomenon in which electrons are emitted
from the surface of a solid when
illuminated with electromagnetic radiation
of sufficient frequency. A material that
exhibits photoelectric effect is said to be
photo- emissive. When freshly cleaned zinc plate is
irradiated with UV radiations, electrons
Photoelectric effect can be demonstrated are emitted from its surface.
by: Photoelectrons emitted from the positively
(a) Using neutral plates charged zinc plate do not escape due to
attraction by positive charges on the zinc
plate hence divergence remains the
same. Photoelectrons emitted from the
negatively charged zinc plate are repelled
and the electroscope becomes discharged
as a result of which the leaf divergence
decreases. If a glass (which absorbs UV

Page 77 of 108
 radiations) is placed between zinc plate
(negatively charged) and the UV source
no effect is seen on the leaf of the
electroscope.
If the zinc is not freshly cleaned, the
electrons might not be liberated from
the zinc.
If the electroscope is uncharged, its leaf
rises steadily showing that it is being
When UV falls on plate A, the charged. When tested it is found to be
galvanometer deflects showing flow of positively charged. This is because;
current, when UV is blocked no deflection electrons are removed from the zinc plate
on the galvanometer i.e. no current flowing. which in turn attracts electrons from the
When UV falls on the metal, some leaf of the electroscope leaving it with
electrons acquire sufficient kinetic energy positive charges.
from the UV and are dislodged from the
surface. The electrons are attracted to plate
B. The electrons complete the gap between
the plates allowing current to flow in the
circuit hence deflection on the
galvanometer.

Definition of terms 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑱𝑱

1. Threshold frequency, fo
Minimum frequency of a radiation for Examples
which can cause electron(s) to dislodge
from a metal surface. 1. Calculate the energy of a photon of
frequency 5.0 × 1014𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 in:
When visible light is incident on the (i) Joules
freshly cleaned zinc plate, the leaf of a (ii) Electron volts
negatively charged electroscope does 2. The wavelength of orange light is
not decrease in divergence. This shows 625nm.calculate the energy of a photon
that visible light does not have enough emitted by orange light in electron volts.
energy to dislodge electrons from the
surface of zinc plate. For any given Einstein’s Equation of Photoelectric Effect.
surface there is a minimum frequency • When a photo strikes an electron all its
of radiation below which no energy is absorbed by the electron and some
photoelectric emission occurs. This energy is used to dislodge the electron while
frequency is called threshold the rest become the kinetic energy of
frequency,𝑓𝑓0 the electron. i.e.
Energy of photon = (Energy needed to
2. Work function, Wo -the minimum
dislodge an electron from the metal
amount of energy needed to completely surface) + (maximum K.E gained by the
remove (dislodge) an electron from the electron)
surface of a metal. Work function varies • If the frequency (f) on any radiation is less
from one metal to another. Unit for work than 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, the energy will be less that 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 and
function is electron-volt(eV) or joule(J) therefore no emission will occur. If the
Note: 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J frequency (f) is greater than fo then ℎ𝑓𝑓 >
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 and excess energy is utilized as K.E of
3. Threshold wavelength, λo – is the emitted electrons.
maximum wavelength beyond which no • Thus,𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝒘𝒘𝑶𝑶 + 𝑴𝑴𝒆𝒆𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 where 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 is mass of
photoelectric emission will occur. electron and
Light energy and the quantum theory. V- Velocity of emitted electron. This is
Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
In 1901, Max Planck, a scientist came up
with the idea that light energy is ℎ𝑓𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑂𝑂 + ½𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣2
propagated in small packets of energy.
ℎ𝑐𝑐
Each packet is called quantum (quanta- ℎ𝑓𝑓 = + ½𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣2
plural). In light this energy packet is ⋋𝑜𝑜
called photons.
Example:
Energy possessed by a photon is
1. The minimum frequency of light that will
proportional to the frequency of the cause photoelectric emission from potassium
radiation. surface is 5.37 x1014 Hz. When the surface is
𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑓𝑓 irradiated using a certain source photoelectrons
are emitted with a speed of 7.9 x 105ms-1
Where f is the frequency of radiation calculate
and h is Plank’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34
Js (a) Work function of potassium.
In general wave equation 𝑐𝑐 = (b) Maximum K.E of the photoelectrons.
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓 =
𝜆𝜆 (c) The frequency of the source of irradiation
𝑐𝑐
Therefore 𝐸𝐸 = ℎ solution
𝜆𝜆

Page 79 of 108
Since h and c are constants, a wave with (𝑎𝑎) 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 = 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉
larger wavelength has less energy.
= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑱𝑱𝑱𝑱 𝒙𝒙 𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑺𝑺−𝟏𝟏
1. Electron-volts-is the work done of
energy gained by an electron = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑱𝑱
when it moves through a potential (𝒃𝒃)𝑲𝑲. 𝑬𝑬𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = ½𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝟐𝟐
difference of 1 volts.
𝟐𝟐
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = ½ 𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒙𝒙 (𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓)

𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 For an electron = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑱𝑱

= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑪𝑪 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

= 1.6 × 10−19𝐽𝐽

(𝒄𝒄) 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 + 𝑲𝑲. 𝑬𝑬𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 Energy radiation/frequency of radiation used.

𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + Frequency of the radiation and the energy of the
𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 photoelectrons can be examined using the
following circuit and the frequency
hf = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 (wavelength) is varied using different colour
6.4 𝑥𝑥 10−19 filters placed in the path of the source of white
𝒇𝒇 = light. For each colour, J is moved until no
6.63 𝑥𝑥10−34 current is registered.
𝑓𝑓 = 9.65 𝑥𝑥 1014 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

2. Sodium has work function of2.3𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒.

Calculate:
(i) Its threshold frequency.
(ii) The maximum velocity of the
photoelectron produced when
its surface is illuminated by
Note that, the battery is connected in such a way
light of wavelength5.0 ×
that it opposes the ejection of the photoelectrons
10−7𝑚𝑚.determine the
by attracting them back to the cathode. The
stopping potential of this
voltmeter records the stopping potential for a
energy.
given frequency.
3. When light of wavelength 1.0𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 is
irradiated onto a metal, it ejects an From Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
electron with a velocity of
3.0 × 105𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.calcualate the: ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑊𝑊𝑂𝑂 + ½𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣2
 (i) Work function of the metal. ⇒ ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑊𝑊𝑂𝑂 + 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠
(ii)Threshold frequency of the
metal If frequency is increase but work function held
4. The minimum frequency of light constant, then the stopping potential increases.
which will cause photoelectric The table below shows some colours and their
emission from a metal surface is frequencies and stopping potentials.
5.0 × 1014𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. if the surface is
illuminated by light of frequency Colour Frequency f ( (Stopping
6.5 × 1014𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻,calculate: x1014 Hz) potential Vs)
(i) The work function of the
Violet 7.5 1.2
metal surface.
(ii) The maximum K.E. (in e.v) of Blue 6.7 0.88
the electron emitted.
(iii) The maximum speed of the Green 6.0 0.60
electrons
Yellow 5.2 0.28
Factors Affecting Photoelectric Effect Orange 4.8 0.12
Note: Three factors determine the
emissions of electrons on metal surfaces For further learning, see the attached leaflet
by incident radiation are: taken from KLB PG 158-59.
(i) Intensity of the radiation. Type of metal/work function of the metal
(ii) Energy of the radiation
Each metal has its own threshold frequency
(iii) Type of metal.
below which NO photoemission takes place, no
Intensity of radiation used. matter how intense the radiation is. At constant
incident energy, if the work function of the
This is the rate of energy flow per unit metal is high, then the kinetic energy of the
area when the radiation is perpendicular emitted electrons is low.
to the area. i.e.

work(W ) W
Intensity = → I =
area( A) × time(t) At

W P
but =P thus Intensity, I =
t A

When the intensity of the radiation is

increased and the distance between the
source and the surface is decreased, the
number of photoelectrons emitted
increases. Therefore, the number of
Page 81 of 108
photoelectrons produced is directly
proportional to the intensity of the
radiation.

Examples
1. In an experiment to find the relationship between frequency of radiation and the
kinetic energy of photo electrons in a photo electric device, the following results
were obtained.
Frequency (f ×1014 H )3 7.4 6.8 6.1 5.3 4.7

Stopping potential (Vs) 1.7 1.6 1.26 0.8 0.74

On a graph paper plot a graph of stopping potential (Vs) against frequency (Hz)
From the graph find;
(i) The threshold frequency.
(ii) The planks constant (h)
(iii) The work function of the metal in Joules
2. (a) Define threshold wavelength
(b) The table below shows the sopping voltage, Vs, for a metal surface when
illuminated with light of different wavelength, λ of constant intensity.
λ (x10-7m) 3.00 3.33 3.75 4.29 5.00
Vs (V) 2.04 1.60 1.20 0.78 0.36

(i) Plot a suitable graph of K.E against frequency.

(ii) From the graph determine
(a) Planck’s constant
(b) Threshold frequency
(c) Work function for the metal surface
3. Interpret the following graphs;
A graph of incident frequency against the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons

A graph of kinetic energy of emitted electrons.

Page 83 of 108
 (b) Photovoltaic cell
Application of Photoelectric Effect.
(a)Photo- emissive cell. It produces current as a result o
photoelectric effect. It consists of a copper
It has the cathode and the anode. oxide and copper bar
When light falls on the cathode,
photoelectrons are emitted and attracted
by the anode causing a current to flow in a
given circuit

The cells are used in:

(i) Counting vehicles or items on a
conveyor belt in factories
When light strikes the copper oxide
surfaces, electrons are knocked off.
Copper oxide becomes negatively charged
and copper positively charged. This
allows current to flow.
(c) Photoconductive cell or light-
dependent resistor (LDR).
It is made of a semiconductor material
called cadmium sulphide.

