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Texts in Computer Science

Series Editors
David Gries
Department of Computer Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Orit Hazzan
Faculty of Education in Technology and Science, Technion—Israel
Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel

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‘Texts in Computer Science’ (TCS) delivers high-quality instructional
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 More information about this series at http://​www.​springer.​com/​
series/​3191
Gerard O’Regan

Guide to Discrete Mathematics

An Accessible Introduction to the History, Theory,
Logic and Applications
2nd ed. 2021
Gerard O’Regan
University of Central Asia, Naryn, Kyrgyzstan

ISSN 1868-0941 e-ISSN 1868-095X

Texts in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-81587-5 e-ISBN 978-3-030-81588-2
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81588-2

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To
My wonderful goddaughter
Niamh O’Regan
Preface
Overview
The objective of this book is to give the reader a flavour of discrete
mathematics and its applications to the computing field. The goal is to
provide a broad and accessible guide to the fundamentals of discrete
mathematics, and to show how it may be applied to various areas in
computing such as cryptography, coding theory, formal methods,
language theory, computability, artificial intelligence, the theory of
databases and software reliability. The emphasis is on both theory and
applications, rather than on the study of mathematics for its own sake.
There are many existing books on discrete mathematics, and while
many of these provide more in-depth coverage on selected topics, this
book is different in that it aims to provide a broad and accessible guide
to the reader, and to show the rich applications of discrete mathematics
in a wide number of areas in the computing field.
Each chapter of this book could potentially be a book in its own
right, and so there are limits to the depth of coverage. However, the
author hopes that this book will motivate and stimulate the reader, and
encourage further study of the more advanced texts.

Organization and Features

Chapter 1 discusses the contributions made by early civilizations to
computing. This includes work done by the Babylonians, Egyptians and
Greeks. The Egyptians applied mathematics to solving practical
problems such as the construction of pyramids. The Greeks made major
contributions to mathematics and geometry.
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to fundamental building blocks
in discrete mathematics including sets, relations and functions. A set is
a collection of well-defined objects and it may be finite or infinite. A
relation between two sets A and B indicates a relationship between
members of the two sets, and is a subset of the Cartesian product of the
two sets. A function is a special type of relation such that for each
element in A, there is at most one element in the codomain B. Functions
may be partial or total and injective, surjective or bijective.
 Chapter 3 presents the fundamentals of number theory, and
discusses prime number theory and the greatest common divisor and
least common multiple of two numbers. We also discuss the
representation of numbers on a computer.
Chapter 4 discusses mathematical induction and recursion.
Induction is a common proof technique in mathematics, and there are
two parts to a proof by induction (the base case and the inductive step).
We discuss strong and weak induction, and we discuss how recursion is
used to define sets, sequences and functions. This leads us to structural
induction, which is used to prove properties of recursively defined
structures.
Chapter 5 discusses sequences and series and permutations and
combinations. Arithmetic and geometric sequences and series are
discussed, and we discuss applications of geometric sequences and
series to the calculation of compound interest and annuities.
Chapter 6 discusses algebra and we discuss simple and
simultaneous equations, including the method of elimination and the
method of substitution to solve simultaneous equations. We show how
quadratic equations may be solved by factorization, completing the
square or using the quadratic formula. We present the laws of
logarithms and indices. We discuss various structures in abstract
algebra, including monoids, groups, rings, integral domains, fields and
vector spaces.
Chapter 7 discusses automata theory, including finite state
machines, pushdown automata and Turing machines. Finite-state
machines are abstract machines that are in only one state at a time, and
the input symbol causes a transition from the current state to the next
state. Pushdown automata have greater computational power than
finite-state machines, and they contain extra memory in the form of a
stack from which symbols may be pushed or popped. The Turing
machine is the most powerful model for computation, and this
theoretical machine is equivalent to an actual computer in the sense
that it can compute exactly the same set of functions.
Chapter 8 discusses matrices including 2 × 2 and general m × n
matrices. Various operations such as the addition and multiplication of
matrices are considered, and the determinant and inverse of a matrix is
discussed. The application of matrices to solving a set of linear
equations using Gaussian elimination is considered.
Chapter 9 discusses graph theory where a graph G = (V, E) consists
of vertices and edges. It is a practical branch of mathematics that deals
with the arrangements of vertices and edges between them, and it has
been applied to practical problems such as the modelling of computer
networks, determining the shortest driving route between two cities
and the travelling salesman problem.
Chapter 10 discusses cryptography, which is an important
application of number theory. The code-breaking work done at
Bletchley Park in England during the Second World War is discussed,
