Non-Traditional Machining

MODULE-2
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM),
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

SYLLABUS
Ultrasonic Machining (USM): Introduction, Equipment and material process, Effect of process
parameters: Effect of amplitude and frequency, Effect of abrasive grain diameter, effect of slurry,
tool & work material. Process characteristics: Material removal rate, tool wear, accuracy, surface
finish, applications, advantages & limitations of USM.
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM): Introduction, Equipment and process of material removal,
process variables: carrier gas, type of abrasive, work material, stand-off distance (SOD), Process
characteristics-Material removal rate, Nozzle wear, accuracy & surface finish. Applications,
advantages & limitations of AJM.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

2.1 Introduction to USM

USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes or cavities
on hard or brittle work piece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion and an abrasive
slurry. USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single
crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics and increasing complex operations to provide intricate
shapes and workpiece profiles. Itis therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials
that are difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing processes. Ultrasonic Machining is a non-
traditional process, in which abrasives contained in a slurry are driven against the work by a tool
oscillating at low amplitude (25-100 μm) and high frequency (15-30 KHz): The process was first
developed in 1950s and was originally used for finishing EDM surfaces. The basic process is that a
ductile and tough tool is pushed against the work with a constant force. A constant stream of abrasive
slurry passes between the tool and the work (gap is 25-40 μm) to provide abrasives and carry away
chips. The majority of the cutting action comes from an ultrasonic (cyclic) force applied. The basic
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components to the cutting action are believed to be,

 Brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive grains due to the tool vibration

 Cavitation induced erosion

 Chemical erosion caused by slurry

 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the brittle
work material.

 Other than this brittle failure of the work material due to indentation some material removal may
occur due to free flowing impact of the abrasives against the work material and related solid-solid
impact erosion

 Tool’s vibration – indentation by the abrasive grits.

 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the contact
site, then as indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in stress and
ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site between
the abrasive grits and the workpiece. The tool material should be such that indentation by the
abrasive grits does not lead to brittle failure.

 Thus, the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel and other
ductile metallic alloys.

2.2 Equipment and material process

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The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press. However, it has additional
features to carry out USM of brittle work material. The workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can
be located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further be lowered
or raised to accommodate work of different thickness.

The typical elements of an USM are:

 Slurry delivery and return system

 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining

 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration

 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required amplitude
of 15–50 μm and accommodates the tool at its tip.

Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer for USM works on the following principle

 Piezoelectric effect

 Magnetostrictive effect

 Electrostrictive effect
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Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and robust amongst all. Figure shows atypical
magnetostrictive transducer along with horn. The horn or concentrator is a waveguide, which
amplifies and concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer. The horn or concentrator can
be of different shape like
• Tapered or conical

• Exponential

• Stepped

Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one.
Figure shows different horns used in USM

2.3 Process Characteristics

1. Material removal rate
There are four main parameters on which the material removal rate of an Ultrasonic machine depends
on:
(a) Workpiece: Workpiece material properties like fracture toughness and hardness play a crucial
role in determining the material removal rate in ultrasonic machining. As the hardness of the
work material increases, the material removal rate decreases. Additionally, materials with
higher fracture toughness tend to take longer for machining, while brittle and hard materials
demonstrate better machining efficiency. Work materials with higher hardness and toughness
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result in more tool wear compared to softer and brittle materials, which lead to lesser tool
wear.

