energies

Article
Heat Reflective Thin-Film Polymer Insulation with Polymer
Nanospheres—Determination of Thermal
Conductivity Coefficient
Danuta Król 1 , Przemysław Motyl 2 , Joanna Piotrowska-Woroniak 3 , Mirosław Patej 4
and Sławomir Poskrobko 3, *

1 Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 14-100 Gliwice, Poland
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom,
26-600 Radom, Poland
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Białystok University of Technology,
15-351 Białystok, Poland
4 Ad Alio Sp. z o.o., Konstantego Ciołkowskiego 17, 15-264 Białystok, Poland
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In this paper, a method to determine the thermal conductivity coefficient λ in a 200 µm
thick heat reflective paint layer, filled with polymer nanospheres with a Total Solar Reflectance (TSR)
of 86.95%, is proposed and presented. For this purpose, a “hot box”-type (cube-shaped) test rig
was built to carry out experimental tests to measure the temperature distribution on the surface of
a double-layer wall containing the material under investigation. Together with the experimental
studies, a CFD numerical model was prepared to understand the nature of flow and heat transfer
inside the cube—the test chamber. Based on the proposed measurement and analysis method, the
thermal conductivity coefficient of the heat reflective coating layer was λ = 0.0007941 W/m·K.
Citation: Król, D.; Motyl, P.;
Piotrowska-Woroniak, J.; Patej, M.; Keywords: thermal conductivity; nanospheres; polymer insulation; heat reflectivity
Poskrobko, S. Heat Reflective
Thin-Film Polymer Insulation with
Polymer Nanospheres—
Determination of Thermal 1. Introduction
Conductivity Coefficient. Energies
In the European Community (EC) countries, energy consumption in buildings is
2022, 15, 6286. https://
estimated to be around 40%, which entails a share of around 36% in greenhouse gas
doi.org/10.3390/en15176286
emissions into the atmosphere. This makes it necessary to save energy in the building
Academic Editor: Francesco Nocera industry (as in other sectors of the economy). The civilization idea was formulated, i.e.,
Received: 27 July 2022
the postulate of the so-called sustainable development, a process aiming at satisfying the
Accepted: 25 August 2022
needs of the present generation in a way that enables future generations to fulfil the same
Published: 29 August 2022
aspirations. The postulate of sustainable development has been reflected in European
legislation [1], where the basic requirements to be met by buildings, in terms of sustainable
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
use of natural resources, have been formulated. A consequence of the basic requirements is
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
also an increase in the requirements for the thermal insulation of building partitions. EC
published maps and institutional affil-
legislation obliges member states to introduce regulations that require all buildings (except
iations.
historical buildings) to reach standards close to so-called “zero energy”. This includes deep
thermal modernization, resulting in a significant improvement in the energy efficiency of
buildings, where a key role in the development of new insulation materials is attributed to
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
scientific research aimed at achieving “zero energy” standards.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Given the needs of the near future for building partitions, new insulation materials
This article is an open access article and manufacturing technologies are being developed in many research centers around
distributed under the terms and the world. These materials will successfully meet “zero energy” requirements thanks to
conditions of the Creative Commons their insulating properties. A building material with high insulation parameters is FC-SA
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// composite [2], the thermal conductivity of which at room temperature (about 30 ◦ C) reaches
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ λ = 0.049 W/m·K. According to the authors’ estimate [2], this represents a 48.4% decrease,
4.0/). compared to the commonly used foam concrete.

Energies 2022, 15, 6286. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176286 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 6286 2 of 14

In order to improve the properties of hydrothermal and insulation liners, a nanos-