and the fundamentals of cryptography, including private and public key
cryptosystems, are discussed.
Chapter 11 presents coding theory and is concerned with error
detection and error correction codes. The underlying mathematics of
coding theory is abstract algebra, including group theory, ring theory,
fields and vector spaces.
Chapter 12 discusses language theory and we discuss grammars,
parse trees and derivations from a grammar. The important area of
programming language semantics is discussed, including axiomatic,
denotational and operational semantics.
Chapter 13 discusses computability and decidability. The Church–
Turing thesis states that anything that is computable is computable by a
Turing machine. Church and Turing showed that mathematics is not
decidable, in that there is no mechanical procedure (i.e. algorithm) to
determine whether an arbitrary mathematical proposition is true or
false, and so the only way is to determine the truth or falsity of a
statement is try to solve the problem.
Chapter 14 presents a short history of logic, and we discuss Greek
contributions to syllogistic logic, stoic logic, fallacies and paradoxes.
Boole’s symbolic logic and its application to digital computing is
discussed, and we consider Frege’s work on predicate logic.
Chapter 15 provides an introduction to propositional and predicate
logic. Propositional logic may be used to encode simple arguments that
are expressed in natural language, and to determine their validity. The
nature of mathematical proof is discussed, and we present proof by
truth tables, semantic tableaux and natural deduction. Predicate logic
allows complex facts about the world to be represented, and new facts
may be determined via deductive reasoning. Predicate calculus includes
predicates, variables and quantifiers, and a predicate is a characteristic
or property that the subject of a statement can have.
Chapter 16 presents some advanced topics in logic including fuzzy
logic, temporal logic, intuitionistic logic, undefined values, theorem
provers and the applications of logic to AI. Fuzzy logic is an extension of
classical logic that acts as a mathematical model for vagueness.
Temporal logic is concerned with the expression of properties that have
time dependencies, such as properties about the past, present and
future. Intuitionism was a controversial theory on the foundations of
mathematics based on a rejection of the law of the excluded middle,
and an insistence on constructive existence. We discuss three
approaches to deal with undefined values, including the logic of partial
functions; Dijkstra’s approach with his cand and cor operators; and
Parnas’ approach which preserves a classical two-valued logic.
Chapter 17 discusses the nature of proof and theorem proving, and
we discuss automated and interactive theorem provers. We discuss the
nature of formal mathematical proof, and consider early attempts at the
automation of proof in the 1960s including the Logic Theorist (LT) and
the Geometry Machine.
Chapter 18 provides an introduction to the important field of
software engineering. The birth of the discipline was at the Garmisch
conference in Germany in the late 1960s. The extent to which
mathematics should be employed in software engineering is discussed,
and this remains a topic of active debate. We discuss some of the early
mathematical contributions to software engineering including the work
of Floyd and Hoare.
Chapter 19 discusses software reliability and dependability, and
covers topics such as software reliability, the Cleanroom methodology,
system availability, safety and security critical systems and
dependability engineering. Software reliability is the probability that
the program works correctly without failure for a period of time, and is
generally expressed as the mean time to failure.
Chapter 20 discusses formal methods, which consist of a set of
techniques that provide an extra level of confidence in the correctness
of the software. They may be employed to formally state the
requirements of the proposed system, and to derive a program from its
mathematical specification. They may be used to give a rigorous proof
that the implemented program satisfies its specification.
Chapter 21 presents the Z specification language, which is one of
the most widely used formal methods. It was developed at Oxford
University in the U.K.
Chapter 22 discusses statistics which is an empirical science that is
concerned with the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation
and presentation of data. We discuss sampling; the average and spread
of a sample; the abuse of statistics; frequency distributions; variance
and standard deviation; correlation and regression; statistical
inference; and hypothesis testing.
Chapter 23 discusses probability which is a branch of mathematics
that is concerned with measuring uncertainty and random events. We
discuss discrete and continuous random variables; probability
distributions such as the binomial and normal distributions; variance
and standard deviation; confidence intervals; tests of significance; the
central limit theorem; Bayesianism; and queueing theory.
Chapter 24 discusses operations research which is a multi-
disciplinary field that is concerned with the application of
mathematical and analytic techniques to assist in decision-making. It
employs techniques such as mathematical modelling, statistical
analysis and mathematical optimization as part of its goal to achieve
optimal (or near-optimal) solutions to complex decision-making
problems.
Chapter 25 discusses basic financial mathematics, and we discuss
simple and compound interest, annuities and mortgages. We discuss
the basic mathematics used in calculating simple and compound
interest, as well as calculating the present or future value of a payment.
We discuss the mathematics of annuities (a sequence of fixed equal
payments made over a period of time), and this is the usual way in
which a loan or mortgage is paid back.

