Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

UNIT 6
GAUSS’S LAW AND
Gauss's law is used to find the
electric fields in symmetrical

APPLICATIONS
capacitors. The Earth is a
huge spherical capacitor that
we use all the time. How do we
do so? You will learn the
answer in this unit!

Structure
6.1 Introduction 6.6 Electric Field due to a Uniformly
Expected Learning Outcomes Charged Thin Spherical Shell
6.2 Electric Flux 6.7 Summary
6.3 Gauss’s Law 6.8 Terminal Questions
Gauss’s Law and Symmetric Charge Distributions 6.9 Solutions and Answers
6.4 Electric Field due to a Point Charge
6.5 Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere

STUDY GUIDE
In Unit 5, you have studied the concepts of charge, electrostatic force, Coulomb’s law,
electric field and calculated the electrostatic force on charges, electric field of point charges
and continuous line charge.

In this unit, you will study Gauss’s law that simplifies the calculation of electric fields and
electrostatic forces for distributions of discrete point charges and symmetric continuous
charge distributions. You will learn how to apply Gauss’s law to a point charge and
spherically symmetric systems like uniformly charged sphere and spherical shell for which
the electric field has spherical symmetry. You have learnt about the divergence theorem in
Unit 4, which you will also use in this unit. You should revise Units 1 to 4 of this course as
you will be using them all the time to learn the concepts of this unit. Of course, you should
also know the concepts of vector algebra thoroughly. We advise you to solve the SAQs and
Terminal Questions given in this unit. You should study all sections of this unit thoroughly
and make sure you can solve the SAQs and Terminal Questions on your own.

“All the measurements in the world do not balance one theorem Carl F. Gauss
by which the science of eternal truths is actually advanced.”

183
Block 2 Electrostatics
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you have revised the concept of charge and Coulomb’s law. You
have learnt the concept of electric field and calculated the electric field due to
point charges and continuous line charge. You have also learnt how to
calculate the electrostatic force on a charge kept in any given electric field.

This is what electrostatics is about: Calculating electric fields due to charges

and electrostatic forces on a charge or distribution of charges placed in an
electric field. You also saw how involved the calculation of the electric field of
a line charge was. Would you not like to learn simpler methods for doing these
calculations? This is what we do in the rest of this block. Most of this block
involves learning the tools that simplify the calculation of electric fields and
electrostatic forces.

In this unit, we describe an alternative to Coulomb’s law and the principle of

superposition to help us determine electric fields of discrete charges and
charge distributions. This is the Gauss’s law which relates electric charge
distributions and electric fields. It gives us a simpler method to determine
Carl Friedrich Gauss electric fields associated with symmetric charge distributions. If we know the
(1777 – 1855), a electric fields in any region, we can also use the law to determine the net
German mathematician charge of the charge distributions that give rise to them.
and physicist, is
referred to as the We begin our study of Gauss’s law by defining a new quantity called electric
‘greatest mathematician flux (Sec. 6.2). We then present the law in Sec. 6.3. You will learn that
since antiquity’. He Gauss’s law is particularly useful when applied to systems that possess some
made exceptional symmetry, a concept that you may know but will learn again in this unit. In
contributions in the
Sec. 6.4, we apply the law to spherically symmetric systems and determine
areas of mathematics
the electric fields due to a point charge, a uniform spherical charge distribution
such as algebra,
number theory, and a uniformly charged spherical shell.
analysis, differential
You may ask: Why is it important for you to learn these applications of
geometry, and physics
such as mechanics, Gauss’s law? One of the most important uses of these applications is in
electrostatics, magnetic calculating the electric fields in capacitors and consequently their
fields, optics, etc. He is capacitances. You would know from your school physics that capacitors are
known as one of important devices used to store electric charge and electrical energy. You will
history’s most influential learn in detail about them in Unit 11 of Block 3. The Earth is one huge
mathematicians with
spherical capacitor that we use all the time as you will learn in Sec. 6.5.
equally significant
contributions in physics. In the next unit, we continue the discussion on Gauss’s law for systems
having cylindrical and planar symmetry such as a uniform line charge, a
uniformly charged cylinder and a plane sheet of charge. You will learn some
more applications of the law and then you will be able to appreciate the power
of this law.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define electric flux and calculate the electric flux due to an arbitrary
distribution of charges;
184  state Gauss’s law;
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
 apply Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field due to a point charge;
 apply Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field due to a uniformly
charged sphere; and
 using Gauss’s law, determine the electric field due to a uniformly
charged spherical shell.

6.2 ELECTRIC FLUX

You have learnt the concept of flux of a vector field in Sec. 4.2.1 of Unit 4 of
The word flux has its
this course. Here we briefly explain the concept again so that you can
origins in the old
understand the concept of electric flux. You know that flux is defined for any
French word ‘flus’ and
vector field but is most easily pictured for the flow of fluids. So, we begin the the Latin word ‘fluxus’
discussion with a brief revision of the concept of flux for fluid flow. both meaning
‘flowing’ or ‘to flow’.
Imagine that a stream of water or some fluid is flowing and the velocity of the When we say that
particles in it is described by the velocity vector field. We now place a very something is in the
small flat wire loop of area dS in the stream so that it is normal (perpendicular) state of flux, we mean
to the direction of the flow (Fig. 6.1a). We choose this flat element of area to that it is changing.
be small enough so that the velocity of all fluid particles flowing through it is
constant. The volume flux of the fluid through the loop is defined as the rate
of flow of the fluid through the area (of the loop). Let us determine its value.

Suppose V is the volume of the fluid that passes through the small loop of
area dS in time t. Since its area is flat and very small, we can take the speed
v of the small amount of fluid flowing through it to be constant. So, during the
time interval t, the fluid moves a length x  vt. The volume of fluid that
flows through the loop during that time interval is then given by

V  dSx  dS v t (6.1)

So, the rate of flow of fluid through the very small area dS is given by
V
 v dS (6.2a)
t
This is just the volume flux of the fluid when the small area chosen is normal
(perpendicular) to the direction of its flow.


 dS
  v
v dS 


dS 
v
dS

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.1: A wire loop placed in a stream a) normal and b) parallel to the direction of the flow or the velocity

field v ; c) the same loop placed at an angle  to the direction of fluid flow. In parts (a) and (c) of
this figure, we have shown only a few lines for the fluid flow but the loop is immersed in the
stream.
185
Block 2 Electrostatics
What would the flux be if we kept the loop parallel to the direction of fluid flow
as shown in Fig. 6.1b? You can see that no fluid will now flow across the
wire loop or across the area dS. So, the volume flux will be zero in this case.

What would the flux be if we kept the loop at some angle  to the direction of
fluid flow as shown in Fig. 6.1c?

In this case, the fluid will pass through only that component of the area, which
is perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow. This is just dS  dS cos.

