Non-Traditional Machining

Module-4

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

SYLLABUS
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
Introduction, mechanism of metal removal, EDM equipment: spark erosion generator (relaxation
type), dielectric medium-its functions & desirable properties, electrode feed control system. Flushing
types; pressure flushing, suction flushing, side flushing, pulsed flushing. EDM process parameters:
Spark frequency, current & spark gap, surface finish, Heat Affected Zone. Advantages, limitations &
applications of EDM, Electrical discharge grinding, Traveling wire EDM.
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)
Introduction, non-thermal generation of plasma, equipment mechanism of metal removal, Plasma
torch, process parameters, process characteristics. Safety precautions. Safety precautions,
applications, advantages and limitations.

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

4.1 Introduction to EDM

Electro discharge machining is also known as spark erosion, electro-erosion or spark machining. It
is a non-traditional machining process based on the principle of erosion of metals by an interrupted
electric spark discharge. These discharges are repeated many thousand times/sec in the selected area
of workpiece. In this method, all operations are carried out in a single setup. It can be applied to
machine steels, super alloys, refractories, etc. No complicated fixtures are needed for holding the
job and even very thin jobs can be machined to the desired dimensions and shape. The main
attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools
and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from
the workpiece by a series of discrete electrical sparks between the workpiece and the electrode. A
picture of EDM machining is shown in Figure.
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Fig. EDM machining

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove the softer
material whereas non-traditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or
thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape. So, the the hardness
of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process. A schematic schematic of an
EDM process is shown in Figure 2, where the tool and the work piece are immersed in a dielectric
fluid.
Definition:
• Electro-discharge machining is an electro-thermal non-traditional machining process, where
electrical energy is used to generated electric spark and material removal mainly occurs due to
thermal energy of the spark.
• EDM is mainly used to machine difficult to machine materials and high strength temperature
resistant alloys, used for making stamping tools, wire drawings and extrusion dies, intricate
mould cavities etc.
• It can be used to machine complex geometers in small batches. The work material to be
machined should be electrically conductive.
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4.2 Mechanism of metal removal

• EDM works on the principle that heat energy generated by a spark is used to remove material from
the work piece.
• The tools and work piece are separated by a small gap called as spark gap. The gap varies from
0.01 mm to 0.5 mm. The tool and work piece both immersed in the dielectric fluid.
• When the supply is made ‘ON’, thousands of sparks are produced per second. The duration of each
spark is very short.
• When the spark comes in contact with the dielectric fluid in the spark gap, the fluid gets ionized.
It allows current to flow between the tools and workpiece.
As shown in Figure, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the narrow
gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This high voltage induces an electric field in the
insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece. This cause
conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electrical
field. When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the
dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small
amount of material from the workpiece surface. The volume of the material removed per spark
discharge is typically in the range of 10-6 to 10-6 mm3.
The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following formula:

MRR = 40 I / Tm

1.23 (cm3/min)

Where, I is the current amp,

Tm is the melting temperature of workpiece in °C

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EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank,
across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) typically in the order of 50
V/10 A.

4.3 EDM equipment

1. Tool Electrode and Workpiece: The tool and work piece is kept in a reservoir and is connected
to a DC power supply. The tool is connected to negative terminal, so that it becomes cathode,
while work piece is connected to positive terminal and become anode. Tool electrode has the
shape basically same to that of the product desired with allowance for side clearance and over
cut.
2. Dielectric fluid system: The dielectric fluid is spark conductor, coolant and also flushing
medium. The common dielectric fluids used are paraffin oil, transformer oil and kerosene.
Dielectric fluid is stored in a tank and circulated through a pump with the help of nozzle at the
gap between tool and workpiece. Dielectric is continuously flushed into the spark gap. The used
dielectric is filtered and recirculated into the reservoir. The dielectric fluid is pumped at a pressure
of 2 kg/cm2 or less.
Functions of Dielectric fluid:
1. It should act as an insulator until the required breakdown voltage is attained.
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2. It should act as a conductor, once the breakdown voltage is reached.