Audience
The audience of this book includes computer science students who
wish to gain a broad and accessible overview of discrete mathematics
and its applications to the computing field. The book will also be of
interest to students of mathematics who are curious as to how discrete
mathematics is applied to the computing field. The book will also be of
interest to the motivated general reader.

Acknowledgments I am deeply indebted to my family and friends

who supported my efforts in this endeavour, and a special thanks to the
team at Springer. This book is dedicated to my goddaughter (Niamh
O’Regan), and to wish her every joy and happiness in life (and my
apologies for being a hopeless godfather).
Gerard O’Regan
Cork, Ireland
Contents
1 Mathematics in Civilization
1.​1 Introduction
1.​2 The Babylonians
1.​3 The Egyptians
1.​4 The Greeks
1.​5 The Romans
1.​6 Islamic Influence
1.​7 Chinese and Indian Mathematics
1.​8 Review Questions
1.​9 Summary
References
2 Sets, Relations and Functions
2.​1 Introduction
2.​2 Set Theory
2.​2.​1 Set Theoretical Operations
2.​2.​2 Properties of Set Theoretical Operations
2.​2.​3 Russell’s Paradox
2.​2.​4 Computer Representation of Sets
2.​3 Relations
2.​3.​1 Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive Relations
2.​3.​2 Composition of Relations
2.​3.​3 Binary Relations
2.​3.​4 Applications of Relations
2.​4 Functions
2.​5 Application of Functions
 2.​6 Review Questions
2.​7 Summary
References
3 Number Theory
3.​1 Introduction
3.​2 Elementary Number Theory
3.​3 Prime Number Theory
3.​3.​1 Algorithms
3.​3.​2 Greatest Common Divisors (GCD)
3.​3.​3 Least Common Multiple (LCM)
3.​3.​4 Euclid’s Algorithm
3.​3.​5 Distribution of Primes
3.​4 Theory of Congruences
3.​5 Binary System and Computer Representation of Numbers
3.​6 Review Questions
3.​7 Summary
References
4 Mathematical Induction and Recursion
4.​1 Introduction
4.​2 Strong Induction
4.​3 Recursion
4.​4 Structural Induction
4.​5 Review Questions
4.​6 Summary
Reference
5 Sequences, Series, and Permutations and Combinations
 5.​1 Introduction
5.​2 Sequences and Series
5.​3 Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences
5.​4 Arithmetic and Geometric Series
5.​5 Simple and Compound Interest
5.​6 Time Value of Money and Annuities
5.​7 Permutations and Combinations
5.​8 Review Questions
5.​9 Summary
6 Algebra
6.​1 Introduction
6.​2 Simple and Simultaneous Equations
6.​3 Quadratic Equations
6.​4 Indices and Logarithms
6.​5 Horner’s Method for Polynomials
6.​6 Abstract Algebra
6.​6.​1 Monoids and Groups
6.​6.​2 Rings
6.​6.​3 Fields
6.​6.​4 Vector Spaces
6.​7 Review Questions
6.​8 Summary
Reference
7 Automata Theory
7.​1 Introduction
7.​2 Finite-State Machines
 7.​3 Pushdown Automata
7.​4 Turing Machines
7.​5 Hybrid Automata
7.​6 Review Questions
7.​7 Summary
Reference
8 Matrix Theory
8.​1 Introduction
8.​2 Two × Two Matrices
8.​3 Matrix Operations
8.​4 Determinants
8.​5 Eigen Vectors and Values
8.​6 Gaussian Elimination
8.​7 Business Applications of Matrices
8.​8 Review Questions
8.​9 Summary
References
9 Graph Theory
9.​1 Introduction
9.​2 Undirected Graphs
9.​2.​1 Hamiltonian Paths
9.​3 Trees
9.​3.​1 Binary Trees
9.​4 Graph Algorithms
9.​5 Graph Colouring and Four-Colour Problem
9.​6 Review Questions
 9.​7 Summary
References
10 Cryptography
10.​1 Introduction
10.​2 Breaking the Enigma Codes
10.​3 Cryptographic Systems
10.​4 Symmetric Key Systems
10.​5 Public Key Systems
10.​5.​1 RSA Public Key Cryptosystem
10.​5.​2 Digital Signatures
10.​6 Review Questions
10.​7 Summary
References
11 Coding Theory
11.​1 Introduction
11.​2 Mathematical Foundations
11.​3 Simple Channel Code
11.​4 Block Codes
11.​4.​1 Error Detection and Correction
11.​5 Linear Block Codes
11.​5.​1 Parity Check Matrix
11.​5.​2 Binary Hamming Code
11.​5.​3 Binary Parity-Check Code
11.​6 Miscellaneous Codes in Use
11.​7 Review Questions
11.​8 Summary
 References
12 Language Theory and Semantics
12.​1 Introduction
12.​2 Alphabets and Words
12.​3 Grammars
12.​3.​1 Backus Naur Form
12.​3.​2 Parse Trees and Derivations
12.​4 Programming Language Semantics
12.​4.​1 Axiomatic Semantics
12.​4.​2 Operational Semantics
12.​4.​3 Denotational Semantics
12.​5 Lambda Calculus
12.​6 Lattices and Order
12.​6.​1 Partially Ordered Sets
12.​6.​2 Lattices
12.​6.​3 Complete Partial Orders
12.​6.​4 Recursion
12.​7 Review Questions
12.​8 Summary
References
13 Computability and Decidability
13.​1 Introduction
13.​2 Logicism and Formalism
13.​3 Decidability
13.​4 Computability
13.​5 Computational Complexity
 13.​6 Review Questions
13.​7 Summary
References
14 A Short History of Logic
14.​1 Introduction
14.​2 Syllogistic Logic
14.​3 Paradoxes and Fallacies
14.​4 Stoic Logic
14.​5 Boole’s Symbolic Logic
14.​5.​1 Switching Circuits and Boolean Algebra