Therefore, substituting dS cos  for dS in Eq. (6.2a), the volume flux through
the loop kept at an angle  to the direction of the fluid flow will be
dS 
dS
v dS  v dS cos  (6.2b)

Now, we use the definition of the scalar product to express the volume flux
given by Eqs. (6.2a and b) as
 
Fig. 6.2: Area vector dS  v . dS (6.3)

dS for any surface of  
where v is the velocity field and dS, the area vector corresponding to the
area dS is directed
normal to the surface area dS of the loop (see Fig. 6.2). The area vector gives the magnitude of the
(refer to Sec. 4.3 of area and its direction gives the sense of the flux through the area. In our
Unit 4 for the sense example (Figs. 6.1a and c), the sense of the flux is from left-hand side of the
of the normal vector loop to its right-hand side. If we choose the direction of the area vector to be
to the surface). opposite to this, i.e., from right to left, the sense of the flux would also be from
the right-hand side of the loop to its left-hand side. We can choose either
direction for the area vector but once chosen, it should remain the same and
be specified.

Note that the scalar product of Eq. (6.3) reflects all three situations we have
considered: When the loop is normal to the flow,   90 and Eq. (6.3) gives
the volume flux as v dS, which is just Eq. (6.2a). If the loop is parallel to the
flow,   0 and the flux through the loop is zero. For any other value of ,
Eq. (6.3) gives the volume flux as v dS cos, which is just Eq. (6.2b).

The definition of volume flux can be extended to the flux of any vector field
including the electric field. In an electrostatic field, nothing is flowing but
we define the flux of the electric field in analogy to Eq. (6.3).

By definition, the electric flux dE of an electric field E through a small flat
surface of area dS is defined as
 
dE  E . dS (6.4)

where dS is the area vector of magnitude dS directed normal to the
surface. Its orientation is defined to be outward to the surface. Note that
electric flux is a scalar quantity.

In Eq. (6.4), we have considered a small flat surface of area dS to define

electric flux. You may ask: What is the electric flux through a surface of
186 any arbitrary shape?
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
In that case, we divide the surface into a large number (say n) of small flat

surfaces represented by area vectors dSi , all pointing outwards from the

same side of the surface. Let E i be the electric field through the element of

surface area dSi . Since flux is a scalar quantity, the electric flux through the
surface S is just the sum of the electric flux through all such flat surfaces:
n  
E   Ei . dSi (6.5)
i 1

We then make the sizes of the flat surfaces smaller and smaller so that
n   and collectively these surface elements approach the surface S.
Then as you have learnt in Unit 4, the sum given in Eq. (6.5) approaches a
limiting value which is equal to the electric flux through the surface S. In that
limit, we can write the sum as a two-dimensional surface integral and the
electric flux is given by
   
E  Lim
n 
 Ei . dS i   E . dS (6.6a)
i S

As you have learnt in Unit 4, the subscript S under the integral sign tells us
that the area of integration is the entire surface S. If the surface is closed, we
write the surface integral and Eq. (6.6a) as follows:
 
E   E . dS (6.6b)
S

In Unit 4, you have learnt how to determine surface integrals for different
cases. From Eqs. (6.6a and b), you can see that electric flux is expressed as a
surface integral. You may now like to determine the electric flux of an electric
field through a surface using Eq. (6.6b). We take up the example of calculating
the electric flux of a point charge through a closed surface. In the process, we
shall arrive at Gauss’s law.

XAMPLE 6.1 : ELECTRIC FLUX OF A POINT CHARGE

Determine the electric flux for the electric field generated by a point charge
q through a closed surface S of a sphere of radius R enclosing the charge
such that the charge is placed at the centre of the sphere.

SOLUTION  We use Eq. (6.6b) to determine the electric flux through the
surface of a sphere (of radius R) enclosing the charge q. From Eq. (6.6b),
the electric flux through a closed surface is given by
 
E  
E . dS
S
where S is the surface of a sphere of radius R enclosing the charge q,
which is kept at its centre. The electric field of the charge q at a point on
the surface of the sphere is given from Eq. (5.6a) as
 1 q
E  rˆ
40 R 2
187
Block 2 Electrostatics

E where r̂ is the unit vector along the radial direction. Now, for a sphere, the

direction of the area vector dS is along the outward normal to its surface at

dS all points on the surface. From Fig. 6.3 (showing one such point), you can
see that it is along the vector r̂. Thus, we have
r̂  r̂   
R
q dS  dS rˆ and E . dS  E dS rˆ .rˆ  E dS

S The electric flux of the point charge through the sphere’s surface is then

  q  q 
Fig. 6.3: Calculation of
    4 R 2  q
the electric flux through  E . dS 
40R 2  dS  4 R 
 0
2
 0
(6.7)
a spherical surface S
enclosing charge q.

Did you note in Example 6.1 that the radius of the sphere cancels out? This is
1
because while the field decreases as , the surface area increases as r 2 .
2
r
So, their product is constant. REMEMBER: This result arises because of the
inverse square nature of the electrostatic force field and the electric
field.

Also note that we have obtained Eq. (6.7) in Example 6.1 for the electric flux
of a point charge across a spherical surface enclosing the charge. However,
it is true for a surface of any shape enclosing a charge. This is what Gauss’s
law is about. So you will study it in greater detail in the next section. But
before that, you may like to attempt an SAQ to determine electric flux for
y
another simple situation.
Top face
Right
face SAQ 1 - Electric flux

x A cube of side 1.0 m is kept in an electric field (in units of N C1) given by
z E  8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj as shown in Fig. 6.4. Determine the electric flux through
the right and top faces of the cube.
x  1.0 m x  2.0 m

You should always remember the following about electric flux.

Fig. 6.4: Diagram for
SAQ 1.
 Electric flux through a surface (of area S) represents the
 
summation of electric flux elements (E . dS) over the entire
surface.

 Each electric flux element represents the product of a small flat

element of area on the surface with the component of the electric
field along the normal to that area element.

 This product is nothing but the scalar product of the electric field
vector and the area element vector.

 Electric flux does not represent flow or change the way volume
flux does.
188
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Let us now study Gauss’s law.

6.3 GAUSS’S LAW

In Example 6.1, we have enclosed a point charge in a spherical surface and
arrived at Eq. (6.7), which relates the electric flux through a spherical surface
to the point charge q enclosed by it. This is just Gauss’s law for a point
charge. However, we have enclosed the point charge in a spherical surface,
which is a special case. Gauss’s law applies to any arbitrary surface
enclosing a charge or charge distribution. Any imaginary surface enclosing
a charge or a charge distribution is called a Gaussian surface. We usually
choose the Gaussian surface so that our calculations become easier.

Therefore, in this section, we first generalise Eq. (6.7) for any arbitrary surface
enclosing the point charge and arrive at a formal statement of Gauss’s law.
So, let us find out whether the same equation [Eq. (6.7)] applies to any
arbitrary surface enclosing a point charge.

Consider the electric field of a positive point charge in free space. Imagine that
the charge is enclosed in a closed Gaussian surface S of an arbitrary
shape (Fig. 6.5).

y dS
 
 E (r )

P
q x
O

Fig. 6.5: Gauss’s law for a point charge enclosed by an arbitrary surface.