(ii) Burglar alarms

(iii) Opening doors.
Photo emissive cell can also be used to
reproduce sound from film.
In exciter lamp focuses light through
sound track along the side of moving film Light energy reduces the resistance of the
onto a photocell. cell from 10 MΩto1kΩ in bright light.
Photon lets the electrons free increasing
Light passing to the cell. The cell creates conduction. They are used in fire alarms
varying current in line with current and exposure meters of cameras.
obtained from the microphone when the
film was made. Varying p.d across the Other photo electric devices are the solar
 resistor is amplified and converted to cell and the photodiode.
sound.

Chapter Ten RADIOACTIVITY

By the end of this topic the learner should Content
be able to:
 Radioactive decay
a) Define radioactive decay and half life  Half-life.
b) Describe the three types of radiations  Types of radiations properties
emitted in natural radioactivity of radiations.
c) Explain the detection of radioactive  Detectors of radiation.
emission  Nuclear fission, nuclear
d) Define nuclear fission and fusion fusion.
e) Write balanced nuclear equation  Nuclear equations.
f) Explain the dangers of radioactive  Hazards of radioactivity,
emission precautions.
g) State the application of radioactivity  Applications.
h) Solve numerical problems involving  Problems on half –life
half life (integration not required)

Radioactivity is the disintegration of an Radioactive decay

unstable nucleus with emission of radiation
in order to attain stability.  Process by which a radioactive nuclide
undergoes disintegration to emit a
Structure of the atom radiation. The emitted radiations can be
alpha particles, beta particles and this is
 Consists of a tiny nucleus and energy accompanied by release of energy in
levels(shells).The nucleus is very small form of gamma radiations.
in size, as compared to the overall size Types of Radioactive Decay
of the atom. The nucleus contains
Page 85 of 108
 protons and neutrons. The number of Alpha Decay –is represented by 𝟒𝟒𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 and
𝟐𝟐
electrons in the shells is equal to the denoted by ⍺
number of protons in the nucleus
making the atom electrically neutral.  If the nuclide decays by release of an
The atomic number alpha particle, the mass number
 The number of protons in the nucleus of decreases by 4 and the atomic number
an atom. decreases by 2. This is expressed as;
Mass (nucleon) number 𝐴𝐴
𝑋𝑋 → 𝐴𝐴−4𝑌𝑌 + 4
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍−2 2
 The sum of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom. (Parent (daughter (alpha
Isotopes
 Atoms of the same element that have the Nuclide) nuclide) particle)
same atomic number but different mass Uranium, for example, decays by emitting
numbers. an alpha to become thorium. The decay is
Nuclide expressed as;
A group of atoms that have the same
atomic numbers and the same mass 238
92𝑈𝑈 → 234
90𝑇𝑇ℎ + 4
2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
numbers.
Similarly, polonium undergoes alpha
Nuclear Stability
decay to become lead.
 Stable nuclides have a proton to neutron
210 4
ratio of about 1:1. However, as atoms get 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 → 206𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
84 82 2
heavier, there is a marked deviation from
this ratio, with the number of neutrons Beta Decay-represented by 𝟎𝟎𝒆𝒆 and
−𝟏𝟏
far superseding that of protons. In such denoted by 𝛽𝛽
circumstances, the nucleus is likely to be
unstable. When this happens, the nucleus  If the nuclide decays by release of a (𝛽𝛽-
is likely to disintegrate in an attempt to particle, the mass number remains the
achieve stability. same but the atomic number increases
by 1. This is expressed as;
𝐴𝐴 0
𝑋𝑋 → 𝐴𝐴𝑌𝑌 + 𝑒𝑒
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍+1 −1

(Parent (daughter (beta

nuclide) nuclide) particle)
 Radioactive sodium, for example
undergoes beta decay to become
magnesium. This is written as;
24 0
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 → 24𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + 𝑒𝑒
11 12 −1

Gamma Radiation-is denoted by 𝛾𝛾 Example 3

 Some nuclides might be in an excited Uranium – 238(238 92
𝑈𝑈) undergoes
206
state and to achieve stability, they may decay to become lead-206 ( 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃). Find
82
emit energy in form of gamma the number of ∝ and 𝛽𝛽-particles emitted
radiation, without producing new in the process.
isotopes. For example:
Solution
(i) Cobalt-60;
60
Let the number of ∝and 𝛽𝛽-particles
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 → 60𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝛾𝛾 emitted be x and y respectively.
27 27
238
𝑈𝑈 → 206𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + X (4𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻) + y ( 0𝑒𝑒)
92 82 2 −1
(ii) Thorium-230; 238 = 206 + 4x
230
𝑇𝑇ℎ → 230𝑇𝑇ℎ + 𝛾𝛾 4x = 32
90 90

Example 1 x=8
Thorium- 230 [23090
𝑇𝑇ℎ] undergoes decay Also;
to become Radon-222 222 86
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Find the
number of alpha particles emitted. 92 = 82 + 2x - y

Solution 92 = 82+ 1 6 -y

Let the number of alpha particles emitted 92 = 98 - y

be x. The expression for the decay is; y=6
230
𝑇𝑇ℎ → 222𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 +X (4𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)
90 86 2 Eight ∝-particles and six 𝛽𝛽-particles are
Thus; emitted.