14.​6 Application of Symbolic Logic to Digital Computing
14.​7 Frege
14.​8 Review Questions
14.​9 Summary
References
15 Propositional and Predicate Logic
15.​1 Introduction
15.​2 Propositional Logic
15.​2.​1 Truth Tables
15.​2.​2 Properties of Propositional Calculus
15.​2.​3 Proof in Propositional Calculus
15.​2.​4 Semantic Tableaux in Propositional Logic
15.​2.​5 Natural Deduction
15.​2.​6 Sketch of Formalization of Propositional Calculus
15.​2.​7 Applications of Propositional Calculus
15.​2.​8 Limitations of Propositional Calculus
 15.​3 Predicate Calculus
15.​3.​1 Sketch of Formalization of Predicate Calculus
15.​3.​2 Interpretation and Valuation Functions
15.​3.​3 Properties of Predicate Calculus
15.​3.​4 Applications of Predicate Calculus
15.​3.​5 Semantic Tableaux in Predicate Calculus
15.​4 Review Questions
15.​5 Summary
References
16 Advanced Topics in Logic
16.​1 Introduction
16.​2 Fuzzy Logic
16.​3 Temporal Logic
16.​4 Intuitionist Logic
16.​5 Undefined Values
16.​5.​1 Logic of Partial Functions
16.​5.​2 Parnas Logic
16.​5.​3 Dijkstra and Undefinedness
16.​6 Logic and AI
16.​7 Review Questions
16.​8 Summary
References
17 The Nature of Theorem Proving
17.​1 Introduction
17.​2 Early Automation of Proof
17.​3 Interactive Theorem Provers
 17.​4 A Selection of Theorem Provers
17.​5 Review Questions
17.​6 Summary
References
18 Software Engineering Mathematics
18.​1 Introduction
18.​2 What is Software Engineering?​
18.​3 Early Software Engineering Mathematics
18.​4 Mathematics in Software Engineering
18.​5 Software Inspections and Testing
18.​6 Process Maturity Models
18.​7 Review Questions
18.​8 Summary
References
19 Software Reliability and Dependability
19.​1 Introduction
19.​2 Software Reliability
19.​2.​1 Software Reliability and Defects
19.​2.​2 Cleanroom Methodology
19.​2.​3 Software Reliability Models
19.​3 Dependability
19.​4 Computer Security
19.​5 System Availability
19.​6 Safety-Critical Systems
19.​7 Review Questions
19.​8 Summary
 References
20 Formal Methods
20.​1 Introduction
20.​1.​1 Definition 20.​1 (Formal Specification)
20.​2 Why Should We Use Formal Methods?​
20.​2.​1 Comment 20.​1 (Missile Safety)
20.​3 Applications of Formal Methods
20.​4 Tools for Formal Methods
20.​5 Approaches to Formal Methods
20.​5.​1 Model-Oriented Approach
20.​5.​2 Axiomatic Approach
20.​5.​3 Comment 20.​2 (Axiomatic Approach)
20.​6 Proof and Formal Methods
20.​7 The Future of Formal Methods
20.​8 The Vienna Development Method
20.9 VDM♣, the Irish School of VDM
20.10 The Z Specification Language
20.11 The B Method
20.​12 Predicate Transformers and Weakest Preconditions
20.​13 The Process Calculi
20.​14 The Parnas Way
20.​15 Usability of Formal Methods
20.​15.​1 Why are Formal Methods difficult?​
20.​15.​2 Characteristics of a Usable Formal Method
20.​16 Review Questions
20.​17 Summary
21 Z Formal Specification Language
21.​1 Introduction
21.​2 Sets
21.​3 Relations
21.​4 Functions
21.​5 Sequences
21.​6 Bags
21.​7 Schemas and Schema Composition
21.​8 Reification and Decomposition
21.​9 Proof in Z
21.​10 Review Questions
21.​11 Summary
Reference
22 Statistics
22.​1 Introduction
22.​2 Basic Statistics
22.​2.​1 Abuse of Statistics
22.​2.​2 Statistical Sampling and Data Collection
22.​3 Frequency Distribution and Charts
22.​4 Statistical Measures
22.​4.​1 Arithmetic Mean
22.​4.​2 Mode
22.​4.​3 Median
22.​5 Variance and Standard Deviation
22.​6 Correlation and Regression
22.​6.​1 Regression
 22.​7 Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing
22.​8 Review Questions
22.​9 Summary
References
23 Probability Theory
23.​1 Introduction
23.​2 Basic Probability Theory
23.​2.​1 Laws of Probability
23.​2.​2 Bayes’ Formula
23.​3 Random Variables
23.​4 Binomial and Poisson Distributions
23.​5 The Normal Distribution
23.​5.​1 Unit Normal Distribution
23.​5.​2 Confidence Intervals and Tests of Significance
23.​5.​3 The Central Limit Theorem
23.​6 Bayesianism
23.​7 Queueing Theory
23.​8 Review Questions
23.​9 Summary
References
24 Operations Research
24.​1 Introduction
24.​2 Linear Programming
24.​2.​1 Linear Programming Example
24.​2.​2 General Formulation of LP Problem
24.​3 Cost–Volume–Profit Analysis
 24.​4 Game Theory
24.​5 Review Questions
24.​6 Summary
References
25 Basic Financial Mathematics
25.​1 Introduction
25.​2 Simple Interest
25.​2.​1 Computing Future and Present Values
25.​2.​2 Computing Future Value
25.​2.​3 Computing Present Values
25.​3 Compound Interest
25.​3.​1 Present Value Under Compound Interest
25.​3.​2 Equivalent Values
25.​4 Basic Mathematics of Annuities
25.​5 Loans and Mortgages
25.​6 Review Questions
25.​7 Summary
Glossary
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
G. O'Regan, Guide to Discrete Mathematics, Texts in Computer Science
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81588-2_1