Note from Fig. 6.5 that we have chosen the origin of the coordinate system to
be at the location of the charge. Let P be a point on the Gaussian surface,
 
having position vector r  r r̂. We choose a small element of area dS centred
at the point P on the Gaussian surface. As you know from Eq. (5.6a), the
electric field at the point P is given by
 
1 q 1 q r
E  ˆr  (6.8)
40 r 2 40 r 2 r

Then from Eq. (6.4), the element of electric flux passing through dS is given
by
  1 q  
dE  E . dS  r . dS (6.9)
40 r 3
 
Now, you know that if  is the angle between r and dS, then
 
r . dS  r dS cos  (6.10a)

You also know from vector algebra that dS cos  is the projection of dS along

r . From Sec. 4.3.5 of Unit 4, you know that the quantity
189
Block 2 Electrostatics
 dS cos  
    d (6.10b)
dS  r2 

P is defined as the solid angle (d) subtended by the area dS at O, the location
d
of the charge (Fig. 6.6). Then using Eq. (6.10b), we can write Eq. (6.9) as
  q r dS cos  q
dE  E . dS   d (6.11a)
O 40 r 3 40

Fig. 6.6: The solid angle The total electric flux through the surface S is determined by integrating over
d subtended by an area the entire closed surface as follows:
element dS at a point O.
  q
Recall Sec. 4.3.5 of
Unit 4 for the definition
E  
E . dS 
40
d  (6.11b)
S S
of solid angle.
Now since the surface S surrounds the point O and the total solid angle
around any point is 4 (see Sec. 4.3.5 of Unit 4), we have

 d  4 (6.11c)
S

So, we can write Eq. (6.11b) as

  q
E   E . dS 
0
(6.12)
S

Eq. (6.12) is the same as Eq. (6.7) for a spherical surface. Let us see whether
we can extend Eq. (6.12) to a distribution of charges. Suppose that instead of
a single charge at the centre of a sphere, many charges are situated in some
region of space. From the principle of superposition [Eq. (5.11)], you know that
the net electric field is the vector sum of all individual electric fields:
 
E  Ej (6.13)
j

By definition [Eq. (6.6b)], the electric flux through a closed surface that
encloses all these charges is given by

    
E   E . dS   E . dS   1
 
 j    
qj (6.14)
S j S  0 j


where we have substituted E from Eq. (6.13) and used Eq. (6.12) for
individual charges, i.e., we have written
  qj
 E j . dS 
0
(6.15a)
S

Let us write the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface as Qencl , i.e.,
Qencl is the total or net charge enclosed by the surface S:

Qencl   q j  (6.15b)
j
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Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Then, we can write Eq. (6.14) as follows:
  Qencl
 E . dS 
0
(6.16)
S

Eq. (6.16) is the quantitative statement of Gauss’s law. Let us now give a
formal statement of Gauss’s law.

GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any imaginary closed
surface S (called the Gaussian surface) is directly proportional to the net
Q
charge (Qencl ) enclosed by the surface. In SI units, it is equal to encl .
0
The net charge is the algebraic sum (sum with sign of the charge included)
of all charges enclosed within the Gaussian surface.

Mathematically, we write the law as 

  Qencl
 E . dS 
0
(6.16)
S
(a)

What Eq. (6.16) tells us is that the flux of the electric field through any surface
would be the same regardless of its shape. It is proportional to the charge

enclosed by it. This point is easier to visualise for a point charge if you picture
its electric field in terms of the field lines passing through a surface. A surface
of any shape enclosing the charge would have the same number of field lines
passing through as that of the sphere’s surface (Fig. 6.7). So the electric flux
(b)
q
through any surface enclosing charge q is .
0
Fig. 6.7: The same
Eq. (6.16) is the integral form of Gauss’s law. We can write Gauss’s law in number of electric field
the differential form using the divergence theorem, which you have studied lines will pass through
in Unit 4. For this, we write the charge enclosed by a surface in terms of the surfaces of different
volume charge density  and substitute it in Eq. (6.16). Then we get shapes. Two Gaussian
surfaces, one spherical
Qencl    dV (6.17a) and the other of
arbitrary shape, are
V
shown here for positive
  1 and negative charges.
And  E . dS 
0   dV (6.17b)
S V

Now you may recall the divergence theorem from Unit 4 given as
   
 E . dS    .E dV (6.17c)
S V
 
We substitute the value of  E . dS from Eq. (6.17c) in the left hand side of
S
Eq. (6.17b).
191
Block 2 Electrostatics
Then Eq. (6.17b) becomes
  1
  .E dV 
0   dV (6.17d)
V V

Since Eq. (6.17d) holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal and we
have:
  1
 .E   (6.18)
0

Eq. (6.18) gives Gauss’s law in its differential form.

It is easier to apply Gauss’s law in its differential form. However, note that we
have expressed it only for volume charge density. Since the integral
form of Gauss’s law can be applied to point, line, surface and volume
charges, it has wider use.

In the next section, we consider some applications of Gauss’s law to

spherically symmetric systems. But before that you may like to remember the
following aspects of Gauss’s law and then try an SAQ to check your
understanding.

 In Eq. (6.16), Qencl is the net charge enclosed by the surface taking
into account the algebraic sign of the charges (in case of many
charges). So, if a surface encloses equal and opposite charges,
the net electric flux through it is zero.

 From the statement of Gauss’s law, it is clear that the charges lying
outside the closed surface are not included in Qencl . If the closed
surface does not enclose any net charge, or if all charges lie
outside the closed surface, then the electric flux through the
surface is zero. This implies that the electric field through such a
surface is zero.

 We can calculate the net charge enclosed inside any closed

surface using this law if we know the net electric flux through the
surface enclosing the charges.

 The form and location of the charges inside the closed surface do
not matter in the calculations. What matters is the total charge
enclosed by the closed surface and its sign. This very fact makes
the calculation of electric fields using the Gauss’s law far easier in
comparison with Coulomb’s law.

 Gauss’s law essentially follows from Coulomb’s law and the principle of
superposition. It contains no additional information that was not already
present in Coulomb’s law. The law follows from the inverse square
nature of the electrostatic force. Without that, the cancellation of r 2
would not take place. Then the total flux would also depend on the
surface chosen and not only upon the charge enclosed.
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Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

SAQ 2 - Gauss’s law

a) Can we apply Gauss’s law to the surfaces shown in Figs. 6.1a, b and c?

b) A point charge is enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface. Would the

electric flux through the surface change

i) If the Gaussian surface is chosen to be a closed cylinder or a cube?

ii) If the sphere is replaced by a cube that has one-tenth of its volume?
iii) If the charge is located at some other point within the sphere instead
of its centre?
iv) If the charge is moved outside the Gaussian surface?
v) If another charge is placed inside the Gaussian surface?
vi) If another charge is placed outside the Gaussian surface? S1
P
c) The electric flux through a closed spherical Gaussian surface of radius
0.5 m surrounding a charged particle is equal to 500 Nm2 C1. q1
Determine the value of the charge on the particle. If the radius of the
surface were to be halved, what would the value of the electric flux q3
through it be? q2

d) Determine the net electric flux through two overlapping closed surfaces S2
S1 and S2 shown in Fig. 6.8, given that the values of the charges on
the three particles are q1   3.1 nC, q2   5.9 nC and q3   3.1 nC. Fig. 6.8: Diagram for
The particle P enclosed by the surface S1 carries no charge. SAQ 2d.

You may be wondering: Why do we need another method for calculating

electric fields when we already have Coulomb’s law? This is because we
can use Gauss’s law to calculate the electric fields due to symmetric charge
distributions in a much simpler way. You will discover in the next section and
the next unit that Gauss’s law is a powerful tool for determining electric fields
of symmetric continuous charge distributions. Let us explain this point further.

