Chapter 4

FREQUENCY MODULATION
 INTRODUCTION
◼ 3 properties of an analog signal can be modulated by
information signal:

o Amplitude - - -> produce AM

o Frequency - - - > produce FM
o Phase - - - > produce PM

◼ FM & PM are forms of angle modulation and often

referred as frequency modulation.
 FM VS AM
◼ FM is considered to be superior to AM.
◼ Transmission efficiency:
➢ AM use linear amplifier to produced the final RF signal.
➢ FM has constant carrier amplitude so it is not necessary to use
linear amplifier.
◼ Fidelity (capture effect):
➢ The stronger signal will be capture and eliminate the weaker.
➢ In AM, the weaker signal can be heard in the background.
◼ Noise immunity (noise reduction):
➢ Constant carrier amplitude.
➢ FM receiver have limiter circuit
 Disadvantages of FM
◼ Use too much spectrum space.
◼ Requiring a wider bandwidth
✓ Reduce modulation index to minimize BW but in FM
although we reduced the modulation index, BW is still larger.
✓ typically used at high frequencies (VHF,UHF & microwave
frequencies
◼ More complex circuitry
 FM OR PM ?
FM PM
Instantaneous frequency of the carrier Phase angle of the carrier is varied
is varied from its reference value by from its reference value by an
an amount proportional to the amount proportional to the
modulating signal amplitude modulating signal amplitude

Freq. carrier - - - > directly varied Phase carrier - - - > directly varied
Phase carrier - - -> indirectly varied Freq. carrier - - -> indirectly varied

◼ Both must occur whenever either form of angle modulation is

performed.
 2∆f

∆f ∆f

fc-∆f fc fc+∆f f

vm(t) = Vm cos 2πfmt

-Vm 0 +Vm

Figure 4.1 : Frequency deviation

 DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
◼ For modulating signal vm(t), the frequency modulation are
frequency modulation = ’(t) = kfvm(t) rad/s

where kf are constant and are the deviation sensitivities of the

frequency modulator.

◼ Deviation sensitivities are the output-versus-input transfer

function for the modulators, which gave the relationship
between what output parameter changes in respect to
specified changes in the input signal.

◼ frequency modulator,
rad/s   
kf =  
V  V 
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
(FM)
◼ Variation of d/dt produces Frequency
Modulation
◼ Frequency modulation implies that d/dt is
proportional to the modulating signal.
◼ This yields v (t ) = V sin  t +  (t )
FM c c

= Vc sin c t +   '(t )dt 

 
= Vc sin c t +  k f vm (t )dt 
 
= Vc sin c t + k f Vm  sin m (t )dt 
 
 k f Vm 
= Vc sin c t − cos m (t ) 
 m 
 Example 3.1

Derive the FM signal using both cosine wave

signal.
v(t ) = Vc cos (c t +  (t ) )
vm (t ) = Vm cos (mt )
for
forFM
PM
vFM ((
(t ) = Vc ccos
PM (t ) = V c t c+t 
cos ))
+kkf vp vmm(t()tdt
)
cos((t +t +kkVV cos(
==VVcos
cc c c cos(
f p mmt))
t )dt m m

= V cos ( t + k V  cos( t )dt )

c c f m m

 k f Vm 
= Vc cos  ct + sin(mt ) 
 m 
 FM WAVEFORM

Figure 4.2: Phase and Frequency modulation ; (a) carrier signal (b) modulating
signal (c) frequency modulated wave (d) phase modulated wave
◼ Carrier amplitude remains constant
◼ Carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
➢ amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency shift
proportionately.
➢ modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases.
➢ modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies below and
above it normal center or resting, frequency with no modulation.
◼ The amount of the change in carrier frequency produced by the
modulating signal known as frequency deviation fd.
◼ Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude
of the modulating signal.
◼ The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency
deviation rate
 MODULATION INDEX
◼ Directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal
and inversely proportional to the frequency of the modulating
signal
◼ Ratio of the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency
◼ FM equation : vFM (t ) = Vc sin ct −  cos m (t )
◼  as modulation index : k f Vm f c
= =
m fm
➢ Example:
◼ Determine the modulation index for FM signal with modulating frequency
is 10KHz deviated by ±10kHz.
✓ Answer : (20KHz/10KHz) = 2 .0 (unitless)
◼ The total frequency change, 10kHz x 2 is called the carrier swing
Example:
◼ a simple transmitter with an assigned rest frequency of 100MHz
deviated by a ±25kHz, the carrier changes frequency with modulation
between the limits of 99.975MHz and 100.025MHz
◼ The total frequency change, 25kHz x 2 is called the carrier swing
◼ Table 1 display the transmission band that use FM and the legal
frequency deviation limit for each category
◼ Deviation limits are based on the quality of the intended
transmissions, wider deviation results in higher fidelity
◼ The frequency deviation is a useful parameter for determining the
bandwidth of the FM-signals
◼ Table 1 display the transmission band that use FM and the legal
frequency deviation limit for each category