1. Mathematics in Civilization
Gerard O’Regan1
(1) University of Central Asia, Naryn, Kyrgyzstan

Keywords Babylonian mathematics – Egyptian civilisation – Greek and

Roman civilisation – Islamic civilisation – Counting and numbers –
Solving practical problems – Syllogistic logic – Algorithm – Early ciphers

1.1 Introduction
It is difficult to think of Western society today without modern
technology. The last decades of the twentieth century have witnessed a
proliferation of high-tech computers, mobile phones, text messaging, the
Internet and the World Wide Web. Software is now pervasive, and it is
an integral part of automobiles, aeroplanes, televisions and mobile
communication. The pace of change as a result of all this new technology
has been extraordinary. Today, consumers may book flights over the
World Wide Web as well as keep in contact with family members in any
part of the world via e-mail or mobile phone. In previous generations,
communication often involved writing letters that took months to reach
the recipient.
Communication improved with the telegrams and the telephone in
the late nineteenth century. Communication today is instantaneous with
text messaging, mobile phones and e-mail, and the new generation
probably views the world of their parents and grandparents as being
old-fashioned.
The new technologies have led to major benefits1 to society and to
improvements in the standard of living for many citizens in the Western
world. It has also reduced the necessity for humans to perform some of
the more tedious or dangerous manual tasks, as computers may now
automate many of these. The increase in productivity due to the more
advanced computerized technologies has allowed humans, at least in
theory, the freedom to engage in more creative and rewarding tasks.
Early societies had a limited vocabulary for counting: e.g. ‘one, two,
three, many’ is associated with some primitive societies, and indicates
primitive computation and scientific ability. It suggests that there was
no need for more sophisticated arithmetic in the primitive culture as the
problems dealt with were elementary. These early societies would
typically have employed their fingers for counting, and as humans have
5 fingers on each hand and five toes on each foot, the obvious bases
would have been 5, 10 and 20. Traces of the earlier use of the base 20
system are still apparent in modern languages such as English and
French. This includes phrases such as ‘three score’ in English and ‘quatre
vingt’ in French.
The decimal system (base 10) is used today in Western society, but
the base 60 was common in computation circa 1500 B.C. One example of
the use of base 60 today is the subdivision of hours into 60 min, and the
subdivision of minutes into 60s. The base 60 system (i.e. the sexagesimal
system) is inherited from the Babylonians [1]. The Babylonians were
able to represent arbitrarily large numbers or fractions with just two
symbols. The binary (base 2) and hexadecimal (base 16) systems play a
key role in computing (as the machine instructions that computers
understand are in binary code).
The achievements of some of these ancient societies were
spectacular. The archaeological remains of ancient Egypt such as the
pyramids at Giza and the temples of Karnak and Abu Simbel are
impressive. These monuments provide an indication of the engineering
sophistication of the ancient Egyptian civilization, despite the fact that
Egyptian mathematics was cumbersome. The objects found in the tomb
of Tutankhamun2 are now displayed in the Egyptian museum in Cairo,
and demonstrate the artistic skill of the Egyptians.
The Greeks made major contributions to Western civilization
including contributions to Mathematics, Philosophy, Logic, Drama,
Architecture, Biology and Democracy.3 The Greek philosophers
considered fundamental questions such as ethics, the nature of being,
how to live a good life, and the nature of justice and politics. The Greek
philosophers include Parmenides, Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. The Greeks invented democracy, and their democracy was
radically different from today’s representative democracy.4 The
sophistication of Greek architecture and sculpture is evident from the
Parthenon on the Acropolis, and the Elgin marbles5 that are housed
today in the British Museum, London.
The Hellenistic6 period commenced with Alexander the Great and
led to the spread of Greek culture throughout most of the known world.
The city of Alexandria became a centre of learning and knowledge
during the Hellenistic period. Its scholars included Euclid who provided
a systematic foundation for geometry. His work is known as “The
Elements”, and it consists of 13 books. The early books are concerned
with the construction of geometric figures, number theory and solid
geometry.
There are many words of Greek origin that are part of the English
language. These include words such as psychology that is derived from
two Greek words: psyche ( ) and logos ( ). The Greek word
‘psyche’ means mind or soul, and the word ‘logos’ means an account or
discourse. Other examples are anthropology derived from ‘anthropos’ (
) and ‘logos’ ( ).
The Romans were influenced by the Greek culture. The Romans built
aqueducts, viaducts and amphitheatres. They also developed the Julian
calendar, formulated laws (lex) and maintained peace throughout the
Roman Empire (pax Romano). The ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum
demonstrate their engineering capability. Their numbering system is
still employed in clocks and for page numbering in documents. However,
it is cumbersome for serious computation. The collapse of the Roman
Empire in Western Europe led to a decline in knowledge and learning in
Europe. However, the eastern part of the Roman Empire continued at
Constantinople until it was sacked by the Ottomans in 1453.

1.2 The Babylonians

The Babylonian7 civilization flourished in Mesopotamia (in modern
Iraq) from about 2000 B.C. until about 300 B.C. Various clay cuneiform
tablets containing mathematical texts were discovered and later
deciphered in the nineteenth century [2]. These included tables for
multiplication, division, squares, cubes and square roots, and the
measurement of area and length. Their calculations allowed the solution
of a linear equation and one root of a quadratic equation to be
determined. The late Babylonian period (c. 500 B.C.) includes work on
astronomy.
They recorded their mathematics on soft clay using a wedge-shaped
instrument to form impressions of the cuneiform numbers.8 The clay
tablets were then baked in an oven or by the heat of the sun. They
employed just two symbols (1 and 10) to represent numbers, and these
symbols were then combined to form all other numbers. They employed
a positional number system9 and used the base 60 system. The symbol
representing 1 could also (depending on the context) represent 60, 602,
603, etc. It could also mean 1/60, 1/3600 and so on. There was no zero
employed in the system and there was no decimal point (no
‘sexagesimal point’), and therefore the context was essential.

The example above illustrates the cuneiform notation and represents

the number 60 + 10 + 1 = 71. The Babylonians used the base 60 system,
and this base is still in use today in the division of hours into minutes
and the division of minutes into seconds. One possible explanation for
the use of the base 60 notation is the ease of dividing 60 into parts. It is
divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 and 30. They were able to
represent large and small numbers and had no difficulty in working with
fractions (in base 60) and in multiplying fractions. The Babylonians
maintained tables of reciprocals (i.e. 1/n, n = 1, … 59) apart from
numbers like 7, 11, etc. which cannot be written as a finite sexagesimal
expansion (i.e. 7 and 11 are not of the form ).

The modern sexagesimal notation [1] 1; 24, 51, 10 represents the

number

This is the Babylonian representation of the square root of 2. They

performed multiplication as follows: e.g. consider
:
 Hence, the product
.
The Babylonians appear to have been aware of Pythagoras’ theorem
about 1000 years before the time of Pythagoras. The Plimpton 322
tablet (Fig. 1.1) records various Pythagorean triples, i.e. triples of
numbers (a, b, c) where . It dates from approximately 1700

B.C.

Fig. 1.1 The Plimpton 322 Tablet

 They developed an algebra to assist with problem-solving, and their
algebra allowed problems involving length, breadth and area to be
discussed and solved. They did not employ notation for the
representation of unknown values (e.g. let x be the length and y be the
breadth), and instead they used words like ‘length’ and ‘breadth’. They
were familiar with and used square roots in their calculations, and they
were familiar with techniques that allowed one root of a quadratic
equation to be solved.
They were familiar with various mathematical identities such as
as illustrated geometrically in Fig. 1.2. They

also worked on astronomical problems, and they had mathematical

theories of the cosmos to make predictions of when eclipses and other
astronomical events would occur. They were also interested in astrology,
and they associated various deities with the heavenly bodies such as the
planets, as well as the sun and moon. They associated various clusters of
stars with familiar creatures such as lions, goats and so on.