4x + 222 = 230 2x + 86 = 90 Example 4

Uranium 234 (234 𝑈𝑈) decays to polonium
4x = 8 or 2x = 4 218 92
( 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) by emitting alpha particles.
84
x=2 x=2 Write down the nuclear equation
representing the decay.
Two alpha particles are emitted.
Solution
Example 2
Lead-214 (21482𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) decays to polonium- Let the number of alpha particles
(helium) be x.
214 (214
84
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) by emitting 𝜷𝜷-particles.
234 4
Calculate the number of 𝜷𝜷-particles 92𝑈𝑈 → 84𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + x(2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)
218

Page 87 of 108
emitted. 234 = 218 + 4x
Solution 16 = 4x
Let x be the number of 𝜷𝜷-particles x = 4
emitted.
The decay equation is, therefore;
214
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 → 214𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + x( 0𝑒𝑒) 234
82 84 −1 𝑈𝑈 → 218𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 4(4𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)
92 84 2
82 = 8 4 - x
x =2
Two 𝜷𝜷-particles are emitted.
Properties of emitted radiations
Alpha particles
(i) Are positively charged hence deflected
by electric and magnetic fields. (See
diagram).
(ii) They have low penetrating power but
high ionizing effect because they are
heavy and slow.
(iii) They lose energy rapidly and so
have very short range.
(iv) Can be stopped by a thin sheet of
paper.
(v) They affect photographic plates
Beta particles
(i) Have no mass and are represented by
0
𝑒𝑒.
−1
(ii) Are negatively charged hence
deflected by both electric and
magnetic fields. (see diagram).
(iii) Have more penetrating power than
alpha particles but lower ionizing
effect.
(iv) Penetrate a sheet of paper but
stopped by aluminium foil.
Gamma rays
(i) High energetic electromagnetic
radiation.
(ii) Have no mass and no charge hence
cannot be deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
(iii) Have very high penetrating power
and very low ionizing power.
(iv) Can penetrate through a sheet of
paper and aluminium sheets but Note: The main difference between X-
rays and gamma rays is that gamma rays
Page 89 of 108
 stopped by a thick block of lead. originate from energy changes in the
nucleus of atoms while X-rays originate
Summary from energy changes associated with
electron structure of atoms.
Radiation Detectors Diffusion Cloud Chamber
Methods Of Detecting Nuclear
Radiations
The methods of detection rely on the
ionizing property.
1. Photographic Emulsions
All the three radiations affect
photographic emulsion or plate.
Photographic films are very useful to
workers who handle radioactive materials. Functions of the components of diffusion
These workers are given special badges chamber
which contain a small piece of unexposed Dry ice: cools the blackened surface
photographic film. If, during the time it making the air at the lower surface of the
had been worn, the worker was exposed to chamber cool.
radiations, it should darken on
development, implying that further safety Sponge: it ensures that the dry ice is in
precautions should be taken. contact with the blackened surface
2. Cloud Chamber Wedges: it keeps the chamber in a
horizontal position.
When air is cooled until the vapour it
contains reaches saturation, it is possible Light source: illuminates the tracks
to cool it further without condensation making them clearly visible.
occurring. Under these conditions, the
vapour is said to be supersaturated. This Blackened surface: provides better
can only occur if the air is free of any dust, visibility of the tracks formed.
which normally acts as nuclei on which Principle of operation
the vapour can condense to form droplets.
Gaseous ions can also act as nuclei for The alcohol from the felt ring vaporizes
condensation. The ionization of air and diffuses towards the black surface.
The radioactive substance emits radiations
molecules by radiations is investigated by
a cloud chamber, which ionizes the air. The vaporized
alcohol condenses on the ions forming
The common types of cloud chambers are tracks. The tracks are well defined if an
expansion cloud chamber and diffusion electric field is created by
frequently rubbing the Perspex lid of the
Page 91 of 108
cloud chamber. In both types, saturated chamber with a piece of cloth. The tracks
vapour (water or alcohol) is made to obtained in the above cloud chambers vary
condense on air ions caused by radiations. according to the type of radiation. Alcohol
Whitish lines of tiny liquid drops show up is preferred because it is highly volatile
as tracks when illuminated. and hence evaporates easly.
Expansion Cloud Chamber