6.3.1 Gauss’s Law and Symmetric Charge Distributions

Let us first explain: What are symmetric charge distributions?

Symmetric charge distributions are arrangements of charges that remain

unchanged (or invariant) or look the same after a transformation.

These charge distributions could be translated along some axis, reflected or

rotated about some axis and would still appear the same.

Symmetry in physics essentially means that a system or an object

remains unchanged (or invariant) under some transformation. You may
already know of several examples of symmetric objects, e.g., a straight line,
square, plane, sphere, cylinder, etc.

Due to the symmetries of charge distributions, the calculations of electric flux

and electric fields due to them become far easier.
193
Block 2 Electrostatics
We will be dealing with three kinds of symmetry while applying Gauss’s law:

1. Spherical symmetry
2. Cylindrical symmetry
3. Planar symmetry

We will talk about each of these symmetries when we apply Gauss’s law to
symmetric charge distributions in this unit and the next unit.

In the next three sections of this unit, you will learn how to apply Gauss’s law.
We will determine the electric field due to a point charge. We will also
determine the electric fields due to spherically symmetric charge
distributions such as a uniformly charged sphere and a spherical shell carrying
uniform charge using Gauss’s law. In the next unit, we will apply Gauss’s law
to infinitely long line of uniform charge, which has cylindrical symmetry and a
plane sheet of charge having planar symmetry. So we will explain both these
symmetries in the next unit.

Here we answer the question: What is a spherically symmetric charge

distribution?

A charge distribution is said to be spherically symmetric if it remains

invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre. It is said
to possess rotational symmetry about that axis.
 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre. This
is the reflection symmetry.

For such spherically symmetric charge distributions, we choose a spherical

Gaussian surface. For a point charge, the centre of the Gaussian surface lies
at the position of the charge. For a spherical charge distribution or a spherical
shell, the Gaussian surfaces are concentric with them.
P
Q The electric field of a spherically symmetric charge distribution is in the radial
direction. It points outward from the centre of the sphere for positive charge
and inward for negative charge. The magnitude of the electric field depends
only on the distance r from the centre of the sphere. You may ask: Why is it
O Q
so? Let us answer this question for both the direction and the magnitude of
the electric field due to a spherically symmetric charge distribution.

Let us first answer the question: Why is the electric field due to a
spherically symmetric charge distribution directed radially i.e., it either
Fig. 6.9: If the electric points outward from the centre of the sphere, or inward along the radius
field is not radially of the sphere?
directed, it will not
remain the same under Suppose the electric field at some point P outside the sphere is not directed
rotation or any other radially, i.e., along the radius of the sphere. Suppose it points in some other
symmetry
direction, say in the direction of a point Q on the sphere’s surface along the
transformation of the
sphere. line PQ (see Fig. 6.9). Now suppose we rotate the sphere around the sphere's
axis that passes through point P by 180. The point Q shifts to position Q on

194
the sphere. Note that the sphere remains exactly the same and the point P
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
would also be in the same place. But the electric field would now point in a
different direction  in the direction of Q along the line PQ.

This is a contradiction because you know that the electric field at the same
point due to the same charge distribution has to be in the same
direction; it cannot be in two different directions. When will the electric field at
any point be in the same direction under any symmetry operation performed
on the spherical charge distribution? This will happen only if the electric field
is directed along the axis of rotation of the sphere passing through that
point. This means that it must point along the axis of rotation (or the radius) of
the sphere, i.e., in the radial direction.

Let us now answer the question: Why does the magnitude of the electric
field due to a symmetric charge distribution at any point depend only on
its distance r from the centre of symmetry?

Study Fig. 6.10. Suppose we have to determine the electric field at a point P
at a distance r from the sphere. Consider a spherical surface S of radius r Q P
passing through that point, concentric with the spherical charge distribution. r
Now, consider any two points P and Q on the surface S. Note that these two O
points have the same radial coordinate but different angular coordinates.
S
Let us now ask: What would happen if the magnitude of the electric field
depended on the angular coordinates of the points P and Q? If this were
so, the magnitude of the electric field due to the spherical charge distribution Fig. 6.10: The magnitude
would be different at these two points. of the electric field at any
point P on the spherical
But this is a contradiction because due to spherical symmetry, the surface S depends only
spherical charge distribution looks the same for all points on S and on the radius r of the
surface, i.e., the radial
hence for both these points. Therefore, for the same charge distribution,
coordinate of P. Due to
the magnitude of the electric field cannot be different for different points spherical symmetry, it is
on S. It has to be the same for all points on the spherical surface S, i.e., all independent of the
points at the same distance r from the centre of the charge distribution. angular coordinates of
the point.
Hence, the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the spherical
surface S (of a fixed radius) cannot depend on the angular coordinates of
that point. It will only depend on the radius of the spherical surface, i.e., the
radial coordinate of the point, which is just the distance of the point from the
centre of the charge distribution. Therefore, we have

E (r )  E (r ) for a spherically symmetric charge distribution
So, all points on the spherical surface S of radius r are equivalent as far as the
magnitude of the electric field is concerned. You must always remember the
following for any spherically symmetric charge distribution.

 The electric field due to the spherical charge distribution is directed

radially.

 The magnitude of the electric field at any point depends only on the
distance r of the point from the centre of the charge distribution.
195
Block 2 Electrostatics
Let us now apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a point
charge.

6.4 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Using Gauss’s law, let us determine the electric field due to a positive point
charge q at point P situated at a distance r from the charge.

We use Gauss’s law given by Eq. (6.16) taking Qencl  q.

We draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r passing through the point P

P with the charge at the centre of the sphere (Fig. 6.11). Now, you have learnt in
Q
r
Sec. 6.3.1 that for spherical symmetry, the electric field points radially
outwards for a positive charge, i.e., the direction of the electric field is normal
q 
to the sphere’s surface. The area vector dS for any surface area element of

S the sphere is also normal to its surface. So, it is parallel to the electric field E
 
and E . dS  E dS. Then Gauss’s law becomes
  q
Fig. 6.11: Spherical  E . dS   E dS 
Gaussian surface S for S S 0
determining electric field
due to a positive point Due to spherical symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field due to the
charge. charge would be the same for all points on the spherical surface and we can
take it to be constant for S. So, we can take E out of the integral and write

q
 E dS  E  dS 
S S 0

So, the integral is just the area of the spherical surface, i.e., it is 4r 2. Thus,

q
E 4r 2 
0

1 q
or E 
40 r 2

 1 q
and E  rˆ (6.19)
40 r 2

Did you notice that Eq. (6.19) is the same as Eq. (5.6a) of Unit 5 that was
obtained from Coulomb’s law? This means that Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s
law give us the same result for the electric field due to a point charge. Gauss’s
law is equally true for a distribution of charges. You have seen it in arriving at
Eq. (6.16).

The result for the electric field due to a charge distribution will be the same
whether we use Gauss’s law or Coulomb’s law to calculate it. The only
difference between the two laws is this: It is easier to use Coulomb’s law for a
charge distribution having many discrete point charges. But it is far easier to
use Gauss’s law if the charge distributions are continuous and symmetric. You
have learnt this in this section for a point charge and will learn in the next two
196
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
sections and next unit for other charge distributions. Otherwise, these two laws
are not independent laws but the same law expressed in different ways.