Specifications for transmission of FM signal

 PERCENT MODULATION
◼ Simply the ratio of the frequency deviation actually
produced to the maximum frequency deviation allowed by
law stated in percent form

f actual
% modulation =
f max

◼ For example if a given modulating signal produces ±50kHz

frequency deviation, and the law stated that maximum
frequency deviation allowed is ±75kHz, then

50kHz
% modulation =  100 = 67%
75kHz
 Example 3.2
A 1 MHz carrier freq with a measured sensitivity of 3
kHz/V is modulated with a 2 V, 4 kHz sinusoid.
Determine
1. the max freq deviation of the carrier
2. the modulation index
3. the modulation index if the modulation voltage is
doubled
4. the modulation index for vm(t)=2cos[2π(8kHz)t)]V
5. express the FM signal mathematically for a cosine
carrier & the cosine-modulating signal of part 4. Carrier
amplitude is 10V
 FM RADIO FREQUENCY
◼ Commercial radio FM band, 88MHz – 108MHz
◼ Each station allotted to a frequency deviation of
±75kHz (150 carrier swing) and 25kHz of guard
band added above and below the carrier
frequency swing
◼ Total bandwidth is 200kHz
◼ Therefore, maximum of 100 stations can be
made available
 FREQUENCY
ANALYSIS OF FM
WAVES
 BESSEL TABLE

,

Tabulated value for Bessel Function for the first kind of the nth order
◼ The first column gives the modulation , while the first row gives the
Bessel function.
◼ The remaining columns indicate the amplitudes of the carrier and the
various pairs of sidebands.
◼ Sidebands with relative magnitude of less than 0.001 have been
eliminated.
◼ Some of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative signs. This
means that the signal represented by that amplitude is simply shifted in
phase 180 (phase inversion).
◼ The spectrum of a FM signal varies considerably in bandwidth
depending upon the value of the modulation index. The higher the
modulation index, the wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.
◼ With the increase in the modulation index, the carrier amplitude
decreases while the amplitude of the various sidebands increases. With
some values of modulation index, the carrier can disappear completely.
Bessel Function, Jn(m) vs m
 PROPERTIES OF BESSEL
FUNCTION
◼ Property - 1: Property - 3:
For n even, 
 J n ( ) = 1
2
we have Jn() = J-n() n =−

For n odd,
we have Jn() = (-1) J-n()
Thus,
Jn() = (-1)n J-n ()

◼ Property - 2:
For small values of the modulation index , we have
J0()  1
J1()  /2
J3()  0 for n > 2
AMPLITUDE SPECTRUM

Amplitude spectrum of different value of 

 FM BANDWIDTH
◼ The total BW of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the
modulation index and Bessel function.

BW = 2 f m N
N = number of significant sidebands
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz)

◼ Another way to determine the BW is use Carson’s rule

◼ This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant
sidebands with amplitude greater than 2% of the carrier.
 Example 3.3

Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a FM signal with a

modulation index of 2 and a highest modulating frequency of
2.5 kHz. Determine bandwidth with table of Bessel functions.