When a radioactive element emits

radiations into the chamber, the air inside
is ionized.
If the piston is now moved down
suddenly, air in the chamber will expand
and cooling occurs.
When this happens, the ions formed act as
nuclei on which the saturated alcohol or
water vapour condenses, forming tracks.
The shape and appearance of the track will
which type of the particles have been
emitted.
The tracks due to alpha particles are
short, straight and thick. This is because:
(i) Alpha particles cause heavy
ionization, rapidly losing energy, hence
their short range.
(ii) They are massive and their path
cannot therefore be changed by air
molecules.
(iii) Alpha particles cause more ions on
their paths as they knock off more
electrons, see

The tracks formed by beta particles are

generally thin and irregular in direction.
This is because beta particles, being
lighter and faster, cause less ionization
of air molecules. In addition, the
particles are repelled by electrons of
atoms within their path.

Gamma rays produce scanty disjointed

tracks,

Page 93 of 108
Geiger-Muller Tube
The Geiger-Muller (G-M) tube is a type of ionization chamber.

The thin mica window allows passage of Background Radiation

radiations these radiations ionizes the argon
gas inside the tube. The electrons are attracted  Radiations that are registered or
to the anode as the positive ions moves observed in the absence of a
towards the cathode. More ions are produced radioactive source.The count
as collisions continue. Small currents are registered in the absence of the
produced which are amplified and passed to radioactive source is called
the scaler connected to the tube. The presence background count.
of small amount of halogen in the tube is to  sources of these backgrounds
help absorbing the kinetic energy of the radiation include:
positive ions to reduce further ionisation and (i) Cosmic rays from outer space.
enhance quick return to normal. This is called
quenching the tube (ii) Radiations from the sun.
i.e. Bromine gas acts as a quenching agent.
(iii) Some rocks which contain traces
The gold leaf electroscope of radioactive material, e.g., granite,
A charged electroscope loses its charge in (iv) Natural and artificial
the presence of a radioactive source. The radioisotopes.
radioactive source ionizes the air around the
electroscope. Ions on the opposite charge to
that of the electroscope are attracted to the cap
and eventually neutralize the charge of the
electroscope. As a detector a charged
electroscope is not suitable for detecting beta
and gamma radiations because their ionizing
effect in air is not sufficiently intense so the
leaf may not fall noticeably.

In experiments, the average background count rate should be recorded before

and after the experiment such that:
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 − 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
Artificial Radioactivity Half-life
Some naturally occurring nuclides can be  The time taken for half the numbers
made artificially radioactive by bombarding of nuclides initially present in a
them with neutrons, protons or alpha radioactive sample to decay.
particles.  Half-life of a radioactive substance
For example, when nitrogen--14(14𝑈𝑈) can be determined using the
7 following methods:
nuclide, which is stable, is bombarded with
fast moving alpha particles, radioactive Decay series
oxygen is formed. This is represented by;
Decay formula
4
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 14𝑈𝑈 → 17𝑂𝑂 + 1𝐻𝐻 𝑻𝑻
2 7 8 1
𝟏𝟏 𝒕𝒕
Other artificially radioactive nuclides are 𝑵𝑵 = 𝑵𝑵𝟎𝟎 ( )
27 35
silicon-27 ( 14Si), sulphur-35 ( 𝑆𝑆) 16
and 𝟐𝟐
36
chlorine-36( 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶) 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘,
17

Decay Law 𝑵𝑵 = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓

States that the rate of disintegration at a given 𝑵𝑵𝒐𝒐 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒏𝒏𝒈𝒈 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
time is directly proportional to the number of
𝑻𝑻 = 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
nuclides present at that time. This can be
expressed as; 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∝- N, where N is the number of nuclides
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
present at a given time. It follows that;
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= -𝜆𝜆N, where 𝜆𝜆 is a constant known as the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
decay constant.
The negative sign shows that the number N
decreases as time increases.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is referred to as the activity of the sample.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Page 95 of 108
 (iii) Detecting Pipe Bursts
From a graph Underground pipes carrying water or oil
many suffer bursts or leakages. If the water
or oil is mixed with radioactive substances
from the source, the mixture will seep out
where there is an opening. If a detector is
passed on the ground near the area, the
radiations will be detected.
(iv) Determining Thickness of Metal
Foil
In industries which manufacture thin metal
foils, paper and plastics, radioactive
radiations can be used to determine and
Applications of Radioactivity maintain the required thickness. If a beta
source, for example, is placed on one side
(i) Carbon Dating of the foil and G -M tube on the other, the
Living organisms take in small quantities of count rate will be a measure of the
radioactive carbon-14, in addition to the thickness of the metal foil.
ordinary Carbon-12. The ratio of carbon-12
to carbon-14 in the organisms remains fairly
constant. The count-rate can give this value.
When the organisms die, there is no more
intakes of carbon and therefore the ratio
changes due to the decay of carbon-14. The
count-rate of carbon-14 therefore declines A thickness gauge can be adapted for
with time. The new ratio of carbon-12 to automatic control of the manufacturing
carbon-14 is then used to determine the age process.
for the fossil.
(v) Trace Elements
The movement of traces of a weak
(ii) Medicine radioisotope introduced into an organism
can be monitored using a radiation
Gamma rays, like X-rays, are used in the detector. In agriculture, this method is
control of cancerous body growths. The applied to study the plant uptake of
radiation kills cancer cells when the fertilizers and other chemicals.
tumour is subjected to it. Gamma rays are
also used in the sterilization of medical (vi) Detection of Flaws
equipment, and for killing pests or making
them sterile. Cracks and airspaces in welded joints can
be detected using gamma radiation from
cobalt-60. The cobalt-60 is placed on one
side of the joint and a photographic film on
the other. The film, when developed, will
show any weakness in the joint.