tructured additive (in the form of an aerogel) for insulation materials was proposed in [3].
Aerogel reinforced insulation materials were analyzed and the porosity and hydrothermal
properties were evaluated at different ambient temperatures. The results showed that an
increase in the aerogel content of the liner (up to 64%) resulted in a decrease in density, and
thus a favorable thermal conductivity value of λ = 0.0465 W/m·K was obtained at 20 ◦ C.
On the other hand, work [4] explains the effect of hybrid microfibers of polypropylene,
basalt, carbon and glass (at elevated temperature), on the effective thermal conductivity of
cement-based composites. This phenomenon is closely related to changes in both porosity
and moisture content of the insulation material through its thermal dehydration. It has been
shown that in the temperature range 20–400 ◦ C the thermal conductivity varies over a small
range: λ = 1.9–1.5 W/m·K. A newly developed multi-layer reflective insulation system
called “Mirror Panel” [5] was tested. Mirror Panel samples were made from layers of
aluminum foil and coated paper. These layers were separated by air spaces approximately
5 mm thick. The apparent thermal conductivity of the Mirror Panel (in the temperature
range 0–35 ◦ C) was λ = 0.024–0.035 W/m·K.
Advances in manufacturing technology have made it possible to produce ordered
nanostructures as insulation materials for use in construction. This has made it possible to
produce high-quality insulating materials with a λ = 0.01 W/m·K [6]. Insulating materials
with such properties are referred to as super insulators and include so-called empty packing
structures of the nanosphere. This thermal conductivity coefficient is obtained for metal-
organic structures (MOF) [7]. It has been found that the effective thermal conductivity can
be reduced to about 0.01 W/m·K by adjusting the packing style and size of the hollow
packing structures of the nanosphere [6]. Hollow polymer structures (HGM microspheres)
are used for so-called coarse modification of the insulation performance of common build-
ing materials, such as cement-based synthetic foams (CFS) [8]. For the thermal conductivity
of polymer coatings with silica aerogel microspheres (depending on the volume fraction
of microspheres), values between 0.01 and 0.04 W/m·K are obtained [9]. The value of the
thermal conductivity coefficient of HGM materials is significantly affected by the quality
of the microspheres—especially those with a diameter of 10–100 µm. The reduction in
quality is due to damage (cracking) of the microsphere surface. The thermal conductivity
coefficient of insulation coverings, depending on the proportion of damaged (cracked)
samples in the covering, is λ = 0.18–0.22 W/m·K [10]. In [11], the authors proposed actual
guidelines for the design and control of the preparation of composite materials with hollow
polymer microspheres. They determined the relationship between thermal conductivity
and actual density: for a density of 0.25–0.60 g/cm3 at T = 23 ◦ C, the thermal conductivity
coefficient can reach values λ = 0.05–0.09 W/m·K. The obtained thermal conductivity
values of polymeric materials, e.g., foam geopolymers with microspheres, are in the range
of λ = 0.05223–0.0711 W/m·K [12].
Producing lightweight thermal insulation materials with high strength and very low
thermal conductivity is a major challenge and of growing interest worldwide. Interesting
conclusions on the procedures for measuring thermal conductivity are presented in the
paper [13]. The author discussed materials with very low thermal conductivity coefficients
reaching values of λ = 0.001–0.003 W/m·K. Such values of coefficients refer to thermally
insulating thin-layer coatings (coating thickness 1–2 mm) with reflective properties achieved
through ceramic microspheres. The binding material of the coating compounds with
microspheres is a mixture of synthetic rubber and other polymers. The author, quoting
divergent literature data and based on his own research experience, drew attention to
the imperfection of the methodology used to perform measurements of heat conductivity
coefficients in thin (1–2 mm) insulation layers.
In this paper, a method for determining the thermal conductivity λ in a 200-µm-thick
heat reflective layer filled with polymer nanospheres is proposed and presented. When
developing the method for determining the thermal conductivity coefficient, the experience
presented in [13] was taken into account. Measurements were taken in a specially designed
 cially designed cube called a “hot box”, which was made from plasterboard. The method
is recognized and widely used in in situ measurements of thermal properties of parti-
tions of many insulation materials in steady and dynamic conditions—the described
case relates to the steady state. The literature widely describes the measurement meth-
odology
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 related to building materials [14–23] and thin-film insulation materials with re-3 of 14

flective properties [24–27]. The research results obtained by the cited authors justify the
credibility of the method. This allows to successfully use the “hot-box” method to meas-
cube called a “hot box”, which was made from plasterboard. The method is recognized and
ure the temperature distribution on the partition surfaces with a thin-film reflective coat-
widely used in in situ measurements of thermal properties of partitions of many insulation
ing (tested in this paper) as in
materials thesteady
mostandreliable
dynamicexperimental
conditions—the method of testing.
described Thistois the
case relates con-
steady
firmed in [24,25]. Itstate.should be noted,
The literature however,
widely describesthatthethe thermal assessment
measurement methodology of reflective
related to building
insulation is a relatively
materialsrare study
[14–23] and discussed in thematerials
thin-film insulation literaturewith(as indicated
reflective by the
properties au- The
[24–27].
thors in [24,25]). Usually, thin films and mats are tested, while thin-layer coatings (coat- This
research results obtained by the cited authors justify the credibility of the method.
allows to successfully use the “hot-box” method to measure the temperature distribution
ings, paints) have practically not found a permanent, extensive place in the literature on
on the partition surfaces with a thin-film reflective coating (tested in this paper) as the
the subject. The basis mostfor determining
reliable the method
experimental thermal of conductivity
testing. This is coefficient
confirmed inλ[24,25].
were Itmeas-
should be
urements of the temperature
noted, however, distribution on the
that the thermal inner and
assessment outer surfaces
of reflective insulationofis athe cube. rare
relatively
The heat transfer study discussed
coefficient wasin determined
the literature (as indicated
using by the authors
the method of heatin [24,25]). Usually, thin
flow balance
films and mats are tested, while thin-layer coatings (coatings, paints) have practically
through the walls of the cube, in which the Fourier equation was the basis for describing
not found a permanent, extensive place in the literature on the subject. The basis for
the heat transport determining
process under steady-state
the thermal conditions.
conductivity coefficient Then, in order to identify
λ were measurements the
of the temperature
nature of the flow and heat transfer
distribution inside
on the inner and the
outercube—the testcube.
surfaces of the chamber,
The heat the experimental
transfer coefficient was
results were confronted withusing
determined the developed
the method of CFD
heatnumerical
flow balancemodel.
through the walls of the cube, in which
the Fourier equation was the basis for describing the heat transport process under steady-
state conditions. Then, in order to identify the nature of the flow and heat transfer inside
2. Materials and Methods
the cube—the test chamber, the experimental results were confronted with the developed
2.1. Materials Characteristic
CFD numerical model.
Tests to determine the thermal
2. Materials and Methodsconductivity λ were carried out for a white paint
(named “IZOPLUS”) 2.1. with thermal
Materials insulation and heat reflective properties. The paint
Characteristic
was manufactured in the research
Tests laboratory
to determine of the
the thermal Adalio company.
conductivity The manufacturing
λ were carried out for a white paint
technology and composition are patent protected [28]. The emulsion paint is based on
(named “IZOPLUS”) with thermal insulation and heat reflective properties. Theapaint
was manufactured in the research laboratory of the Adalio
selected resin polymer filled with a reflective material in the form of polymer micro- company. The manufacturing
technology and composition are patent protected [28]. The emulsion paint is based on a
spheres with a diameter of 5–60 μm. Microspheres are essentially so-called “traps” with
selected resin polymer filled with a reflective material in the form of polymer microspheres
dimensions in the with
infra-red wavelength
a diameter of 5–60 µm.range (10–100
Microspheres are μm). A ray
essentially of light
so-called entering
“traps” the
with dimensions
microsphere (“trap”) is subjected
in the to multiple
infra-red wavelength reflections
range andAisray
(10–100 µm). then directed
of light towards
entering the
the microsphere
entrance. The idea behind the reflective paint layer is shown in Figure 1. The density of The
(“trap”) is subjected to multiple reflections and is then directed towards the entrance.
idea behind the reflective paint layer is shown in Figure 1. The density of the wet emulsion
the wet emulsion was 0.5–0.60 g/cm 3 , dry 0.3360 g/cm
3
3
3.
was 0.5–0.60 g/cm , dry 0.3360 g/cm .