Fig. 1.2 Geometric representation of

The Babylonians used counting boards to assist with counting and

simple calculations. A counting board is an early version of the abacus,
and it was usually made of wood or stone. The counting board contained
grooves that allowed beads or stones that could be moved along the
groove. The abacus differs from counting boards in that the beads in
abaci contain holes that enable them to be placed in a particular rod of
the abacus.

1.3 The Egyptians

The Egyptian civilization developed along the Nile from about 4000 B.C.,
and the pyramids were built around 3000 B.C. They used mathematics
to solve practical problems such as measuring time; measuring the
annual Nile flooding; calculating the area of land; book keeping and
accounting; and calculating taxes. They developed a calendar circa 4000
B.C., which consisted of 12 months with each month having 30 days.
There were then five extra feast days to give 365 days in a year. Egyptian
writing commenced around 3000 B.C. and is recorded on the walls of
temples and tombs.10 A reed-like parchment termed ‘papyrus’ was used
for writing, and three Egyptian writing scripts were employed. These
were hieroglyphics, the hieratic script and the demotic script.
Hieroglyphs are little pictures and are used to represent words,
alphabetic characters as well as syllables or sounds. Champollion
deciphered hieroglyphics with his work on the Rosetta stone. This object
was discovered during the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt, and it is now
in the British Museum in London. It contains three scripts:
Hieroglyphics, Demotic script and Greek. The key to its decipherment
was that the Rosetta stone contained just one name “Ptolemy” in the
Greek text, and this was identified with the hieroglyphic characters in
the cartouche11 of the hieroglyphics. There was just one cartouche on
the Rosetta stone, and Champollion inferred that the cartouche
represented the name “Ptolemy”. He was familiar with another
multilingual object that contained two names in the cartouche. One he
recognized as Ptolemy and the other he deduced from the Greek text as
“Cleopatra”. This led to the breakthrough in the translation of
hieroglyphics [1].
The Rhind Papyrus is a famous Egyptian papyrus on mathematics.
The Scottish Egyptologist, Henry Rhind, purchased it in 1858, and it is a
copy created by an Egyptian scribe called Ahmose12 around 1832 B.C. It
contains examples of many kinds of arithmetic and geometric problems,
and students may have used it as a textbook to develop their
mathematical knowledge. This would allow them to participate in the
pharaoh’s building programme.
The Egyptians were familiar with geometry, arithmetic and
elementary algebra. They had techniques to find solutions to problems
with one or two unknowns. A base 10 number system was employed
with separate symbols for one, ten, a hundred, a thousand, a ten
thousand, a hundred thousand and so on. These hieroglyphic symbols
are represented in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Egyptian numerals

For example, the representation of the number 276 in Egyptian

hieroglyphics is described in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Egyptian representation of a number

The addition of two numerals is straightforward and involves adding

the individual symbols, and where there are ten copies of a symbol it is
then replaced by a single symbol of the next higher value. The Egyptians
employed unit fractions (e.g. 1/n where n is an integer). These were
represented in hieroglyphs by placing the symbol representing a ‘mouth’
above the number. The symbol mouth is used to represent part of (or a
fraction of) a number. For example, the representation of the number
1
/276 is described in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Egyptian representation of a fraction
The problems on the papyrus included the determination of the
angle of the slope of the pyramid’s face. They were familiar with
trigonometry including sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent, and they
knew how to build right angles into their structures by using the ratio
3:4:5. The Rhind papyrus also considered problems such as the
calculation of the number of bricks required for part of a building
project. Multiplication and division were cumbersome in Egyptian
mathematics as they could only multiply and divide by two, and this
limited the mathematical progress made by the Egyptians.
Suppose they wished to multiply a number n by 7. Then n * 7 is
determined by . Similarly, if they wished to
divide 27 by 7 they would note that 7 * 2 + 7 = 21 and that 27 − 21 = 6
and therefore the answer was 3 6/7. Egyptian mathematics was
cumbersome and the writing of their mathematics was long and
repetitive. For example, they wrote a number such as 22 by 10 + 10 + 1 +
1.
The Egyptians calculated the approximate area of a circle by
calculating the area of a square 8/9 of the diameter of a circle. That is,
instead of calculating the area in terms of our familiar , their
approximate calculation yielded .

Their approximation of was 256/81 or 3.16. They were able to calculate

the area of a triangle and volumes. The Moscow papyrus includes a
problem to calculate the volume of the frustum. The formula for the
volume of a frustum of a square pyramid13 was given by
and when b2 is 0, then the well-known

formula for the volume of a pyramid is given as 1/3 hb12.