Nuclear Fusion
Hazards of Radiation Experiments show that a lot of energy is
released when the nuclei of light elements
When the human body is exposed to fuse together to form a heavier nucleus.
radiation, the effect of the radiation The fusing together of nuclei to form a
depends on its nature, the dose received heavier nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
and the part irradiated. Gamma rays An example of nuclear fusion is the
present the main radiation hazard. This is formation of alpha particles when lithium
because they penetrate deeply into the fuses with hydrogen;
body, causing damage to body cells and
tissues. This may lead to skin burns and Nuclear Fission
blisters, sores and delayed effects such as
cancer, leukaemia and hereditary defects. It was discovered that if a nucleus of
Extremely heavy doses of radiation may uranium is bombarded with a neutron, the
lead to death. uranium nucleus splits into two almost
equal nuclei. When a nucleus is
bombarded and it splits, it is said to have
undergone nuclear fission as shown
Page 97 of 108
Precautions below.
235
(i) Radioactive elements should never 𝑈𝑈 + 1𝑛𝑛 → 138𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 95𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 3(1𝑛𝑛)
92 0 56 36 0
be held with bare hands. + 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
(ii) Forceps or well protected tongs
should be used when handling Protons and neutrons (nucleons) are kept
them. together in the small volume of the
(iii) For the safety of the users, nucleus by what called binding energy. To
radioactive materials should be kept split the nucleus, this binding energy has
in thick lead boxes. to be released. The energy released during
(iv) In hospitals and research the splitting is called nuclear energy.
laboratories, radiation absorbers are The emitted neutrons may encounter other
used. uranium nuclides, resulting in more
splitting with further release of energy.
The produced neutrons are called fission
neutrons.
Chapter Eleven ELECTRONICS
By the end of this topic, the learner Content
should be able
 Conductors, semiconductors
a) State the difference between insulators
conductor and insulators  Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-
b) Define intrinsic and extrinsic conductor
conductors  Doping
c) Explain doping in semi- conductor  P-n junction diode
d) Explain the working of a pin  Application of diodes: half wave
junction diode rectification and full wave
e) Sketch current voltage rectification
characteristics for a diode
f) Explain the application of diode
rectification
Introduction  Conduction band – free electrons.
 Valence band – unfilled, few
Definition – study of motion of free electrons.
electrons in electrical circuits.  Forbidden band/energy gap – no
Applications – pocket calculators, clocks, forbidden band, conduction and
musical instruments, radios, TVs, valence band overlap.
computers, robots etc.  Resistance increases with rise in
temperature. A rise in temperature
Classes of Material increases the vibrations of the
atoms and this interferes with the
 Conductors – has free electrons – not
electron flow. Hence the resistance
tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom
of a conductor increases with
copper, aluminium.
temperature.
 Insulators-have immobile (fixed)
electrons Insulators:-
 Semi-conductors – with conducting
properties between conductors and
insulators silicon, germanium.
The Energy Band Theory.
 When two or more atoms are brought
closer to each other, the energy levels
Page 99 of 108
 split into smaller energy levels called
bands. This is due to the interaction of
both electric and magnetic fields of
electrons
Types of bands
 Conduction band – electrons are free to
move under the influence of an electric  Conduction band – has no
current. electrons, empty.
 Valence band – here electrons are not  Valence band –filled with
free to move. electrons.
 Forbidden band/energy band –  Forbidden band – has very wide
represents the energy level that cannot gap
be represented by electrons. The width  Temperature increase has no effect
of the band determines the conductivity on their conductivity.
of the material.
Semi – conductors:-
Conductors, insulators and semi-
conductors in terms of energy band
theory
Conductors:-

 Conduction band – empty at O.K.

Partially filled at room temperature.
 Valence band –filled at O.K; full of
electrons at very low temperatures
  Forbidden band – have very narrow
gap.
 Resistance reduces with rise in
temperature.