(b) Tool: The material removal rate increases with the hardness of the tool material. Different
tool materials exhibit varying levels of performance, with high carbon steel tools achieving
higher material removal rates due to their hardness compared to other tools like diamond tips.
Additionally, the shape factor and form of the tool play a crucial role in determining the
material removal rate. Tools with specific geometries, such as rectangular cross-sections or
hollow tools, have been found to yield better material removal rates than others with different
shapes. The design of the tool, including factors like tool form and geometry, impacts the
resistance to slurry circulation and ultimately affects the material removal rate in ultrasonic
machining
(c) Slurry: The material removal rate increases with an increase in slurry concentration. As the
concentration of the slurry rises, the material removal rate also increases, leading to a rougher
surface finish. This phenomenon is attributed to the clogging of abrasive particles in the slurry,
which results in a rougher surface texture. Therefore, higher slurry concentrations tend to
produce rougher surfaces due to the increased material removal rate.
(d) Machine related factors: The material removal rate in ultrasonic machining is influenced by
various machine-related factors such as the amplitude and frequency of vibrations, grain
diameter, and static load. Proper adjustment of parameters like vibration amplitude,
frequency, and static load can significantly impact the material removal rate, surface finish,
tool wear, and accuracy of the machining process.
2. Tool wear
The tool wear characteristics in ultrasonic machining (USM) are crucial factors that significantly
impact the material removal process and overall machining performance.
(a) Tool Material Flexibility: Tool materials with high flexibility have been observed to slow
down the wear of abrasives, leading to improved machining efficiency.
(b) Machining Time: Tool wear in ultrasonic drilling shows a linear increase with the number of
holes drilled, indicating that longitudinal tool wear rises with an increase in machining time
under similar conditions.
(c) Effect of Static Load and Depth: Tool wear is reported to be maximum at specific static
loads, and an increase in the depth of the hole drilled results in observable tool wear,
subsequently leading to a decrease in the material removal rate.
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(d) Proportional Relationship with Machining Time: Tool wear has been found to be directly
proportional to the machining time, with wear also being proportional to the previous wear
ofthe tool.

(e) Influence of Abrasive Grain Hardness: Tool wear increases with the hardness of abrasive
grains, and an increase in tool wear is observed with higher hardness and toughness of the
workpiece material.
(f) Tool Material Properties: Tool materials with higher hardness, fracture toughness, and
abrasion resistance exhibit lower tool wear rates, highlighting the importance of selecting
appropriate tool materials for efficient machining processes.
3. Accuracy
The accuracy characteristics in Ultrasonic Machining (USM) are crucial for achieving precise and high-
quality machined components. Several factors influence the accuracy of USM processes are:
(a) Dimensional Accuracy: The dimensional accuracy in USM refers to the closeness of the
measured dimension to the actual dimension of the machined part. Factors affecting
dimensional accuracy include the precision of the machine tool, accuracy of fixtures, quality
of assembly parts, abrasive grit size, tool wear, transverse vibration effects, and depth of cut.
The aspect ratio, which is the diameter/length ratio, influences lateral vibrations and can
impact dimensional accuracy by causing oversize in machined parts.
(b) Form Accuracy: Form accuracy in USM pertains to the conformity of the machined part's
shape to the intended design. Factors affecting form accuracy include the precision of the
machine tool, accuracy of fixtures, abrasive grit size, quality of assembly parts, tool wear,
transverse vibration effects, and the aspect ratio of the machined part.
(c) Hole Overcut Size (HOS): Hole overcut size is a critical parameter affecting accuracy in
USM. It refers to the difference between the hole diameter at the entrance and the actual tool
diameter before drilling. HOS is influenced by factors such as the diameter of the abrasive
particle, grit size, and the mechanical behavior of the workpiece material. The grit size of the
abrasive material plays a significant role in controlling the accuracy of holes in USM.
(d) Out-of-Roundness: Out-of-roundness is a measure of deviation from a perfect circular shape
in machined holes. Materials with higher hardness to modulus of elasticity ratios tend to
exhibit more out-of-roundness. The rotary mode of USM has been reported to offer better
performance in reducing out-of-roundness compared to conventional USM.
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(e) Conicity: Conicity refers to the tapering effect in machined holes, where the oversize at the
entry of the hole is greater than at the exit, leading to unavoidable conicity due to tool wear.
Conicity can be reduced by using specific tool materials like tungsten carbide and
stainlesssteel, employing internal slurry delivery systems, utilizing tools with negative tapering
walls,or using fine abrasives.
(f) Surface Finish: Surface finish is a critical aspect of accuracy in USM, defined by
characteristics like lay, surface roughness, and waviness. Abrasive grain size plays a
significant role in determining surface finish, with smaller grain sizes resulting in smoother
surfaces. The surface roughness decreases as the mesh number of the grain size increases,
indicating an improvement in surface finish with finer abrasive particles.
4. Surface finish
(a) Abrasive Grain Size: The surface finish of the workpiece in ultrasonic machining is
significantly governed by the abrasive grain size. Research findings indicate that surface
roughness decreases, leading to improved surface finish, with a decrease in abrasive grain
size. Finer abrasive grains result in smoother surfaces by chipping off smaller material chunks,
enhancing the overall surface finish.
(b) Rotary vs. Conventional Ultrasonic Machining: Experiments have shown that under the
same conditions, the material removal rate in conventional ultrasonic machining is greater
than in rotary ultrasonic machining. Consequently, the surface roughness of the machined
surface in conventional ultrasonic machining is greater than in rotary ultrasonic machining.
Rotary ultrasonic machining has been found to offer superior surface finish compared to
conventional ultrasonic machining, attributed to the creation of additional stresses in the rotary
mode.
(c) Effect of Material Properties: Materials with high material removal rates tend to exhibit high
values of surface roughness. The relationship between the volume of material removed,
fracture toughness, hardness, and static load applied influences the surface finish. Materials
with low values of the denominator in the relationship tend to have higher volumes of material
removed, impacting the surface finish accordingly. Ultrasonic machining produces smooth
surfaces in harder materials and materials with high fracture toughness, resulting in low
surface roughness and a smooth surface finish.
(d) Tool Material and Finish: The finish of the tool used in ultrasonic machining significantly
impacts the surface finish of the workpiece. Any irregularities on the tool surface are
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reproduced on the workpiece, emphasizing the importance of a tool with better surface finish
than required on the workpiece. Additionally, the hardness of the tool material plays a crucial
role in determining the surface roughness, with high hardness tool materials producing
worksurfaces with less surface roughness.