1.4 The Greeks
The Greeks made major contributions to Western civilization including
mathematics, logic, astronomy, philosophy, politics, drama and
architecture. The Greek world of 500 B.C. consisted of several
independent city-states such as Athens and Sparta, and various city-
states in Asia Minor. The Greek polis ( ) or city-state tended to be
quite small, and consisted of the Greek city and a certain amount of
territory outside the city-state. Each city-state had political structures
for its citizens, and some were oligarchs where political power was
maintained in the hands of a few individuals or aristocratic families.
Others were ruled by tyrants (or sole rulers), who sometimes took
power by force, but who often had a lot of support from the public. The
tyrants included people such as Solon, Peisistratus and Cleisthenes in
Athens.
The reforms by Cleisthenes led to the introduction of the Athenian
democracy. Power was placed in the hands of the citizens who were
male (women or slaves did not participate in the Athenian democracy).
It was an extremely liberal democracy where citizens voted on all
important issues. Often, this led to disastrous results as speakers who
were skilled in rhetoric could exert significant influence. This later led to
Plato advocating rule by philosopher kings rather than by democracy.14
Early Greek mathematics commenced approximately 500–600 B.C.
with work done by Pythagoras and Thales. Pythagoras was a
philosopher and mathematician who had spent time in Egypt becoming
familiar with Egyptian mathematics. He lived on the island of Samos,
and formed a secret society known as the Pythagoreans. They included
men and women and believed in the transmigration of souls, and that
number was the essence of all things. They discovered the mathematics
for harmony in music with the relationship between musical notes being
expressed in numerical ratios of small whole numbers. Pythagoras is
credited with the discovery of Pythagoras’ theorem, although the
Babylonians probably knew this theorem about 1000 years earlier. The
Pythagorean society was dealt with a major blow15 by the discovery of
the incommensurability of the square root of 2: i.e. there are no
numbers p, q such that .
 Thales was a sixth-century (B.C.) philosopher from Miletus in Asia
Minor who made contributions to philosophy, geometry and astronomy.
His contributions to philosophy are mainly in the area of metaphysics,
and he was concerned with questions on the nature of the world. His
objective was to give a natural or scientific explanation of the cosmos,
rather than relying on the traditional supernatural explanation of
creation in Greek mythology. He believed that there was a single
substance that was the underlying constituent of the world, and he
believed that this substance was water.
He also contributed to mathematics [3], and a well-known theorem
in Euclidean geometry is named after him. It states that if A, B and C are
points on a circle, and where the line AC is a diameter of the circle, then
the angle is a right angle.
The rise of Macedonia led to the Greek city-states being conquered
by Philip of Macedonia in the fourth century B.C. His son, Alexander the
Great, defeated the Persian Empire, and extended his empire to include
most of the known world. This led to the Hellenistic Age with Greek
language and culture spreading throughout the known world. Alexander
founded the city of Alexandra, and it became a major centre of learning.
However, Alexander’s reign was very short as he died at the young age of
33 in 323 B.C.
Euclid lived in Alexandria during the early Hellenistic period, and he
is considered the father of geometry and the deductive method in
mathematics. His systematic treatment of geometry and number theory
is published in the 13 books of the Elements [4]. It starts from five
axioms, five postulates and twenty-three definitions to logically derive a
comprehensive set of theorems. His method of proof was often
constructive, in that as well as demonstrating the truth of a theorem the
proof would often include the construction of the required entity. He
also used indirect proof to show that there are an infinite number of
primes:
1. Suppose there are a finite number of primes (say n primes).

2. Multiply all n primes together and add 1 to form N:

1. N is not divisible by p1, p2, …, pn as dividing by any of these gives a
remainder of one.

2. Therefore, N must either be prime or divisible by some other prime

that was not included in the list.

3. Therefore, there must be at least n + 1 primes.

4. This is a contradiction as it was assumed that there was a finite

number of primes n.

5. Therefore, the assumption that there are a finite number of primes

is false.

6. Therefore, there are infinite number of primes.

Euclidean geometry included the parallel postulate (or Euclid’s fifth

postulate). This postulate generated interest, as many mathematicians
believed that it was unnecessary and could be proved as a theorem. It
states that:

Definition 1.1 (Parallel Postulate) If a line segment intersects two

straight lines forming two interior angles on the same side that sum to
less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended indefinitely,
meet on that side on which the angles sum to less than two right angles.

This postulate was later proved to be independent of the other

postulates, with the development of non-Euclidean geometries in the
nineteenth century. These include the hyperbolic geometry discovered
independently by Bolyai and Lobachevsky, and elliptic geometry
developed by Riemann. The standard model of Riemannian geometry is
the sphere where lines are great circles.
Euclid’s Elements is a systematic development of geometry starting
from the small set of axioms, postulates and definitions, leading to
theorems logically derived from the axioms and postulates. Euclid’s
deductive method influenced later mathematicians and scientists. There
are some jumps in reasoning and the German mathematician, David
Hilbert, later added extra axioms to address this.
The Elements contains many well-known mathematical results such
as Pythagoras’ Theorem, Thales Theorem, Sum of Angles in a Triangle,
Prime Numbers, Greatest Common Divisor and Least Common Multiple,
Euclidean Algorithm, Areas and Volumes, Tangents to a Point and
Algebra.
The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest known algorithms and
is employed to produce the greatest common divisor of two numbers. It
is presented in the Elements but was known well before Euclid. The
algorithm to determine the gcd of two natural numbers, a and b, is given
by
1. Check if b is zero. If so, then a is the gcd.

2. Otherwise, the gcd (a, b) is given by gcd (b, a mod b).

It is also possible to determine integers p and q such that

The proof of the Euclidean algorithm is as follows. Suppose a and b

are two positive numbers whose gcd has to be determined, and let r be
the remainder when a is divided by b.
1. Clearly, where q is the quotient of the division.

2. Any common divisor of a and b is also a divisor of r (since

).

3. Similarly, any common divisor of b and r will also divide a.

4. Therefore, the greatest common divisor of a and b is the same as the

greatest common divisor of b and r.

5. The number r is smaller than b, and we will reach r = 0 in finitely

many steps.
6. The process continues until r = 0.

Comment 1.1

Algorithms are fundamental in computing as they define the procedure by

which a problem is solved. A computer program implements the algorithm
in some programming language.
Eratosthenes was a Hellenistic mathematician and scientist who worked
at the library in Alexandria, which was the largest library in the ancient
world. It was built during the Hellenistic period in the third century B.C.
and destroyed by fire in 391 A.D.16
Eratosthenes devised a system of latitude and longitude, and became
the first person to estimate the size of the circumference of the earth
(Fig. 1.6). His calculation proceeded as follows:

Fig. 1.6 Eratosthenes measurement of the circumference of the earth

1. On the summer solstice at noon in the town of Aswan17 on the

Tropic of Cancer in Egypt, the sun appears directly overhead.
2. Eratosthenes believed that the earth was a sphere.

3. He assumed that rays of light came from the sun in parallel beams
and reached the earth at the same time.
4. At the same time in Alexandria, he had measured that the sun would
be 7.2° south of the zenith.