Figure 1. (a) Photo ofFigure

the white paint;of(b)
1. (a) Photo theReflective
white paint;paint layer, “trap”
(b) Reflective microsphere.
paint layer, “trap” microsphere.

The company’s own research [15] has shown that the thermal conductivity coeffi-
The company’s own research [15] has shown that the thermal conductivity coeffi-
cient of “IZOPLUS” paint, unlike that of other insulating materials (e.g., mineral wool,
cient of “IZOPLUS” paint, unlike
corkboard), does notthat of other
depend insulating
on temperature. Thismaterials (e.g.,
indicates that mineral
the heat wool,mech-
conduction
corkboard), does not depend on temperature. This indicates that the heat conduction
anism of the reflective paint layer is not solely based on thermal conduction phenomena.
mechanism of the This mechanism
reflective paintis layer
furtherischaracterized
not solely by the reflection
based on thermalof heat radiation. In
conduction order to
phe-
determine the value of the total solar reflectance index (TSR), using the Jasco V-670 two-
beam UV/VIS/NIR spectrometer with a 150 mm integrating ball, tests were carried out
for the coating—“IZOPLUS” white paint. Total Solar Reflectance—TSR measurement was
made for solar radiation in the wavelength range from 250 nm to 2500 nm. The material
 order to determine the value of the total solar reflectance index (TSR), using the Jasco V-
670 two-beam UV/VIS/NIR spectrometer with a 150 mm integrating ball, tests were car-
ried out for the coating—“IZOPLUS” white paint. Total Solar Reflectance—TSR meas-
urement was made for solar radiation in the wavelength range from 250 nm to 2500 nm. 4 of 14
Energies 2022, 15, 6286
The material tested (white reflective paint) is characterized by a high solar reflectance of
86.95%, in the radiation range 250–2500 nm [29]. The value of the total solar reflectance
index in an accredited
tested laboratory waspaint)
(white reflective calculated according
is characterized to ASTM
by a high Standardof Test
solar reflectance 86.95%, in
the radiation range
Method for Solar Absorptance, 250–2500 nm
Reflectance and[29]. The value of theoftotal
Transmittance solar reflectance
Materials Using index
Inte- in an
accredited
grating Spheres, based on thelaboratory
radiation was calculated
energy according
values to ASTM Standard
for individual Test Method
wavelengths, for Solar
taken
Absorptance, Reflectance and Transmittance of Materials Using Integrating Spheres, based
from tables containing the spectral distributions of hemispheric solar radiation (direct
on the radiation energy values for individual wavelengths, taken from tables containing
and diffused radiation), found
the spectral in ASTMofG173–03
distributions hemispheric Standard Tables(direct
solar radiation for Reference
and diffusedSolar
radiation),
Spectral Irradiances:found
Direct Normal
in ASTM and Hemispherical
G173–03 Standard Tables foronReference
370 TiltedSolarSurface.
Spectral The resultsDirect
Irradiances:
of measurements ofNormal and Hemispherical
the total on 370TSR
solar reflectance Tilted Surface.
for The results
the coating withof measurements
the “IZOPLUS” of the total
solar reflectance TSR for the coating with the “IZOPLUS” white heat reflective paint are
white heat reflective paint are shown in Figure 2.
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. DependenceFigure
of solar
2. reflectance
Dependence TSR forreflectance
of solar white heat reflective
TSR for whitepaint as a function
heat reflective paint of
as wave-
a function of
wavelength (in the
length (in the range 250–2500 nm) [29]. range 250–2500 nm) [29].