6.5 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY

CHARGED SPHERE
Let us now apply Gauss’s law to a spherical charge distribution having uniform
volume charge density. You can verify that a charged sphere possesses
spherical symmetry. It remains invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre; and

 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre.

The volume charge density (charge per unit volume) of a spherically

symmetric charge distribution such as the charged sphere is the same at all
points situated at the distance r from its centre. At any point, it depends only
on the distance of that point from the centre of the sphere and not on the
direction. Thus, the volume charge density  of a spherically symmetric
charge distribution is a function of only r.

You have learnt in Sec. 6.3.1 that the magnitude of the electric field due to
a spherically symmetric charge distribution at any point depends only on r.
The direction of the electric field is radially outward for positive charge
distribution and radially inward for a negative charge distribution. Let us now
apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a uniformly charged
P
sphere.
R r
Consider a non-conducting charged sphere of radius R carrying total positive Q
charge Q (Fig. 6.12). It is uniformly charged, which means that its volume
charge density  is constant. Let us determine the electric field due to this S
charge distribution at a point P outside it, at a distance r from the centre of the
sphere.
Fig. 6.12: Determining
We draw a spherical Gaussian surface S of radius r through the point P. Since the electric field due
the point P lies outside the sphere, r  R and Qencl  Q. From Gauss’s law to a uniformly charged
[Eq. (6.16)], we have sphere of radius R
carrying net charge Q
  Q at a point P outside the
 E . dS 
0
(6.20) sphere.
S

Due to spherical symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field is the same on
all points on the Gaussian surface. So we can take it to be constant for this
Gaussian surface. The direction of the electric field
 is radially
 outwards
 for the
positive charge, i.e., in the same direction as dS. So, E and dS are parallel
and
 
E . dS  E dS (6.21a)

Since E (the magnitude of the electric field on the Gaussian surface) is

constant, we can pull it out of the surface integral.
197
Block 2 Electrostatics
Therefore, Eq. (6.21a) becomes
  2 Q
 . dS  E  dS  E 4  r 
E (6.21b)
S S 0

1 Q
or E  for r  R (6.21c)
4  0 r 2

The electric field is given by

 1 Q
E  rˆ for r  R (6.22)
4  0 r 2

Notice that we have included the points lying on the surface of the spherical
charge distribution in the result because the Gaussian sphere of radius R
would enclose the entire charge. Did you also notice that the electric field
given by Eq. (6.22) is the same as that due to a point charge [given by
Eq. (6.19)]? It is as if the entire charge within the spherical surface is
concentrated at the centre of the sphere. Note that this result is a
consequence of spherical symmetry. So, a uniformly charged sphere would
exert the same force on a charge placed anywhere outside it as an equivalent
single charge would.

The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere and the

electrostatic force exerted by it on a charge situated outside the
sphere are the same as the electric field and electrostatic force due
to a point charge (equal to the charge of the sphere) situated at its
centre.

Let us now determine the electric field at a point inside a spherical charge
distribution carrying net charge Q , i.e., at points for which r  R (see
Fig. 6.13).

For this, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r  R. We apply

Eq. (6.20), in which Q has now to be replaced by the charge (q) enclosed by
the Gaussian sphere of radius r.
P
R
r What is the value of the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere of radius r?
S
You know that the volume charge density is uniform for the charged sphere of
Q
radius R, i.e.,  is constant. The volume of the spherical charge distribution is
4 3
R . Since the volume charge density  (charge per unit volume) is
3
Fig. 6.13: Determining 4 3
constant, for the sphere of volume R carrying charge Q, it is given by
the electric field of a 3
uniformly charged
Q
sphere of radius R   (6.23a)
carrying net charge Q at 4 3
R
a point P inside the 3
sphere.
4 3
Therefore, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere of volume r will
3
be the product of its volume with the volume charge density:
198
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

4 3 Q  4 3  r3
q   r  r  Q (6.23b)
3 4 3  3 
 R3
R
3
 
Using Eq. (6.23b) for q and the result  E . dS  E  dS  E 4  r 2 from
S S
Eq. (6.21b) in Eq. (6.16), we have

q Q r3
E 4r 2  
0 0 R 3

Q r
or E  for r  R (6.24a)
4  0 R 3

The electric field at a point inside the uniformly charged sphere is given by
 Q r
E  rˆ for r  R (6.24b)
4  0 R 3
Q r
Note from Eqs. (6.24a) and (6.22) that the electric field inside the spherical E E , rR
charge distribution increases linearly with distance from its centre (E  r ). 4  0 R 3

1
However, for points outside the sphere, the electric field falls off as 2 . We Q 1
r E , rR
4  0 r 2
show this behaviour of the electric field in Fig. 6.14.

We have said in the introduction that these results for the electric field due to
a spherical charge distribution will be of use when you determine the
R r
capacitance of a spherical capacitor. As we have said on the first page of this
unit, the Earth is one huge spherical capacitor that we use all the time. The
R
Earth’s capacitance is so large ( 0.0007 F) that we can dump charge in it or
take it out without changing its electric field much. That is why, we ‘ground’ Fig. 6.14: The behaviour
or ‘earth’ the electrical circuits in our homes and all electrical appliances and of the electric field due
instruments. That is also why we connect the lightning rods in buildings to to a uniformly charged
the Earth so that most excess charge flows into it without hurting people. sphere of radius R.

Another example of spherical charge distributions is an isolated atom of inert

gases. Since the atom is neutral, it carries no net charge and from Gauss’s
law, the electric field outside it is zero. Even when the atoms of an inert gas
are in the neighbourhood of other atoms in it, they depart only slightly from
spherical symmetry, and the electric fields near them remain small. So, we
can say that the feeble chemical activity of inert gases is related to their
spherically symmetric charge distributions. In the next section, you will learn
how to apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a spherical
shell. Before that, you should solve an SAQ.

SAQ 3 - Applying Gauss’s law to charged sphere

The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere of radius 0.1 m has the
magnitude 9.0 N C1 at a distance of 0.3 m from the centre. What is the net
charge on the sphere? What is the volume charge density of the charge
distribution?
199
Block 2 Electrostatics
6.6 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
As a first step, do convince yourself that a thin spherical shell possesses
spherical symmetry, i.e., it remains the same under any rotation about its axis
and any reflection about a plane passing through its centre and axis of
rotation. You can rotate or reflect a hollow sphere with a thin surface (such as
a hollow ball) to verify the spherical symmetry of a spherical shell.

Now, consider a non-conducting thin spherical shell of radius R carrying a


E total positive charge Q that is distributed uniformly over its surface (Fig. 6.15).
S1 Let us determine the electric field due to this shell at a point lying outside it.
P

dS For a point P lying outside the shell, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface S1
R Q through the point and concentric with the spherical shell. You can see that the
Gaussian surface lies outside the shell. Let us determine the electric field at
the point P (see Fig. 6.15).