2.4 Applications of USM

 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass,ceramics, carbides etc.

 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.

 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

 Drilling and machining cavities or holes in conductive and non-conductive materials like glass,
ceramics etc.

 Used to machine hard materials like tool steel, tungsten and hard carbides.

 Threading of various glass and ceramic materials.

 Used for making tools and dies.

 Soft materials like non-ferrous metals and alloys and brittle materials can be machined.

 Removing flash and parting lines from injection moulded parts.

 Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and Teflon components.

 To produce high quality surface.

 Hard materials and precious stones such as synthetic ruby for the preparation of jewels for watch and
timer movements are successfully machined by this method.

2.5 Advantages of USM

 Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity.

 Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials.

 Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural integrity. USM does
not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.

 No burrs and no distortion of workpiece.

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 Hard and brittle metals can be machined.

 Stresses are minimum.

 Thin sheets can be machined.

 Investment cost is low.

 Power consumption is low.

2.6 Limitations of USM

 USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than traditional
fabrication processes.

 Tool wears fast in USM.

 Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

 Depth of holes and cavities produced are small. Usually the depth of hole is limited to 2.5 times
the diameter of the tool. There is a tendency for holes to break out at the bottom owing to high
amplitude of vibrations of the tool.

 Not suitable for soft workpiece material.

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ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

2.7 Introduction to AJM

Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet contains
abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminum oxide in order to increase the material removal
rate above that of water jet machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials
such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as foam and rubbers can be cut
by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting stream and computer controlled movement enables
this process to produce parts accurately and efficiently. This machining process is especially ideal for
cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or thermal cut. Metallic, nonmetallic and advanced
composite materials of various thicknesses can be cut by this process. This process is particularly
suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot be machined by processes that produce heat while
machining.

2.8 Equipment and process of material removal

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at a
high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream
of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy
and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work
material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can
be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting action as
well as brittle of the work material. In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed
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air at a pressure of Around 5 bars is used as the carrier gas. Figure also shows the other major parts
of the AJM system. Gases like CO can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be issued from
a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a
pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. To remove any oil vapour or particulate
contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a closed
chamber known as the mixing chamber. The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper
through a metallic sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass
flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the
sieve and its frequency. The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining
chamber via an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to contain the
abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner. The machining is carried out as
high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the nozzle onto a work piece traversing
under the jet.

Abrasive jet machining consists of :

1. Gas propulsion system:

 Supplies clean and dry air.
 Air, nitrogen and carbon dioxide to propel the abrasive particles.

 Gas may be supplied either from a compressor or a cylinder.

 In case of a compressor, air filter cum drier should be used to avoid water or oil
contamination of abrasive powder.
 Gas should be non-toxic, cheap, easily available.
 It should not excessively spread when discharged from nozzle into atmosphere.
 The propellant consumption is of order of 0.008 m3/min at a nozzle pressure of 5 bar and
abrasive flow rate varies from 2 to 4 g/min for fine machining and 10 to 20 g/min for
cutting operation.