The exceptional properties of microspheres, in terms of reflecting infra-red (thermal)

The exceptional properties
radiation, resultof microspheres,
from in terms
their size in relation to theof reflecting
length infra-red
of a wave (ther-
of infra-red radiation.
mal) radiation, result
Thefrom their size
wavelength in radiation
of this relationistointhe
the length of a wave
range 10–100 µm. of infra-red radia-
tion. The wavelength of this radiation is in the range 10–100 μm.
2.2. Experimental Section
An experimental study was carried out to identify the thermal conductivity λ for
2.2. Experimental Section
paints with thermally insulating and heat reflective properties, using the “IZOPLUS” paint
An experimentalas an example.
study wasThe thermal
carried outconductivity
to identify coefficient λ1 for the
the thermal test paint with
conductivity λ reflective
for
properties was determined under laboratory conditions, using a specially constructed test
paints with thermally insulating and heat reflective properties, using the “IZOPLUS”
stand called “hot box”, shown in Figure 3.
paint as an example. The The thermal
test rig wasconductivity
constructed as acoefficient λ1 for
closed cube (0.75 thelength)
m side test paint
of 12.5 with re- m)
mm (0.00125
flective properties was determinedHence
thick plasterboard. under laboratoryof conditions,
the dimensions using
the cube were 0.75 a specially
× 0.75 × 0.75 m. Thecon-
gypsum
structed test stand called “hotwere
boards used box”, shown
weighed. inmass
The Figure 3. was the same at 4.4 kg. The base of the cube and
of each
the top
The test rig was wall parallel as
constructed to the
a base werecube
closed additionally
(0.75 insulated
m side with a 0.3mof
length) layer of polystyrene
12.5 mm
with thermal conductivity coefficient λ = 0.036 W/(m·K). All walls were coated internally
(0.00125 m) thick plasterboard. Hence the dimensions of the cube were 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.75
with the test “IZOPLUS” white heat reflective paint. The thickness of the paint layer was
m. The gypsum boards 240 µm.used werebox”
The “hot weighed.
measuringThe
cubemass of each
was placed on awas themeasuring
levelled same at table.
4.4 kg.The heat
The base of the cube andwas
source theantop walllight
infra-red parallel to thewas
bulb, which base were
placed additionally
exactly insulated
at the geometric center of the
with a 0.3m layercube. It was connectedwith
of polystyrene to an AC supply,conductivity
thermal with an ammetercoefficient
and resistor connected
λ = 0.036 in series.
The ammeter and resistor allowed to determine the power of the bulb at 100 W. During the
W/(m∙K). All walls were coated internally with the test “IZOPLUS” white heat reflective
experiment, the measuring walls were the four side walls that were not insulated. On both sides
paint. The thicknessofofthethe paint walls
measuring layer(inside
was the
240cube
μm. andThe “hottemperature
outside) box” measuring
sensors ofcube
PT-100was
type were
placed on a levelledplaced.
measuring table. The heat source was an infra-red light bulb, which
Sensors indicated the magnitude of the temperatures on the wall surfaces. An additional
was placed exactly thermometer
at the geometric
measuring center of thetemperature
the ambient cube. It was connected
was installed tothe
outside an“hot
ACbox”.
sup-
ply, with an ammeter and resistor connected in series. The ammeter and resistor allowed
to determine the power of the bulb at 100 W. During the experiment, the measuring
 walls (inside the cube and outside) temperature sensors of PT-100 type were place
Sensors indicated the magnitude of the temperatures on the wall surfaces. An addition
thermometer measuring the ambient temperature was installed outside the “hot box”.
A schematic of the test chamber along with the location of the heat source and t
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 5 of 14
placement of the sensors is shown in Figure 3.