Due to the spherical symmetry of the charged spherical shell, its electric field
has the same magnitude at every point on any spherical Gaussian surface
 with Qencl  Q to
and is directed radially. We apply Gauss’s law [Eq. (6.16)]
Fig. 6.15: A thin the spherical surface
 S1 and note
 that the electric field E is in the same
uniformly charged direction as dS for S1 so that E and dS are parallel. Therefore,
spherical shell of
 
radius R carrying a net E . dS  E dS (6.25a)
charge Q. The
cross-section of the
and since E (the magnitude of the electric field on the Gaussian surface) is
Gaussian surface S1 is
shown for a point lying
constant, we can pull it out of the surface integral. Therefore, Eq. (6.16)
outside the shell. It is becomes
concentric with the
  Q
shell.
 E . dS 
 E dS  E 4  r 2 
0
(6.25b)
S S

1 Q
or E  for r  R (6.25c)
4  0 r 2

The electric field at any point lying outside the spherical shell of radius R is
given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ (spherical shell, for r  R) (6.26)
4  0 r 2

Note that the electric field given by Eq. (6.26) is the same as that due to a
point charge [given by Eq. (6.19)].

For the electric field at a point lying outside the spherical shell, it is as if
the entire charge Q of the spherical shell were replaced by a single equal
charge placed at the centre of the shell.

Thus, a uniformly charged spherical shell would exert the same force on a
charge placed anywhere outside the shell as a single equal charge would.
200
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
So always remember,

The electric field due to a spherical shell with a uniform charge

distribution and the electrostatic force exerted by it on a charge
situated outside the shell are the same as due to a single charge
(equal to the charge of the shell) situated at its centre.

What is the electric field at a point inside the shell, i.e., at a point lying
anywhere in the empty interior part of the shell?
Q
R
For a point lying inside the shell, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface P

S2 concentric with the spherical shell, lying in the empty interior of the shell S2
(see Fig. 6.16). Since this Gaussian surface encloses no net charge, from
Gauss’s law, the electric field is zero at all points inside the shell:
 
E  0 (spherical shell, for r  R) (6.27)
Fig. 6.16: The cross-
So, always remember, when a charge is enclosed by a uniformly charged section of a Gaussian
spherical shell so that the charge lies inside the shell, no electrostatic surface S2 enclosing
force is exerted on the charge by the shell. the empty interior of
the thin uniformly
Let us apply what you have learnt in this section to an example of two charged spherical shell
concentric thin spherical shells. of radius R carrying a
net charge Q.

XAMPLE 6.2 : TWO CONCENTRIC THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS

Two concentric thin spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 (with R2  R1 )
carry uniformly distributed charges q1 and q2, respectively (Fig. 6.17). Use
R2
Gauss’s law to determine the electric fields at the points
R1
a) r  R1, q1

b) R2  r  R1 and q2

c) r  R2. Fig. 6.17: Diagram for

Example 6.2.
SOLUTION  We use Gauss’s law along with the results obtained for a
thin spherical shell.

a) For the point r  R1, that is, any point A lying inside the inner
A
spherical shell, we can draw the spherical Gaussian surface through it
(Fig. 6.18). r  R1 R1

You can see that the charge enclosed by that Gaussian surface is
zero. From Eq. (6.27) obtained using Gauss’s law for a point inside the Fig. 6.18: The electric
thin spherical shell, we get the result that the electric field for field at a point inside
r  R1 is zero: the inner shell is
  zero since the
E  0 (inside the inner spherical shell, for r  R1 ) charge enclosed by
it is zero.
201
Block 2 Electrostatics

b) For the point R1  r  R2, that is, the point lying between the two
R1  r  R2 concentric shells, the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface of
radius r is just the charge q1 on the inner spherical shell
(Fig. 6.19a). Therefore, from Eq. (6.26), the electric field at any point
R2 B
between the two thin concentric shells is
R1
q1  1 q1
E  rˆ (for R1  r  R2 )
4  0 r 2
q2
(a) c) For the point r  R2, that is, the point lying outside the outer
spherical shell (Fig. 6.19b), the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface of radius r is the sum of the charges q1 and q2. Therefore,
from Eq. (6.26), the electric field at any point outside the outer
R2
spherical shell is
q1 R1
 1 (q1  q2 )
E  rˆ (for r  R2 )
q2 4  0 r2
C
r  R2 What would your answers be if the charges on the inner shell and outer shell
(b) were equal to  q ? To know this, answer the following SAQ!

Fig. 6.19: Diagram for

parts (b) and (c) of SAQ 4 - Uniformly charged thin spherical shell
Example 6.2.
Each of two concentric thin spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 (with
R2  R1 ) carries uniformly distributed charge +q. Use Gauss’s law to
determine the electric fields due to the shells at the points a) r  R1,
b) R2  r  R1 and c) r  R2.

With this discussion on the applications of Gauss’s law to spherically

symmetric charge distributions, we end this unit. In the next unit, we continue
our study of the applications of Gauss’s law to charge distributions possessing
cylindrical and planar symmetry. Let us now summarise what you have learnt
in this unit.

6.7 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Electric flux  The electric flux through a surface (of area S) represents the sum of
 
electric flux elements (E . dSi ) over the entire surface. Each flux element
represents the product of a small flat element of area on the surface and the
component of the electric field along the normal to that area element.
This product is nothing but the scalar product of the electric field vector and
the area element
 vector. Mathematically, electric flux or the flux of an
electric field E through a surface of area S is defined as
 
E   E . dS
202 S
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Remember, electric flux does not represent flow or change of any
entity.

Gauss’s law  Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any imaginary closed
surface S of arbitrary shape (called the Gaussian surface) is directly
proportional to the net charge (Qencl ) enclosed by the surface. In SI units, it
Q
is equal to encl . The net charge is the algebraic sum (sum with sign of the
0
charge included) of all charges enclosed within the Gaussian surface.
  Qencl
Mathematically, the law in its integral form is  E . dS 
0
S
  
The differential form of Gauss’s law is  .E 
0

where  is the volume charge density of the charge distribution.

Applications of  Using Gauss’s law, we can determine the electric field due to a point
Gauss’s law to charge, distribution of discrete charges and continuous charge distributions
spherically
enclosed by arbitrary surfaces. In this unit, we have considered spherically
symmetric
systems
symmetric charge distributions.

A charge distribution is said to be spherically symmetric if it remains

invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre. It is

said to possess rotational symmetry about that axis.

 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre. This
is the reflection symmetry.

Examples are a point charge, a uniformly charged sphere and a uniformly

charged spherical shell.

The magnitude of the electric field of a spherically symmetric charge

distribution at any point depends only on r, the distance of the point from the
centre of symmetry. The direction of the electric field is radially outward for
positive charge distribution and radially inward for a negative charge
distribution.

Point charge  The electric field of a point charge q at a distance r from it is given by

 1 q
E  rˆ
40 r 2

Uniformly charged  The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere of radius R
sphere carrying charge Q at a point located outside the sphere at a distance r is
given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ for r  R
4  0 r 2
203
Block 2 Electrostatics
For a point inside the sphere, it is given by
 Q r
E  rˆ for r  R
4  0 R 3

Uniformly charged  The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of
thin spherical
radius R carrying charge Q at any point lying outside the shell at a
shell
distance r from its centre is given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ (spherical shell, for r  R)
4  0 r 2

At all points lying anywhere in the empty interior part of the shell, the
electric field is zero:
 
E  0 (spherical shell, for r  R)

6.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS


1. Calculate the flux of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the surfaces
of area 1.0 m2 situated in the xy, xz and yz planes, respectively.