2. Abrasive feeder
 Required quantity of abrasive particles is supplied by abrasive feeder.
 The filleted propellant is fed into the mixing chamber where in abrasive particles are fed
through a sieve.
 The sieve is made to vibrate at 50-60 Hz and mixing ratio is controlled by the amplitude of
vibration of sieve.
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 The particles are propelled by carrier gas to a mixing chamber. Air abrasive mixture moves
further to nozzle. The nozzle imparts high velocity to mixture which is directed at work
piece surface.

3. Machining chamber
 It is well closed so that concentration of abrasive particles around the working chamber
does not reach to the harmful limits.
 Machining chamber is equipped with vacuum dust collector. Special consideration should
be given to dust collection system if the toxic material are being machined.

4. AJM nozzle
 AJM nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire ( usual life - 300 h for sapphire,
20 to 30 h for WC) which has resistance to wear.
 The nozzle is made of either circular or rectangular cross section and head can be straight,
or at a right angle.
 It is so designed that loss of pressure due to the bends, friction etc is minimum possible.
 With increase in wear of a nozzle, the divergence of jet stream increases resulting in more
stray cutting and high inaccuracy.

5. Abrasives
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) Silicon carbide (SiC) Glass beads, crushed glass and sodium
bicarbonate are some of abrasives used in AJM.
 Selection of abrasives depends on MRR , type of work material , machining accuracy.

2.9 Process parameters and Machining characteristics.

The process parameters are listed below:
• Type of Abrasive
 Material – Al2O3/ SiC / glass beads
 Shape – irregular / spherical
 Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
 Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
 The choice of abrasive depends on the type of machining operation, for example, roughing,
finishing, etc., Work material and cost. The abrasive should have a sharp and irregular shape
and be fine enough to remain suspended in the carrier gas and should also have excellent
flow characteristics. The abrasives used for cutting are aluminum oxide and silicon carbide,
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whereas sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, glass beads. Etc. are used for cleaning, etching,
deburring and polishing. Reuse of abrasives is not recommended because not only does its
cutting ability decrease, but contamination also clogs the orifice of the nozzle.
• Carrier gas
 Composition – Air, CO2, N2
 Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
 Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
 Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
 Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
 Carrier gas, to be used in AJM, must not flare excessively when discharged from the nozzle
into the atmosphere. Further, the gas should be nontoxic, cheap, easily available and capable
of being dried and cleaned without difficulty. The gases that can be used are air, carbon
dioxide or nitrogen. Air is most widely used owing to easy availability and little cost. All
abrasive powders supplied by the manufacturers can be run with clean shop air, provided air
filters have been installed in the air lines.

• Abrasive Jet
 Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
 Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
 Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm
 Impingement Angle – 600-900
• Abrasive Grain size
 Finer grains are less irregular in shape and hence possess lesser cutting ability. Moreover,
finer grains tend to stick together and choke the nozzle. The most favourable grain sizes
range from 10 to 50 µm.
 Coarse are recommended for cutting, whereas finer grains are useful in polishing, deburring,
etc. For the erosion of glass by silicon carbide (grain size 25 µm), the minimum jet velocity
has been found to be around 150 m/s.
• Stand-off Distance (SOD)
 Stand off distance is defined as the distance between the face of the nozzle and the surface
of the work. A large SOD results in flaring of jet which leads to poor accuracy.
 It is clear from figure that MRR increase with nozzle tip distance or Stand off distance up
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to certain distance and then decreases. Penetration rate also increases with SOD and then
decreases.
 Decrease in SOD improves accuracy, decreases kerf width, and reduces taper in machined
groove. However light operation like cleaning, frosting etc are conducted with large SOD.