(a) Photo of the “hot-box”; (b) Test stand—“hot box” measuring cube: 1—measuring walls,
FigureFigure
3. (a)3. Photo of the “hot-box”; (b) Test stand—“hot box” measuring cube: 1—measuri
2—insulation of the upper wall, 3—position of the temperature measuring points on the side walls,
walls, 2—insulation of the upper wall, 3—position of the temperature measuring points on t
4—insulation of the lower wall, 5—heat source (radiation), 6—heat source power control system.
side walls, 4—insulation of the lower wall, 5—heat source (radiation), 6—heat source power co
trol system.
A schematic of the test chamber along with the location of the heat source and the
placement of the sensors is shown in Figure 3.
Temperature
Temperature measurements were
measurements weremade
made 4 days afterafter
4 days switching on the heat
switching source,
on the heat sour
i.e., only after obtaining stable values of temperature distribution on the inner and outer
i.e., only after obtaining stable values of temperature distribution on the inner and ou
surface of the wall (partition consisting of two layers—gypsum board and covering its
surfaceinnerof surface
the wallwith(partition consisting
white heat reflective of The
paint). twostability
layers—gypsum board
of the temperature and covering
distribution
innerwassurface
checked using a thermal imaging camera FLIR T620. A total of 10 measurement trials distrib
with white heat reflective paint). The stability of the temperature
tion was
werechecked
performed using
at an aambient
thermal imaging of
temperature 19.3 ◦ C.
camera FLIR T620. Aroom
The ambient totaltemperature
of 10 measureme
was maintained at the same level for each measurement. With
trials were performed at an ambient temperature of 19.3 °C. The ambient room a stable distribution of the temper
temperature field on the inner and outer surfaces, all the heat passing through the side
ture was maintained at the same level for each measurement. With a stable distributi
partitions (side walls of the cube) to the outside was equal to the heat output of the heat
of thesource
temperature
of 100 W. field on the inner and outer surfaces, all the heat passing through t
side partitions (side walls
The obtained of thecourses
temperature cube)allowed
to the the
outside wasofequal
estimation to the heat
heat movement output of t
through
the tested
heat source ofwall
100partition
W. made of plasterboard covered with heat reflective paint, for which
the thermal conductivity coefficient λ1 (W/m·K) was to be determined.
The obtained temperature courses allowed the estimation of heat moveme
through the testedforwall
2.3. Methodology partition
Determining madeConductivity
the Thermal of plasterboard covered with heat reflecti
paint, forIn
which the
order to thermal
determine theconductivity coefficient
thermal conductivity λ1 (W/m∙K)
coefficient of the heat was to be
reflective determined
material
tested, an analytical procedure was used in which the Fourier heat transfer equation was
2.3. the starting point.
Methodology The equivalent
for Determining heat transfer
the Thermal coefficient for the tested paint λ1 was
Conductivity
calculated using the model presented below (Figure 4), according to relations (1)–(6).
In order to determine the thermal conductivity coefficient of the heat reflective m
terial tested, an analytical procedure was used in which the Fourier heat transfer equ
tion was the starting point. The equivalent heat transfer coefficient for the tested paint
was calculated using the model presented below (Figure 4), according to relations (1
(6).
Energies 2022,
Energies 15,15,
2022, 6286
x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14 6 of 14

Figure 4. Temperature distribution in a two-layer measuring partition. Designations: δ1—thickness

Figure 4. Temperature distribution in a two-layer measuring partition. Designations: δ1 —thickness
of heat reflective covering layer, λ1—heat conductivity coefficient of heat reflective covering layer,
of heat
δ2—thickness reflective covering layer,
of plasterboard λ1 —heat
wall partition, conductivity
λ2—heat coefficient
conductivity of heat
coefficient reflective covering
of plasterboard wall layer,
—thickness
δconstruction
2 of plasterboard wall partition, —heat conductivity coefficient of plasterboard
layer, T1—temperature inside the “hot2 box”, T5—temperature outside the “hot box”,
λ wall
T , T , T —temperature at the junction of layers.
construction layer, T1 —temperature inside the “hot box”, T5 —temperature outside the “hot box”, T2 ,
2 3 4

T3 , T4 —temperature at the junction of layers.

The transport process of heat transfer through the partition is fixed, so the follow-
ing relationships
The transport occur:
process of heat transfer through the partition is fixed, so the following
relationships occur: 𝜆1 𝜆2
𝑞̇ = 𝛼1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) = (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 𝛼2 (𝑇4 − 𝑇5 ), (1)
.
𝛿1 λ 𝛿2 λ
2
q = α1 ( T1 − T2 ) = 1 ( T2 − T3 ) = ( T3 − T4 ) = α2 ( T4 − T5 ), (1)
the heat flux density is: δ1 δ2

the heat flux density is: 𝑄̇

𝑞̇ = ,. (2)
. 𝐹 Q
q= , (2)
thus: F
thus: 𝜆1 𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿. 1
(𝑇
λ − 𝑇3 ) = 𝑞̇ →. 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 − q·δ, (3)
𝛿1 21 ( T2 − T3 ) = q → T3 = T2 −𝜆1 1 , (3)
δ1 λ1
and:
and: .
𝜆2 λ 2 . 𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿q·δ2
(𝑇 ( T − T4 )𝑞̇=→q 𝑇→
3 − 3𝑇4 ) =
T = 2 ++
3 =3 𝑇 T, 4 , (4) (4)
𝛿2 δ2 𝜆2 λ 2 4
Fromrelations
From relations(3)(3)and
and(4)(4)
thethe condition
condition (5) (5) of equality
of equality T3 on Tthe
of temperature
of temperature 3 on the contact
con-
surface of the heat reflective covering and the plasterboard was obtained
tact surface of the heat reflective covering and the plasterboard was obtained equal: equal:
𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿1. δ 𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿q. ·2δ
𝑇2 −T2 − q·= 1 +
2 𝑇 , (5)
𝜆1 λ1 =𝜆2 λ2 +4T4 , (5)

After transforming relation (5) in an analytical manner, the heat transfer coefficient
After transforming relation (5) in an analytical manner, the heat transfer coefficient λ1
𝜆1 for the inner layer of the heat reflective coating of the tested material was determined
for the inner layer of the heat reflective coating of the tested material was determined in an
in an analytical manner and is equal to (6):
analytical manner and is equal to (6):
𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿1 𝑞̇ ∙ 𝛿1 ∙ 𝜆2
𝜆1 = . = . ,
q𝑞̇·δ∙1𝛿2 𝜆=2 (𝑇2 − 𝑇q4·δ)1−
·λ𝑞̇2 ∙ 𝛿2 (6)
λ(𝑇=
1 2 − 𝑇 4 − . ) . , (6)
T − T 𝜆−
 