2. A particle carrying a charge of 2.7 10 9 C is enclosed in a cubical

Gaussian surface of side 0.5 m. Calculate the electric flux through the
surface of the cube and any one of its faces.
3. Consider a system of four charges: 3q, q,  3q and  q. Draw a Gaussian
surface enclosing at least two charges of the system so that the net
 4q   2q   2q 
electric flux through it is a) zero, b)   , c)    and d)   .
 0   0   0 

4. The electric field in some region of space is given by E  cr r̂, where c is a
constant. Use the differential form of Gauss’s law to calculate the volume
charge density, which gives rise to this electric field. Obtain the total
charge contained in a sphere of radius R, centred at the origin in this
region of space.
5. Suppose that a Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge. (a) Does
Gauss’s law require that the electric field be zero for all points on the
surface? (b) If the electric field is zero everywhere on the Gaussian
surface, does Gauss’s law require that the net charge inside the surface
B be zero?
A
6. Is Gauss’s law useful in calculating the electric field due to three equal
charges placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle? Explain.
q C 7. A charge q is placed at a corner of a cube as shown in Fig. 6.20.
D Determine the flux of the electric field of the charge through the right face
(ABCD) of the cube? (Hint: Solving this problem requires a clever choice
Fig. 6.20: Diagram of the Gaussian surface.)
for TQ 7.
8. a) The electric flux due to a point charge passing through a spherical
Gaussian surface of radius 0.10 m centred on the charge is
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Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

 900 Nm 2 C1 . What is the value of the point charge? What is the
electric field due to the point charge at a point on the Gaussian
surface? What would the electric flux through the Gaussian surface be
if its radius were increased to 0.30 m?
b) The magnitude of the electric field due to a non-conducting charged
sphere of radius 0.30 m at a distance of 0.10 m from its centre is
3.0  103 NC 1. What is the net charge on the sphere?

9. A non-conducting sphere of radius R carrying net positive charge Q is

enclosed by a concentric non-conducting thin spherical shell of radius r
carrying net negative charge q. Determine the electric field (a) inside the
sphere, (b) between the sphere and the shell, and (c) outside the shell.
10. A charged non-conducting spherical shell having inner radius 3.0 m and
outer radius10 m carries a charge of magnitude 9.0 nC distributed
uniformly over its volume. Determine the electric field due to it at a
distance of 6.0 m from its centre.

6.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. We can determine the electric flux through the faces of the cube by using
 
Eq. (6.6a), i.e., by integrating the scalar product E . dS over the right and
top faces of the cube. Refer to Fig. 6.21. For the choice of the coordinate

axes, the area vector for the right face is dS  dS ˆi and for the top face, it

is dS  dS ĵ. So, the electric flux through the right face of the cube is
given as:
 
E   E . dS   (8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj) . dS ˆi
S S

  (8.0 x ) ˆi . ˆi dS  (8.0)  ( x ) dS ( ˆi . ˆi  1, ˆi . ˆj  0)
S S
y
Now, on the right face of the cube, x is constant and has the value 
dS  dSˆj
x = 2.0 m. Therefore, for the right face, we get

E  (8.0)  ( 2.0) dS  (16.0)  dS 

dS  dSˆi
S S
x
Now the integral  dS is equal to the area of the right face of the cube, z
S
2 x  1.0 m x  2.0 m
which is just 1.0 m . Therefore, the electric flux through the right face of
the cube is Fig. 6.21: Diagram for the
1 2
E  (16.0) NC m answer of SAQ 1.

Now, we follow the same steps for the top face of the cube as we followed

for the right face of the cube. Since for the top face, dS  dS ˆj and
ˆj . ˆj  1, ˆi . ˆj  0, the electric flux through the top face of the cube is
given as:
205
Block 2 Electrostatics
 
E   E . dS   (8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj) . dS ˆj   (5.0) dS  (5.0)  dS
S S S S
Now the integral  dS is equal to the area of the top face of the cube,
S
2
which is just 1.0 m . Therefore, the electric flux through the top face of the
cube is E  (5.0) NC 1 m2 .

2. a) We cannot apply Gauss’s law to the surfaces shown in Figs. 6.1a, b

and c as these are open surfaces (these do not define an enclosed
volume) and Gauss’s law can be applied to only closed surfaces.

b) i) No, the electric flux through the surface would not change as the
Gaussian surface can be of any shape and the electric flux is equal
to only the net charge enclosed by it.
ii) No, since the net charge enclosed by the surface is the same.
iii) No, because the location of the charge within the surface does not
matter.
iv) Yes, because the net charge enclosed by the surface would
change.
v) Yes, because the net charge enclosed by the surface would
change.
vi) No, since the net charge enclosed by the surface is the same.

c) From Eq. (6.12), the value of the charge on the particle is given by

qencl  0 E  (8.85 1012 C2N1 m2 )  500 N m2 C1  4.42 109 C

The electric flux through the surface would not change since the
S1 net charge enclosed by it remains the same.
P
d) Refer to Fig. 6.22. The net charge enclosed by the surface S1 is
q1
q1   3.1 nC . Since the particle P enclosed by the surface S1 carries
no charge, it makes no contribution to the electric flux. The remaining
q3 charges are outside the surface. Therefore, from Eq. (6.12),
q2
q q1 3.110 9 C
S2  E  encl    350 N m2 C1
0 0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m

Fig. 6.22: Diagram for the The net charge enclosed by the surface S2 is
answer of SAQ 2d.
q1  q2  q3   3.1 nC  ( 5.9 nC)  ( 3.1nC)   5.9 nC

Therefore, from Eq. (6.12),

qencl  5.9 10 9 C

E     6.7 10 2 Nm2 C1
0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m

3. We use Eq. (6.22) for the electric field of a uniformly charged sphere
since the point lies outside the sphere and take the magnitude only.
Therefore, the net charge on the sphere is
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Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

(9.0 N C1)  (0.3 m) 2

Q  E ( 4  0r 2 )   0.09 nC  0.1nC
8.99 109 C2Nm2
Since the sphere is uniformly charged, its volume charge density is given
by Eq. (6.23a):
Q 0.09 10 9 C
    2.110 8 C m3
4 3 4
R (0.1m) 3
3 3
R2
4. Refer to Fig. 6.23. We follow the steps in Example 6.2 with q1  q2   q.
q R1
a) For the point r  R1, the net charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian
surface passing through r, (i.e., a point inside the inner shell) is zero. q
Hence, for r  R1,
 
E  0 Fig. 6.23: Diagram for
the answer of SAQ 4.
b) For R2  r  R1, (i.e., a point lying between the two concentric
shells), the net charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface
passing through r is just  q and hence, for R2  r  R1,
 1 q
E  rˆ
40 r 2

c) For r  R2, (i.e., a point lying outside the outer shell), the net charge
enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface passing through r is
y
 q  q   2q and hence, for r  R2, xy plane
 1 2q yz plane
E  rˆ
40 r 2
Terminal Questions ĵ
x
k̂ O î
1. Refer to Fig. 6.24. A surface of area S in the xy plane is represented by
the vector S k̂ since k̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the xy plane. xz plane
 z
Therefore, the flux of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through a surface
of area S  1.0 m2 situated in the xy plane is Fig. 6.24: Area vectors for
the answer of TQ 1.