• Nozzle
 Material – WC / sapphire
 Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
 Life – 10 ~ 300 hours

The important machining characteristics in AJM are:

• The material removal rate (MRR) mm3/min or gm/min
• The machining accuracy
• The life of the nozzle
Parameters of Abrasive Jet machining (AJM) are factors that influence its Metal Removal Rate
(MRR). In a machining process, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is the volume of metal removed from
a given work piece in unit time. The following are some of the important process parameters of
abrasive jet machining:
1. Abrasive mass flow rate

2. Nozzle tip distance

3. Gas Pressure

4. Velocity of abrasive particles

5. Mixing ratio
6. Abrasive grain size
Abrasive mass flow rate:
Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that influences the metal removal
rate in abrasive jet machining. In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely
proportional to the mass flow rate of the abrasive particles. Due to this fact, when continuously
increasing the abrasive mass flow rate, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) first increases to an optimum
value (because of increase in number of abrasive particles hitting the work piece) and then
decreases. However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) uniformly
increases with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.
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Nozzle tip distance:
Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the work piece. Up to a
certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in nozzle tip distance. After that
limit, MRR remains constant to some extent and then decreases. In addition to metal removal rate,
nozzle tip distance influences the shape and diameter of cut. For optimal performance, a nozzle tip
distance of 0.25 to 0.75 mm is provided.
Gas pressure:
Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate. In abrasive jet machining, metal removal
rate is directly proportional to air or gas pressure.
Velocity of abrasive particles:
Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which the abrasive particles
hit the work piece is increased. Because of this reason, in abrasive jet machining, metal removal
rate increases with increase in velocity of abrasive particles.
Mixing ratio:
Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture in abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM). It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive particles and the mass flow
rate of air (or gas). When mixing ratio is increased continuously, metal removal rate first increases
to some extent and then decreases.
Abrasive grain size:
Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed.If smooth and fine
surface finish is to be obtained, abrasive particle with small grain size is used.If metal has to be
removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is used.

2.10 Process characteristics

1. Material removal rate
The factors that affect the Material Removal Rate (MRR) in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) include:
(a) Type of Abrasive: The type of abrasive used in AJM influences the MRR, with harder
abrasives typically resulting in higher MRR rates compared to softer abrasives. Harder
abrasives can achieve higher material removal rates due to their increased cutting efficiency.
(b) Abrasive Grain Size: The size of the abrasive particles impacts the MRR in AJM. Larger
abrasive particles create bigger indentations and lead to higher MRR rates, while smaller
particles provide smoother surface finishes but lower MRR rates. The grain size of the
abrasive directly affects the material removal efficiency in the machining process..
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(c) Abrasive Flow Rate: The mass flow rate of the abrasive material is another crucial factor
affecting the MRR in AJM. The MRR is directly proportional to the abrasive flow rate,
meaning that higher flow rates result in increased material removal rates during the
machining process..
(d) Gas Pressure: The pressure of the carrier gas used in AJM affects the MRR by converting
into kinetic energy. Higher gas pressure leads to higher jet velocities, resulting in increased
material removal rates. Optimal gas pressure is essential for achieving high MRR in abrasive
jet machining operations.
(e) Nozzle Design and Material: The design and material of the nozzle play a significant role
in determining the MRR in AJM. Factors such as the inner diameter of the nozzle, wear of
the nozzle, and the material used for the nozzle impact the jet velocity and efficiency of
material removal. Proper selection and maintenance of the nozzle are crucial for achieving
desired MRR levels.
2. Nozzle wear
Factors that affect the nozzle wear in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) include:
(a) Mixing Tube Material: The material of the mixing tube, where the abrasive particles are
mixed, accelerated, and focused with high-pressure waterjet, plays a crucial role in nozzle
wear. The wear of the mixing tube is a significant contributor to nozzle wear in AJM
processes.
(b) Nozzle Geometry: The geometry of the nozzle, including parameters like length, inlet angle,
diameter, and orifice diameter, influences the wear characteristics of the nozzle in AJM.
Variations in these geometrical factors can impact the wear patterns and longevity of the nozzle
during the machining process.
(c) Abrasive Particle Size: The size of the abrasive particles used in AJM affects the wear of
the nozzle. Larger abrasive particles can lead to more significant wear on the nozzle,
impacting its performance and longevity. Proper selection of abrasive particle size is
essential to minimize wear on the nozzle.
(d) Water Jet Characteristics: The characteristics of the water jet, such as pressure and flow
rate, can affect the wear of the nozzle in AJM. High-pressure water jets can accelerate wear
on the nozzle, emphasizing the importance of controlling water jet parameters to mitigate
wear effects.
(e) Nozzle Material Properties: The material properties of the nozzle, including hardness and
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toughness, are crucial factors influencing nozzle wear in AJM. Nozzle materials with high
hardness and toughness are essential for effective performance and extended nozzle lifetime.
Proper material selection is key to reducing wear and improving nozzle durability.
3. Accuracy
The factors that affect the accuracy of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) include:
(a) Stand-Off Distance (SOD): The gap between the nozzle tip and the work surface, known
as the Stand-Off Distance, significantly influences the accuracy of machined profiles in
AJM. Deviations in SOD can lead to dimensional errors in the machined features, affecting
the depth and width of the channels created.
(b) Abrasive Grain Size: The size of the abrasive particles used in AJM plays a crucial role in
determining the surface finish and accuracy of the machining process. Larger abrasive
particles can create larger cavities or indentations, while finer abrasives can result in better
surface finishes. Inaccurate selection of abrasive size can lead to variations in surface
roughness, tolerance, and corner radius, impacting accuracy.
(c) Gas Pressure and Flow Rate: The carrier gas pressure and flow rate in AJM determine the
velocity of the abrasive jet. Variations in gas pressure or flow rate can affect the cutting
accuracy by influencing the jet velocity and material removal rate, leading to inaccuracies
in the machining process.
(d) Nozzle Diameter and Wear: The diameter of the nozzle and its wear over time are critical
factors affecting the accuracy of AJM. As the nozzle wears down, its diameter increases,
impacting the kerf width of the machined features. Increased wear can lead to wider kerfs
and inaccurate machining results.