2 q·δ2 λ2 ( T2 − T4 ) − q·δ2
2 4 λ2
where
𝑄 ̇ —heat flux generated inside the measuring system (cube) (W),
where
.
𝑞̇Q—heat
—heat flux
fluxdensity (W/minside
generated 2),
the measuring system (cube) (W),
.
𝐹—
q—heat heat exchange surface
flux density (W/marea2 ),
(m2),
F—heat exchange surface area (m2 ),
T2 , T3 , T4 —temperature distribution on heat transfer surfaces (K),
T1 —temperature inside the measuring box (K),
T5 —temperature outside the measuring box (ambient temperature) (K),
δ1 —thickness of plasterboard partition (m),
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 7 of 14

δ2 —thickness of heat reflective covering layer (m),

λ1 —thermal conductivity coefficient of heat reflective covering layer(W/m·K),
λ2 —thermal conductivity coefficient of gypsum board (W/m·K).
The necessary data for the calculation of the thermal conductivity coefficient λ1 for
the tested heat reflective covering, i.e., the temperature distributions T2 , T4 , were obtained
based on measurements carried out with temperature sensors PT-100. The thickness of
the heat reflective paint coating was calculated from the volume of paint used to paint the
inner surface of the walls of the measuring cube. The thickness of the plasterboard was
measured with a caliper.
Table 1 shows the data used to calculate the equivalent thermal conductivity λ1
(W/m·K) of the tested material.

Table 1. Data for the calculation of the equivalent thermal conductivity λ1 of the heat reflective
material tested.

Item Parameter Value

.
Heat flux generated inside the measuring system Q [W] 100
Total heat transfer surface area F [m2 ] 2.25
.
Heat flux density q [W/m2 ] 44.44
Thickness of heat reflective coating δ1 [m] 0.00024
Plasterboard wall thickness δ2 [m] 0.0125
Thermal conductivity coefficient of a plasterboard wall λ2 [W/m·K] 0.23

2.4. Numerical Model

A numerical model of a “hot box” test rig including steady-state flow and heat transfer was
developed according to Figure 5. The numerical grid (Figure 5) was built of 540.000 polyhedral
cells. In the central part of the air-filled chamber, a model of a light bulb was placed, the upper
part of which constituted the heat source (heat flux) corresponding to the power of a 100 W bulb.
The convective motion of the air inside the “hot box” was modelled using classical equations
with the implementation of the Realizable k-ε turbulence model enables the Reynolds turbulent
equations to be closed. The Energy equation [30] and the DO radiation model [30] were used
for heat-transfer modelling. The bulb was a source of heat. Based on the bulb’s data, the heat
flux = 13,116 W/m2 condition was defined. No heat flow was assumed on the upper and
lower walls of the cube—heat flux = 0 W/m2. The side walls were modelled by means of a
shell conduction condition [30], i.e., two layers corresponding to a physical layer of gypsum
[Thickness δ2 = 0.01 m, Thermal conductivity λ2 = 0.23 W/(m·K)] and an insulation coating
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER
[Density kg/m3, Specific Heat Cp = 1300 J/(kg·K), Thickness δ1 = 0.0002 m, Thermal
REVIEW
ς = 300 8 of 14

conductivity λ1 = 0.00079 W/(m·K)].

Figure 5. Numerical model

Figure of test bench.
5. Numerical model of test bench.

3. Result and Discussion

The determination of the thermal conductivity coefficient of the tested heat reflec-
tive layer, 240 μm thick, was based on the measurement of temperatures on the internal
and external surface of a wall partition made of plasterboard covered with heat reflec-
tive paint. The measurement results are shown in Figure 6.
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 8 of 14
Figure 5. Numerical model of test bench.

3. Result and Discussion

3. Result and Discussion
The determination of the thermal conductivity coefficient of the tested heat reflec-
The determination of the thermal conductivity coefficient of the tested heat reflective
tive layer, 240 μm thick, was based on the measurement of temperatures on the internal
layer, 240 µm thick, was based on the measurement of temperatures on the internal and
and external
external surface
surface of apartition
of a wall wall partition
made ofmade of plasterboard
plasterboard covered covered
with heatwith heat reflec-
reflective paint.
tive paint. The measurement results are shown
The measurement results are shown in Figure 6. in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Measurement with a thermal camera of the temperature distribution on the outer walls of
the measuring cube: (a)—side wall 1; (b)—side wall 2; (c)—side wall 3; (d)—side wall 4.