E  E . Skˆ  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) kˆ  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . kˆ )  0

The area vector in the xz plane is given by S ĵ and for S  1.0 m2, the flux

of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the xz plane is

E  E . S ˆj  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) ˆj  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . ˆj)  0

In the yz plane, the area vector is given by S î and for S  1.0 m2, the flux

of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the yz plane is

E  E . S ˆi  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) ˆi  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . ˆi )  100 NC 1 m2

2. Let us choose the surface of the cube as the Gaussian surface. From
Gauss’s law [Eq. (6.16)], the electric flux through this surface is

q 2.7 10 9 C
E    3.0 102 N C1 m2
0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m
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Block 2 Electrostatics
Since the cube has 6 faces, the electric flux through any one of the cube’s
faces is
 3q q  q  3q E q 3.0 10 2 N C1 m2
E      50 N C1 m2
6 6 0 6
(a)
q
3. Refer to Figs. 6.25a to e. We use Eq. (6.16):  E 
0
 3q  q q  3q a) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be zero, the
net electric charge enclosed by it should be zero. In Figs. 6.24a and b,
the two Gaussian surfaces shown enclose the charges so that the net
(b) charge within each one of them and hence the electric flux through
them is zero. You can draw a third one too enclosing only the charges
 q and  q.
 3q q q  3q
b) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be ( 4q / 0 ),
(c)
the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  4q. In Fig. 6.24c, the
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
charge within it is  4q and the net electric flux through it is ( 4q / 0 ).
c) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be (  2q / 0 ),
 3q q q  3q
the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  2q. In Fig. 6.24d, the
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
(d)
charge within it is  2q and the net electric flux through it is ( 2q / 0 ).
d) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be (  2q / 0 ),
q q  3q the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  2q. In Fig. 6.24e, the
 3q
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
charge within it is  2q and the net electric flux through it is ( 2q / 0 ).
(e)
4. We use Eq. (6.18) to calculate the volume charge density  and write
    
Fig. 6.25: Diagram for the   r
  0  .E  0  . (cr rˆ )  0  . (c r )  rˆ  
answer of TQ 3.  r

In Unit 2, you have learnt how to calculate the divergence of a vector field.
      
   0  .(c r )  0 c  . r  0 c ( ˆi  ˆj  kˆ ).( x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ )
x y z
x y z
 0 c (   )  3 0 c
x y z

In this region of space, the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R,

centred at the origin is just the volume integral Q  
 dV . Since  is
V
constant and the volume integral equals the volume of the sphere of
radius R, we have
4 3
Q  
3 0 c dV  3 0 c
3
R  4  0 c R 3
V

5. a) When the Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge, Gauss’s law
 
yields E . dS  0. However, this does not mean that the electric field is
  
zero for all points on the surface. E . dS can be zero even when E and

dS are perpendicular to each other.
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Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
b) If the electric field is zero everywhere on the Gaussian surface, Gauss’s
law requires that there should be no net charge inside the surface, i.e.,
the net charge should be zero.
6. Gauss’s law is not useful in calculating the electric field due to three equal
charges placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle because it is not
possible to find a closed surface of appropriate symmetry over which the
electric field can be taken to be constant and its direction can be taken to
be either parallel or normal to the surface to evaluate the surface integral.
7. The electric flux through the shaded right face (ABCD) of the cube having
area, say S , is
 
S   
E . dS
S
To determine S , the trick is to choose an appropriate Gaussian surface
that encloses the charge q. We can put together 8 cubes of the same size
as the original cube in the problem to construct the Gaussian surface as
shown in Fig. 6.26. It includes the right face ABCD of the original cube and
encloses the charge q. Note that the area of the Gaussian surface is 24
times the area of the right face ABCD. So, now we can apply Gauss’s law
to this problem.
B
Gaussian surface
A

q C
D

Fig. 6.26: Diagram for answer to TQ 7.

  Q
From Gauss’s law, we have  E . dS  encl where S is the surface area of
S 0
the Gaussian surface enclosing the charge. Since the area of the
Gaussian surface is 24 times the area S  of ABCD, we have
    q   q
 
E . dS  24  E . dS 
0
or 
E . dS 
24 0
S S S
Thus, the electric flux through the right face (ABCD) of the cube is
q
S  
24 0
8. a) We use Eq. (6.12) to determine the value of the point charge:
q  0 E  (8.85 1012 C2N1 m2 )( 900 Nm 2C1)   7.96 nC
From Eq. (6.19), the electric field of q at a distance of 0.10 m from it is
  7.96 10 9 C
E  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 ) rˆ  (  7.2 103 N C1) r̂
2
(0.10 m)
The electric flux through the Gaussian sphere of radius 0.30 m would remain
the same as the charge enclosed by it is the same. It will be  900 Nm 2C1.
209
Block 2 Electrostatics
b) We use Eq. (6.24b) for the magnitude E to determine the net charge
on the sphere since the point at which the electric field is given lies
R3
inside the sphere. From Eq. (6.24b) for E, we have Q  40 E.
r
Upon substituting the numerical values given in the problem, we get

1 (0.30 m) 3
Q   (3.0 103 N C1)  90 nC
9 2 2
(8.99 10 C Nm ) (0.10 m)

r  9. a) Since the electric field inside the shell is zero, from Eq. (6.24b), the net
r
electric field at a point r  inside the sphere (see Fig. 6.27) is given as:
 Q r
r 
E  rˆ
4  0 R 3
r R
Q b) At a point r  between the sphere and the shell, the total charge
enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface passing through r  is the
q charge Q on the sphere and the electric field is given by Eq. (6.22):
 1 Q
Fig. 6.27: Diagram for the E  rˆ
4  0 r 2
answer of TQ 9.
c) At a point r  outside the shell, the total charge enclosed by a spherical
Gaussian surface passing through the point is the charge Q on the
sphere and the charge  q on the spherical shell. The electric field is
given by Eq. (6.22) or Eq. (6.26) where the net charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface passing through r  is (Q  q ) :
 1 (Q  q )
E  rˆ
4  0 r 2

10. We have to first determine the volume charge density of the spherical
Q
10 m shell:   . For this, we need to calculate the volume of the spherical
V
4
r  6.0 m shell, which is V  (10 m) 3  (3.0 m) 3   4077 m3
3
Q 3.0 m
Q 9.0 nC
    2.2 10 12 Cm 3
V 4077 m3
To determine the electric field at the point 6.0 m away from the centre, we
draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius 6.0 m passing through the
Fig. 6.28: Diagram for the
point (Fig. 6.28). Let us first calculate the total charge Q enclosed by the
answer of TQ 10 (not to
scale).
Gaussian surface of radius 6.0 m. The volume of the part of the spherical
shell that contains the charge Q is

V 
4
3
 
(6.0 m) 3  (3.0 m) 3  792 m3

 Q  V   2.21012 Cm 3  792 m3  1.7 nC

From Gauss’s law, we have

Q Q
E  E ( 4R 2 )   E  or
0 40R 2
  1.7 nC 
E  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 )   rˆ  0.42 NC 1 rˆ
 (6.0 m) 2 
210
 