(e) Impingement Angle: The impingement angle of the abrasive jet on the work surface plays
a role in determining the depth and width of the machined slots or holes. Deviations from
the optimal 90-degree impingement angle can result in improper cutting, affecting the
accuracy of the machining process.
(f) Material Properties: The homogeneity of the material being machined can also impact the
accuracy of AJM. Variations in material properties such as surface treatment, residual stress,
and surface asperities can lead to inconsistencies in material removal rates and inaccurate
machining features.
4. Surface finish
Factors that affect the surface finish of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) include:
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(a) Type of Abrasive: The type of abrasive used in AJM impacts the surface finish. Different
abrasive particles have varying hardness levels, where harder abrasives can achieve higher
MRR but may produce rougher surfaces, while softer abrasives can crumble when striking
hard surfaces, affecting the surface finish.
(b) Abrasive Grain Size: The size of the abrasive particles influences the surface finish in AJM.
Larger abrasive particles create bigger indentations, leading to rougher surfaces and
potentially higher MRR rates. In contrast, smaller abrasive particles provide smoother
surface finishes but may result in lower MRR rates.
(c) Variation in Grain Size: The consistency of abrasive grain size within the overall mass
affects the surface quality and MRR in AJM. Lesser variation in grain size leads to better
predictions for surface quality and machining efficiency.
(d) Impingement Angle: The impingement angle, which is the operating angle between the
work surface and the jet diameter, impacts the surface finish in AJM. Maintaining an optimal
impingement angle between 60º – 90º can influence the depth of cut and the resulting surface
finish.
(e) Stand-Off Distance (SOD): The Stand-Off Distance in AJM affects the surface finish by
influencing the jet diameter. Higher SOD results in a wider jet but lower velocity, potentially
affecting the surface quality. Conversely, a small SOD may not provide sufficient passage
for used grits to leave the machining zone, impacting the surface finish.
(f) Work Material Properties: The properties of the work material, such as surface roughness,
homogeneity, and stress concentration, can affect the surface finish in AJM. High surface
roughness can lead to inaccuracies in the cut, while stress concentration may reduce the MRR
and surface quality.

2.11 Applications of AJM

 Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and electronics industries.
 In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine
 components (aluminium, titanium, heat resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior cabin
parts are made using abrasive water jet cutting.
 In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, door panels) and fibre
glass body components and bumpers are made by this process. Similarly, in electronics
industries, circuit boards and cable stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.
 Non-Traditional Machining

2.12 Advantages of AJM

 In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
 No cutter induced distortion
 Low cutting forces on workpieces
 Limited tooling requirements
 Little to no cutting burr
 Typical finish 125-250 microns
 Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
 No heat affected zone
 Localises structural changes
 No cutter induced metal contamination
 Eliminates thermal distortion
 No slag or cutting dross
 Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle

2.13 Limitations of AJM

 Cannot drill flat bottom
 Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
 Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cutting
 The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and high
 Noise levels during operation

QUESTION BANK
Ultrasonic machining (USM)
1. With a neat sketch explain Ultrasonic machining, equipment and mechanism of metal removal.