Referring to the table, this produces 4 significant pairs of

sidebands.
BW = 2  4  2.5
= 20kHz
 CARSON’S RULE
BW = 2[ f d (max) + f m (max) ]
fd (max) = max. frequency deviation
fm (max) = max. modulating frequency

◼ Carson’s rule always give a lower BW calculated with the

formula BW = 2fmN.
◼ Consider only the power in the most significant sidebands
whose amplitudes are greater than 1% of the carrier.
◼ Rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM signal
generated by a single of frequency fm as follows:

BT = BW  2f + 2 f m = 2f (1 + 1 )

or = 2 f m (1 +  )
 Example 3.4
For an FM modulator with a modulation index  =
1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t) and unmodulated
carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt), determine
a) Number of sets of significant sideband
b) Their amplitude
c) Then draw the frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes
DEVIATION RATIO (DR)
◼ Minimum bandwidth is greatest when maximum freq
deviation is obtained with the maximum modulating
signal frequency
◼ Worst case modulation index and is equal to the
maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the
maximum modulating signal frequency
◼ Worst case modulation index produces the widest
output frequency spectrum
◼ Mathematically,
max peak freq deviation f max
DR = =
max mod signal freq f m (max)
 POWER IN ANGLE-
MODULATED SIGNAL
◼ The power in an angle-modulated signal is easily computed

P = VC2/2R W

◼ Thus the power contained in the FM signal is independent

of the message signal. This is an important difference
between FM and AM.
◼ The time-average power of an FM signal may also be
obtained from
vFM (t ) = Vc cos(2 f ct +  (t ))
 Example 3.7
An FM signal is given as vFM(t)=12cos[(6π106t)
+ 5sin(2π x 1250t)] V. Determine
a. freq of the carrier signal
b. freq of the modulating signal
c. modulation index
d. freq deviation
e. power dissipated in 10 ohm resistor.
 FM SIGNAL GENERATION

◼ They are two basic methods of

generating frequency-Modulated
signals:
◼ Direct Method
◼ Indirect Method
 DIRECT FM
◼ In a direct FM system the instantaneous frequency is
directly varied with the information signal. To vary the
frequency of the carrier is to use an Oscillator whose
resonant frequency is determined by components that can
be varied. The oscillator frequency is thus changed by the
modulating signal amplitude.

f i = f c + k f vm (t )

• For example, an electronic Oscillator has an output

frequency that depends on energy-storage devices. There
are a wide variety of oscillators whose frequencies depend
on a particular capacitor value. By varying the capacitor
value, the frequency of oscillation varies. If the capacitor
variations are controlled by vm(t), the result is an FM
waveform
 Direct Frequency modulation:
◼ In direct frequency modulation, the carrier
instantaneous frequency varies directly in accordance
with the modulated signal, this can be done by
controlling the oscillator frequency with voltage
controlled oscillator [VCO]. One of the used method is
sine wave oscillator relatively has high quality factor [Q
factor] to control the resonance circuit of the oscillator
by varying the value of capacitance or inductance. For
example using capacitor changing its capacitance with
applied voltage across ii which called ( Varactor or
Varicap) connected in parallel with the resonance circuit
as shown in the circuit below:
cT = co + c cos2 f m t
1
f (i )t =
2 LCT
co = Capacitance of the resonance circuit.
c = Maximum change in the capacitance.
cT = Total capacitor in the circuit
The resonance frequency without modulation:
1
fo =
2 LC o
c −
1
f (i )t = f o [1 + cos2 f m t ] 2
co
c  co
1 c
f (i )t = f o [1 − cos2 f m t ]
2 co
1 c f
− =
2 co fo
f (i )t = f o + f cos2 f m t ]
Example: In direct frequency modulation, the resonace circuit contains an inductance of 10 H connected in
with a capcitor that its value is the function of modulated signal. Found that when the modulated signal equ
the effective capacitor equal to 1000pf. when modulated signal of 4.5 cos(2 103t )volt is applied produces m
change in the capacitor of 6pf:
calculate:
1) Maximum frequency deviation.
2) modulation index.
3) Required bandwidth for transmission.
1
fo =
2 LC o
1
fo = = 1.592MHz
2 10 10 1000 10
3 −12

1 c f
=−
2 co fo
1 6 10−6 f
 = −
2 1000 10−12 1.592 106
f = 4.776KHz
f 4.776 103
= = = 4.776
fm 1000
Bw = 2(f + fm ) = 2(4.776KHz + 1KHz )  12KHz .
 INDIRECT FM
◼ Angle modulation includes frequency modulation FM and
phase modulation PM.
◼ FM and PM are interrelated; one cannot change without the
other changing. The information signal frequency also
deviates the carrier frequency in PM.
◼ Phase modulation produces frequency modulation. Since
the amount of phase shift is varying, the effect is that, as if
the frequency is changed.
◼ Since FM is produced by PM , the later is referred to as
indirect FM.
◼ The information signal is first integrated and then used to
phase modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, which
provides frequency stability.