 Increase in temperature increases the Extrinsic Semi-Conductors

chance of electrons moving from the
valence band to conduction band. Made by adding a controlled amount of
Electrical resistance therefore reduces different element to an intrinsic semi-
because the total current flow is due to conductor.
the flow of electrons and holes. Have Two types of extrinsic semi-conductors:-
negative temperature coefficient of
 resistance. • N – Type semi-conductor – formed by
doping a group 4 element with a Group
Note: semi – conductors 5 element.
 At room temperature: - Has holes • P – Type semi-conductor – formed by
in the valence band & free electrons doping a group 4 element with a group
in the conduction band. At OK it 3 element.
behaves like an insulator. • Group 4 elements – Tetravalent –
 HOLES: Holes are created when an Silicon, germanium, etc
electron moves from valence band • Group 5 elements – Pentavalent –
to conduction band. doping element, donor impurity –
 Holes are very important for phosphorous, antimony.
conduction of electric current in • Group 3 elements – Trivalent – boron,
semi-conductors. aluminium and indium
Types of Semi-Conductors N-Type Semi –Conductor
Intrinsic semi-conductors • Formed by adding a Pentavalent atom
(Phosphorus) to a group 4 semi-
• They are pure semi-conductors, conductor (Silicon) and an extra
electrical properties of a pure electron is left unpaired and is
substance.
available for conduction.
• Has equal number of electrons and • Majority charge carriers are
holes. electrons; minority charge carriers
• Conductivity is very low, insulator at are positive holes.
low temperatures. • Phosphorous is called a DONOR
• Usually not used in a pure state e.g. ATOM. Silicon has now more
silicon, Germanium electrons

P-Type Semi –Conductor

Extrinsic semi- conductors
• Formed by adding a trivalent atom

Page 101 of 108

• With added impurities to improve its (Boron) to a group 4 atom (Silicon), a
electrical properties . fourth electron will be unpaired and a
• All semi-conductors in practical use gap will be left called a positive hole.
has added impurities • Pure semi-conductor is doped with
impurity of group 3 element;
Doping: - A process of adding a very combination creates a positive hole
small quantity of impurities to a pure which accepts an electron.
semi-conductor to obtain a desired • The doping material creates a positive
property. hole, which can accept an electron –
• Process of introducing an impurity called an Acceptor.
atom into the lattice of a pure semi-
conductor.

Biasing
i) Forward Bias
• A diode is forward biased when the
cathode is connected to n-side and
anode to the p-side in a circuit.
• In forward bias, the depletion layer is
narrowed and resistance is reduced.
• It allows holes to flow to n-side and
electrons to p-side.
P-N Junction Diodes (Junction Diodes)
• The majority charge carriers cross the
Definition junction. It conducts current and the
bulb lights
• An electronic device with two electrodes,
which allows current to flow in one
direction only.
• It is an electrical one way valve. It is a
solid device.
Formation of P-N Junction Diode
Reverse Bias
• It consists of such a p-n junction with the
p-side connected to the Anode and the n- • A diode is reverse biased when the
side to the cathode. cathode is connected to p-side and
• Formed by doping a crystal of pure silicon anode to the n-side in a circuit.
so that a junction is formed between the p- • The current through the diode is
type and n-type regions. virtually zero. It hardly conducts,
Circuit symbol the bulb does not light. Electrons
and holes are pulled away from the
depletion layer, making it wider.
• The electrons and holes are
attracted to opposite ends of the
Depletion Layer diode away from the junction. The
wider the depletion layer, the
• The region between the p-type and n-type higher the resistance of the
semi-conductor which conducts very junction.
poorly.
• At the junction electrons diffuse from
both sides and neutralize each other.
Junction
• The place (boundary) between two
different types of semi-conductors.
Characteristic Curves for P-N Junction
• A narrow depletion layer if formed on
Diodes
either side of the junction free from charge
carriers & high resistance. Forward biasing
Diagram of unbiased Junction Diode The circuit below shows how the
connections are made.

The characteristic graph of current, I against

reverse bias voltage is obtained as shown
below. The curve is non-ohmic.it is non-
linear. The current increases exponentially
with voltage up to a point where a sharp
Application of zener Diodes
increase in current is noticed. This voltage
is called threshold/cut- • Used in industry as voltage regulators
in/breakpoint voltage. At this voltage or stabilizers, by providing a constant
potential the barrier is overcome by bias
Page 103 of 108
and charges easily flow across the junction. voltage to a load.
• Voltage remains constant as current
increases.
Application of P-N Junction Diodes
a) To protect equipment, circuits or
devices by a reverse power supply.
b) To rectify ac to dc
c) Enable the Audio Frequency energy
carrier by modulated radio waves to be
detected.
Reverse Biasing
Rectification and Smoothing
In reverse biasing, resistance is very high,
however, the flow of leakage current results A) Definition
from flow of minority charge carriers. At
breakdown voltage or Zener break down • Rectification is the process of
covalent bonds rapture liberating electrons. converting a.c current to d.c current.
Those electrons collide with some atoms • A Rectifier is a device that changes
causing ionisation this is called avalanche a.c to d.c.
breakdown. The two processes produce b) Reasons for rectification
excess electrons for heavy conduction.
Beyond breakdown voltage a diode is • The conversion of a.c. to d.c. is
damaged. often necessary for all electric
equipment, such as radios, T.V.
The Zener Diode sets, computers, musical
Definition instruments, e.t.c, use steady d.c.