Figure 7 shows the temperature profile on the side walls of the measuring cube on the
inner plane covered with a heat reflective layer and on the outer plane not covered with a
heat reflective layer. The mean square error (standard deviation) was calculated, expressed
by the deviation of the measured values from the mean value. The mean square error for
the temperature T2 is 0.1917, and for the temperature T4 it is 0.1487.
The values shown in Figure 7 refer to the averages of the measurements at the inner
wall plane and the averages of the temperature distribution at the lateral planes of the
outer walls. The temperature waveforms clearly show a stable distribution of the measured
temperatures on the inner side walls. The resulting average temperature difference between
the environment and the interior of the measuring cube was 13.12 ◦ C. The above measured
data, taking into account the average values of temperatures T2 and T4 and the data from
Table 1, were substituted into Formula (6), according to which the thermal conductivity
coefficient of the heat reflective coating layer was calculated. This factor is:

44.44·0.0002·0.23
λ1 = = 0.00079431 W/m·K.
0.23·(37.55 − 24.43) − 44.44·0.01
 Figure 7 shows the temperature profile on the side walls of the measuring cube o
the inner plane covered with a heat reflective layer and on the outer plane not covere
with a heat reflective layer. The mean square error (standard deviation) was calculate
Energies 2022, 15, 6286
expressed by the deviation of the measured values from the mean value. The me
9 of 14
square error for the temperature T2 is 0.1917, and for the temperature T4 it is 0.1487.

FigureFigure 7. Temperature
7. Temperature measurementTT
measurement 2 2and [◦ C] on
and TT44[°C] on the
the side
sidewalls
wallsofof
thethe
measuring
measuring cube.cube. De
Designations: (green) external surface temperature T ; (red) inner surface
ignations: (green) external surface temperature T4;4(red) inner surface temperature temperature T 2 ; (black)
T2; (black) am
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW ambient temperature
bient temperature Te. Te . 10 of 14

The results obtained with the numerical model are shown in Figures 8–11.
The values shown in Figure 7 refer to the averages of the measurements at the inn
wall plane and the averages of the temperature distribution at the lateral planes of t
outer walls. The temperature waveforms clearly show a stable distribution of the mea
ured temperatures on the inner side walls. The resulting average temperature differen
between the environment and the interior of the measuring cube was 13.12 °C. T
above measured data, taking into account the average values of temperatures T2 and
and the data from Table 1, were substituted into Formula (6), according to which t
thermal conductivity coefficient of the heat reflective coating layer was calculated. Th
factor is:
44.44∙0.0002∙0.23
°
𝜆1 = = 0.00079431 W/m∙K.
0.23∙(37.55−24.43)−44.44∙0.01
°

The results obtained with the numerical model are shown in Figures 8–11.
Figure 8. Temperature
Figure 8. Temperaturedistribution onthe
distribution on theouter
outersurface
surface
of of
thethe
sideside walls,
walls, [◦ C].[°C].
The temperature distribution on the outer surface of the side walls (Figure 8)
coincides with analogous temperature distributions obtained with a thermal imaging
camera (Figure 6). The mean values of the temperatures on the outside of the walls
were also compared (Table 2). In the upper part of the walls, characteristic (“oval”)
zones of increased temperature are visible (Figures 9 and 10), which corresponds to the
temperature distribution inside the “hot-box”. The warm air movement is central over
the bulb towards the top wall. Then, the air is directed downwards along the walls
(Figure 11). Considering the trajectory of the air particles inside the “hot-box” cube, as
well as the low velocities below 0.05 m/s (Figure 11), it can be successfully assumed that
convection is not the dominant mechanism—it does not play a significant role in the
 ° °
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 10 of 14
° °

Figure 8. Temperature distribution on the outer surface of the side walls, [°C].
heat transfer
Figure process insidedistribution
8. Temperature the cube. Theon
recalculated
the outer measurement results
surface of the are given
side walls, [°C].
in Table 2.

°
°

Figure 9. Temperature distribution on the outer surface of the side walls, °C

Figure
Figure 9. Temperature
9. Temperature distribution
distribution on the outeron the outer
surface of the side walls, ◦of
surface the sidesurface—
C (marked walls, °C (m
isotherm
isotherm of
◦ 55
of 55ofC). °C).
isotherm 55 °C).

°
°

Figure 10. Temperature distribution in the plane of symmetry x = 0.375 m, m,

Figure 10. Temperature distribution °C °C
(m
Figure 10. Temperature distribution in the plane ofin the plane
symmetry of symmetry
x = 0.375 x surface—
m, ◦ C (marked = 0.375
isotherm
isotherm of of
55 55
◦ C).
isotherm of 55 °C). °C).
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 11 of 14

Figure
Figure 11.11.
Air Air particle
particle tracks,tracks,
[m/s]. [m/s].

Summary
Table 2.The of temperature
temperature measurement results
distribution on theon the inner and
outer outer walls
surface of the
of the “hot walls
side box”
(Fig
measuring cube.
cides with analogous temperature distributions obtained with a thermal imag
(Figure 6). The mean values of the temperatures [◦ C]
on the outside
“Hot Box” Wall Temperature of the wall
Side Walls of the Measuring Cube
compared (Table 2). In the upper part ofTthe
Inner 2 Outer T4
walls, characteristic (“oval”) z
Area 1 37.9 24.6
creased temperature are visible (Figures 9 and 10), which corresponds to th
ture distributionArea 2inside the “hot-box”. 37.4
The warm air movement 24.1 is central ov
Area 3 37.3 24.6
towards the top wall. Then, the air is directed downwards along the walls
Considering Area the 4trajectory of the air particles
37.6 24.4
inside the “hot-box” cube, as
Average temperature values 37.55 24.43
low velocities below 0.05 m/s (Figure 11), it can be successfully assumed that
isNumerical
not theverification
dominant of mean values
mechanism—it 36.59not play a significant
does 24.44 role in the h