2. What are the parameters and characteristics of Ultrasonic machining.

3. What are the applications of Ultrasonic machining?

4. Write a note on abrasive and liquid media in USM. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)

5. Discuss the influence of the following parameters on USM process: i) Amplitude and frequency of
vibration. ii) Grain size. iii) Slurry. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)
 Non-Traditional Machining
6. Write a note on process capability of USM. (5 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)

7. With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of ultrasonic machining process. (8 Marks) (VTU
June 2012)

8. Explain the effect of different process parameters on machining performance in USM process. (10
Marks) (VTU June 2012)

9. What are the advantages, disadvantages and application of USM process? (10 Marks) (VTU June
2012)

10. Explain USM process with the required figure of the set up and a magnified view at tool
tip/workpiece. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)

11. Explain with help of neat sketch the working principle ultrasonic machining process, and also
mention its advantages. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)

12. Explain how various process parameters influence the material removal rate in ultrasonic
machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)

13. Explain with sketch the working principle ultrasonic machining process. (8 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)

14. Explain with sketch, different tool feeding mechanisms in ultrasonic machining. (8 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)

15. Explain different parameters which affect ultrasonic machining. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July
2014)

16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Ultrasonic machining ? (6 Marks) (VTU Dec
2014/Jan 2015)

17. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material removal rate (MRR) in USM
process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)

18. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2015)

19. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material removal rate (MRR) in USM
process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)

20. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2015)

21. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material removal rate (MRR) in USM
process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
 Non-Traditional Machining

22. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2015)

23. Explain with neat diagram construction and working of USM processes. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2016)

24. Explain the following parameters with respect to USM: i) Effect of amplitude and frequency of
vibration. ii) Effect of grain diameter. iii) Effect of applied static load. iv) Effect of slurry. (10
Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)

Abrasive jet machining (AJM)

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Abrasive jet machining?

2. With a neat sketch explain Abrasive jet machining, equipment and mechanism of metal removal.

3. What are the parameters and characteristics of Abrasive jet machining.

4. What are the applications of Abrasive jet machining?

5. How does the following parameters affect MRR in abrasive jet machining? i) Nozzle gap distance.
ii) Abrasive size. iii) Nozzle pressure. (12 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)

6. Write a note on abrasives used in AJM with examples. (8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)

7. List the variables that influence the rate of metal removal and accuracy of machining in abrasive
jet machining. Explain any three. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)

8. Sketch a explain AJM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June 2012)

9. During AJM process the mixing ratio is 0.2. calculate the mass ratio if the ratio of density of
abrasive and density of carrier gas is 20. (4 Marks) (VTU June 2012)

10. Write a note on an abrasive slurry used in AJM indicating types of abrasive, and their properties,
sizes used and liquid media with functions and characteristics. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)

11. List the variables in AJM. Explain any four variables. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)

12. Explain how the following parameters influence the metal removal rate in abrasive jet machining
process: i) Nozzle tip distance. ii) Velocity of abrasive. iii) Abrasive flow rate. iv) Gas pressure.
(10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)

13. Explain the desired properties of abrasive materials used in abrasive jet machining. (5 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2013)
 Non-Traditional Machining
14. Explain with block diagram the principle of operation of abrasive jet machining. (6 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)

15. Explain the different variables that influence the rate of material removal and accuracy in abrasive
jet machining. (8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)

16. How does ASM differ from conventional sand blasting process. (4 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan
2015)

17. What are the different types of abrasives used in ASM? (4 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)

18. State and explain the working and principle of abrasive jet machining. (12 Marks) (VTU Dec
2014/Jan 2015)

19. Draw the schematic diagram of abrasive jet machining and explain working principle. (8 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2015)

20. List the applications of Abrasive jet machining. (4 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)

21. Draw the schematic diagram of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM). Explain its construction and
working. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)

22. List and explain the variables used in AJM. (12 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)