• A zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi- Types of rectification

conductor, which is designed to work There are two types of rectification,
in reverse biased connection. namely:-
Principle of operation • Half-wave rectification
• When the reverse-bias of the diode is • Full-wave rectification.
increased, a large sudden increase in
current is obtained at one particular
reverse voltage.
• At the reverse voltage, the p-n
junction diode breaks down into a
conductor, by breaking down the
barrier layer.
 • The breakdown of the p-n junction
diode is known as zener breakdown or
zener effect.
• The characteristic is almost a vertical
line, i.e. the zener current, which
occur as a result of the zener voltage.

Half-wave rectification and smoothing

• One diode is used which removes the negative half-wave cycle of the applied a.c.
• It gives a varying but one-way direct current across the load R. R is a piece of
electronic equipment requiring a d.c. supply.

• If the Y-input terminals of a CRO are connected first across the input, the waveform
on the left will be displayed on the screen.
• When a CRO is connected across R, the output waveform is seen to be positive half-
wave of the a.c.
• Smoothing is done using a capacitor connected across R, to give a much steadier
varying d.c. supply.
• The smoothing capacitor provides extra charge so that current flows continuously
even as the phase current changes and the current go to zero.

Page 105 of 108

• The larger the capacitor, the better the smoothing.
• On the positive half-cycle of the a.c. input the diode conducts, current passes
through R and also into the capacitor C to charge it up.
• On the negative half-cycle, the diode is reversing biased and cannot conduct, but C
partly discharges through R.
• The charge-storing action of the capacitor, C thus maintains current in R and a
steadier p.d across it when the diode is not conducting.
NOTE: - A single diode only allow half of the a.c. to flow through the load R, so far
half of the power supply is cut off.
Full- wave Rectification and smoothing
There are two methods for obtaining a full-wave rectification namely:-
• Using two diodes – Full-wave centre-tap transformer.
• Using four diodes – Full-wave bridge rectifier
Using Centre-Tap Transformer
• In a full-wave rectifier, both halves of the a.c. cycles are transmitted but in the
direction, i.e. same side.

OR

• During the first half-cycle, when A is positive, DI conducts through the load R at
 the same time B is negative with respect to T, so no current flows in the diode
D2.
• In the next half-cycle when B is positive, D2 conducts through the load R in the
same direction as before. A is positive with respect to T so no current flows in D1.

Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes

• In the 1st half-cycle, diode D2 and D4 conducts.
• In the 2nd half-cycle, diode D3 and D1 conducts.
• During both cycles, current passes through R in the same direction, giving a p.d. that
varies as shown by the CRO.
• When a large capacitor is connected across R, the output d.c. is smoothed as shown.

• During the first half cycle, point A is positive with respect to C, diode D1 and D3
are forward biased while diode D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Current therefore
flows through ABDCA. During the second half-cycle, point A becomes negative
with respect to point C. diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased while D1 and D3
are reverse biased. Conventional current therefore flows through CBDAC.
• If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened.
Advantages of bridge rectifier
 A smaller transformer can be used because there is no need for centre –tapping.
 It is used for high voltage regulation.

Page 107 of 108

QUESTIONS
1. Draw the structure of a crystal lattice 5. What is meant by the following
to show the arrangement of electrons terms: semiconductor, intrinsic
in following: conduction, extrinsic conduction,
 Pure silicon. doping, donor atoms, acceptor
 P-type semiconductors atoms, n-type semiconductor, p-
 N-type semiconductors type, semiconductor, depletion
2. Explain how temperatures rise affects layer, forward bias, hole, reverse
the electrical conductivity or pure bias and Zener effect?
semiconductors. 6. Explain how doping produces a p-
(a) Draw the symbol of a p-n diagram type and an n-type semiconductor.
junction diode. 7. Distinguish between electronics
(b) Use a circuit diagram to distinguish and electricity.
between forward and reserve bias of 8. a) What is rectification?
p-n junction diode. (b) With diagrams, describe how half-
3. (a)Use a labelled diagram to explain wave and full-wave rectification
how a full valve rectification may be can be achieved.
achieved by using a resistor and :(i)
Two diodes. (ii) Four diodes. 9. Explain why a diode conducts easily
4. With the aid of a diagram explain how on forward bias and not in reverse
a capacity can be used to smoothen a bias.
full wave which has been rectified.
Show using a sketch how the
smoothened wave will appear on the
screen of C.R.O.

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