process inside the cube. The recalculated measurement results are given in Ta
The measured temperature on the surface of the side wall of the “hot box” measuring
station on the inside was 37.3–37.9 ◦ C (average 37.55 ◦ C), while on the outside 24.1–25.1 ◦ C.
Table 2. Summary of temperature measurement results on the inner and outer wall
The numerical verification resulted in an average temperature of 36.59 ◦ C on the inner wall
box”
and measuring
24.44 ◦ C on the cube.
outer wall.
The tested material, with its very good thermal conductivity λ = 0.0007941 W/m·K
and high solar reflectance TSR = 86.95%, can be successfully used “Hot Box” Wall
in construction. It canTempera
be
Side Walls of the Measuring Cube
used as insulation material in historic buildings under preservationist protection,
Inner 𝑻𝟐 where Out
traditional methods of insulating the building envelope from the outside using insulating
Area
materials are not applicable. In this1case, the use of thermal insulation coatings
37.9 (paints) will 24
improve its insulation performance as well as the technical condition of the façade.
Area 2 37.4 24
Another application is the combination of the tested material with standard insulation
(polystyrene foam or mineralArea 3 which will allow the use of a smaller
wool), 37.3 thickness of 24
traditional insulation which will make it possible to meet the requirements of WT2021 and
Area 4 37.6
even achieve lower values of heat transfer coefficients than those currently required [31].
24
Average temperature values 37.55 24
Numerical verification of mean values 36.59 24
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 12 of 14

This is very important in low and nearly zero energy buildings where insulation require-
ments are very high. A layer of test material with a thickness of 240 µm (0.00024 m) and
λ = 0.0007941 W/m·K corresponds to a thickness of 1 cm of insulating material, e.g.,
polystyrene or mineral wool, with a heat conductivity coefficient of λ = 0.04 W/m·K.
Table 3 presents a comparison of selected thicknesses of the tested material and
the thickness of its equivalent, assuming that the thermal conductivity coefficient of the
traditional insulation material is λ = 0.04 W/m·K.

Table 3. Comparison of the tested thin-film material thickness and the corresponding thickness of
traditional insulation material (polystyrene or wool with λ = 0.04 W/m·K).

Tested Material Traditional Insulation Material

λ = 0.0007941 W/m·K λ = 0.04 W/m·K
thickness [m] thickness [m]
0.0002 0.010
0.0003 0.015
0.0004 0.020
0.0005 0.025
0.0006 0.030
0.0007 0.035
0.0008 0.040
0.0009 0.045
0.0010 0.050
0.004 0.200

Table 3 shows that a mere 0.004 m of the test material can replace 20 cm of a traditional
material, such as polystyrene or mineral wool with λ = 0.04 W/m·K.
The material can also be used to paint surfaces that heat up very quickly and used
as an insulator, e.g., to paint roofs, to insulate overheated attics in summer and as an
additional insulating layer in winter.
According to the authors, the development of a research methodology for determining
the thermal conductivity coefficient of thin-film materials, characterized by high heat
reflectivity, is very important from the point of view of development and implementation
of innovative insulation materials by companies involved in their production. Since the
thermal conductivity coefficient value of insulating materials is an indicator of their quality,
as shown in Table 3.

4. Conclusions
The measurement and analytical method proposed and presented for determining
the heat conductivity coefficient of thin-layer materials (characterized by high thermal
reflectivity) allowed to determine this coefficient for the layer (240 µm thick) of the white
paint tested—in the form of an emulsion produced on the basis of a resin polymer filled
with a polymer microsphere. The Total Solar Reflectance TSR value of paint is 86.95%.
Based on the measurements, the thermal conductivity coefficient of the heat reflective
coating layer—white paint—was λ = 0.00079431 W/m·K.
The temperature distribution results obtained from the measurements showed good
agreement with the temperature distribution results obtained from the numerical calcu-
lations. The average temperature measured on the inner wall was 37.55 ◦ C, the average
temperature calculated numerically was 36.59 ◦ C. The temperature value on the outer
walls according to the numerical algorithm was 24.44 ◦ C, while the actual measurement
indicated a temperature value of 24.43 ◦ C.
Energies 2022, 15, 6286 13 of 14

On the basis of the analysis carried out, it can be concluded that the proposed test
stand (“hot box” type) together with the presented measurement and analytical method
can be successfully used to determine the thermal conductivity coefficient of thin-layer
coatings characterized by high heat reflectivity.

Author Contributions: D.K.: conceptualization, formal analysis, writing—review and editing; P.M.:
methodology, software J.P.-W.: investigation, visualization, writing—review and editing; M.P.: con-
ceptualization S.P.: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, writing—review
and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research was carried out as part of the work No. WZ/WBiIS/4/2020 at the Bialystok
University of Technology and financed from a research subsidy provided by the Minister of Education
and Science of the Republic of Poland.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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