5. He assumed that Alexandria was directly north of Aswan.

6. He concluded that the distance from Alexandria to Aswan was 7.2/360

of the circumference of the earth.
7. Distance between Alexandria and Aswan was 5000 stadia
(approximately 800 km).

8. He established a value of 252,000 stadia or approximately

396,000 km.

Eratosthenes’ calculation was an impressive result for 200 B.C. The

errors in his calculation were due to the following:
1. Aswan is not exactly on the Tropic of Cancer but it is actually 55 km
north of it.

2. Alexandria is not exactly north of Aswan, and there is a difference of

3° longitude.

3. The distance between Aswan and Alexandria is 729 km, not 800 km.

4. Angles in antiquity could not be measured with a high degree of

precision.

5. The angular distance is actually 7.08° and not 7.2°.

Eratosthenes also calculated the approximate distance to the moon

and sun and he also produced maps of the known world. He developed a
very useful algorithm for determining all of the prime numbers up to a
specified integer. The method is known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes and
the steps are as follows:
1. Write a list of the numbers from 2 to the largest number that you
wish to test for primality. This first list is called A.
2. A second list B is created to list the primes. It is initially empty.

3. The number 2 is the first prime number and is added to the list of
primes in B.

4. Strike off (or remove) 2 and all the multiples of 2 from List A.

5. The first remaining number in List A is a prime number, and this

prime number is added to List B.

6. Strike off (or remove) this number and all the multiples of this
number from List A.

7. Repeat steps 5 through 7 until no more numbers are left in List A.

Comment 1.2

The Sieve of Eratosthenes method is a well-known algorithm for

determining prime numbers.
Archimedes was a Hellenistic mathematician, astronomer and
philosopher who lived in Syracuse in the third century B.C. He
discovered the law of buoyancy known as Archimedes’ principle:

The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

He is believed to have discovered the principle while sitting in his

bath. He was so overwhelmed with his discovery that he rushed out onto
the streets of Syracuse shouting “Eureka”, but forgot to put on his clothes
to announce the discovery.
The weight of the displaced liquid will be proportional to the volume
of the displaced liquid. Therefore, if two objects have the same mass, the
one with greater volume (or smaller density) has greater buoyancy. An
object will float if its buoyant force (i.e. the weight of the liquid
displaced) exceeds the downward force of gravity (i.e. its weight). If the
object has exactly the same density as the liquid, then it will stay still,
neither sinking nor floating upwards.
 For example, a rock is generally a very dense material and will
generally not displace its own weight. Therefore, a rock will sink to the
bottom as the downward weight exceeds the buoyancy weight. However,
if the weight of the object is less than the liquid, it would displace and
then it floats at a level where it displaces the same weight of liquid as
the weight of the object.
Archimedes (Fig. 1.7) was born in Syracuse18 in the third century
B.C. He was a leading scientist in the Greco-Roman world, and he is
credited with designing several innovative machines.

Fig. 1.7 Archimedes in thought by Fetti

His inventions include the “Archimedes Screw” which was a screw

pump that is still used today in pumping liquids and solids. Another of
his inventions was the “Archimedes Claw”, which was a weapon used to
defend the city of Syracuse. It was also known as the ‘ship shaker’ and it
consisted of a crane arm from which a large metal hook was suspended.
The claw would swing up and drop down on the attacking ship. It would
then lift it out of the water and possibly sink it. Another of his inventions
was said to be the “Archimedes Heat Ray”. This device is said to have
consisted of a number of mirrors that allowed sunlight to be focused on
an enemy ship thereby causing it to go on fire.
He made good contributions to mathematics including developing a
good approximation to , as well as contributions to the positional
numbering system, geometric series and to maths physics. He also
solved several interesting problems: e.g. the calculation of the
composition of cattle in the herd of the Sun god by solving a number of
simultaneous Diophantine equations. The herd consisted of bulls and
cows with one part of the herd consisting of white, second part black,
third spotted and the fourth brown. Various constraints were then
expressed in Diophantine equations, and the problem was to determine
the precise composition of the herd. Diophantine equations are named
after Diophantus who worked on number theory in the third century.
There is a well-known anecdote concerning Archimedes and the
crown of King Hiero II. The king wished to determine whether his new
crown was made entirely of solid gold, and that the goldsmith had not
added substitute silver. Archimedes was required to solve the problem
without damaging the crown, and as he was taking a bath he realized
that if the crown was placed in water that the water displaced would
give him the volume of the crown. From this, he could then determine
the density of the crown and therefore whether it consisted entirely of
gold.
Archimedes also calculated an upper bound of the number of grains
of sands in the known universe. The largest number in common use at
the time was a myriad (100 million), where a myriad is 10,000.
Archimedes’ numbering system goes up to 8 * 1016 and he also
developed the laws of exponents: i.e. . His calculation of

the upper bound includes the grains of sand not only on each beach but
also on the earth filled with sand and the known universe filled with
sand. His final estimate of the upper bound for the number of grains of
sand in a filled universe was 1064.
It is possible that he may have developed the odometer,19 and this
instrument could calculate the total distance travelled on a journey. An
odometer is described by the Roman engineer Vitruvius around 25 B.C.,
and it employed a wheel with a diameter of 4 feet, and the wheel turned
400 times in every mile.20 The device included gears and pebbles and a
400-tooth cogwheel that turned once every mile and caused one pebble
to drop into a box. The total distance travelled was determined by
counting the pebbles in the box.
Aristotle was born in Macedonia and became a student of Plato in
Athens (Fig. 1.8). Plato had founded a school (known as Plato’s
Academy) in Athens in the fourth century B.C., and this school remained
open until 529 A.D. Aristotle founded his own school (known as the
Lyceum) in Athens. He was also the tutor of Alexander the Great. He
made contributions to physics, biology, logic, politics, ethics and
metaphysics.
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