3. It should clean the spark gap by carrying away the molten metal.
4. It should deionize the spark gap rapidly after the discharge has occurred.
5. It should cool the tool, workpiece and spark region.
Characteristics of Dielectric fluid
1. Stable dielectric strength: The dielectric fluid should have sufficient and stable dielectric
strength to serve as an insulation between the tool and work till the breakdown voltage is
reached.
2. Rapid deionisation: At should de-ionise rapidly after the spark discharge has taken place.
3. Low velocity and good wetting capacity: It should provide effective cooling and remove the
swarf particles from the machining gap.
4. Chemically neutral: It should be chemically neutral so as not to attack the electrode, work
piece other components of setup.
5. High flash point: Dielectric should have high flash point
6. Nontoxic: It should not emit any toxic vapours or have an unpleasant odour.
7. Stable properties: It should maintain above properties in varying temperature contaminations
of wear debris, etc.
8. Economical and easily available: It should not be too costly. It should be easily available in
the nearly market.
Selection parameters of any Dielectric fluid
a) Workpiece size
b) Types of shape
c) Tolerance
d) Surface finish
e) Metal removal rate
3. Electrical power supply and spark generator: The D.C. power supply with current density in
the range of 10,000 A/cm2 and the power density of 500 mw/cm2 is used. The voltage is about
40-450 volts is applied. Spark generator is the circuit consist of RC combination. The capacitor
is continued to charge as long as the voltage in the capacitor reaches to the value of breakdown
voltage. This circuit helps to produce spark between the gap of tool and workpiece. When the
supply is made ‘ON’ the capacitor voltage starts rising continuously. When the capacitor voltage
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equals the breakdown voltage, (of dielectric fluid) a spark discharge will occur in the spark gap.
The spark persists until the capacitor voltage falls below that which is required to maintain
sparking. After the capacitor discharge, sparking ceases and the dielectric fluid in the spark gap
gets deionized. The capacitor is then recharged and the cycle repeats itself. The time taken by the
capacitor to recharge upto the breakdown voltage should be sufficient to allow the dielectric to
ionize. Resistor R in the circuit prevents the charging of capacitor before the spark gap is ionized.
4. Tool feed mechanism/ Servo system: A servo-controlled electrode feeding arrangement is
provided which continuously senses the spark gap and moves the tool electrode to maintain the
gap. The servo system advances the tool electrode according to the machining required. The tool
feed control prevents.
 Too large gaps which may prevent the formation of spark.
 Short circuits which will damage both tool and the workpiece.
The servo system may work electromechanically or hydraulically. Since during operation both
the tool and work piece are eroded, it is necessary to feed the tool continuously towards the
workpiece so as maintain the spark gap. This can be achieved by a suitable tool feed control
mechanism along with servo mechanism system.

4.4 Flushing types

Flushing is defined as providing a fresh dielectric fluid between the tool and workpiece. Due to
successive spark discharge, the particles eroded from the tool and workpiece contaminates the
dielectric. This reduces its insulation strength and hence spark may occur easily. To prevent this
premature occurrence of discharge, due to the eroded particles, flushing is necessary. The various
methods of flushing are:
1. Pressure / Injection flushing: Pressure flushing, also called injection flushing, is the most
common and preferred method for flushing. One great advantage of pressure flushing is that the
operator can see the amount of oil that is being used for flushing. With pressure gauges, this method
of flushing is simple to learn and use. Pressure flushing may be performed in two ways: (a) through
the electrode or (b) through the workpiece.
(a) Pressure flushing through electrode
With pressure flushing, there is the danger of a secondary discharge. Since electricity takes the path
of least resistance, secondary discharge machining can occur as the eroded particles pass between
the walls of the electrode and the workpiece, as presented in Figure. This secondary discharge can
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cause side wall tapering. Suction flushing can prevent side wall tapering.

(b) Pressure flushing through workpiece

Pressure flushing can also be done by forcing the dielectric fluid through a workpiece mounted over
a flushing pot. This method eliminates the need for holes in the electrode.
2. Suction flushing: Dielectric fluid is sucked either through workpiece or tool. Suction or vacuum
flushing can be used to remove eroded gap particles. Suction flushing can be done (a) through the
electrode or (b) through the workpiece.

Suction flushing minimizes secondary discharge and wall tapering. Suction flushing sucks oil from
the worktank, not from the clean filtered oil as in pressure flushing. For suction cutting, efficient
cutting is best accomplished when the work tank oil is clean. A disadvantage of suction flushing is
that there is no visible oil stream as with pressure flushing. Also, gauge readings are not always
reliable regarding the actual flushing pressure in the gap. A danger of suction flushing is that gases
may not be sufficiently removed, this can cause the electrode to explode. In addition, the created
vacuum can be so great that the electrode can be pulled from its mount, or the workpiece pulled
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from the magnetic chuck.

3. Side / Jet flushing: Jet or side flushing is done by tubes or flushing nozzles which direct the
dielectric fluid into the gap. Dielectric fluid is flushed from side of the tool.

4. Pulsed flushing:
Three types of pulse flushing are:
a. Vertical flushing: the electrode moves up and down.
b. Rotary flushing: the electrode rotates.
c. Orbiting flushing: the electrode orbits.
a. Vertical flushing: In vertical flushing, the electrode moves up and down in the cavity. This up and
down motion causes a pumping action which draws in fresh dielectric oil. Many machines are now
equipped with jump control which causes the electrode to jump rapidly in and out of the cavity
which aids in flushing out the eroded particles.
b. Rotary flushing: In rotary flushing, the electrode rotates within the cavity. Rotating the electrode
aids in flushing out the EDM particles from the cavity. For small round electrodes, manufacturers
make multiple cavities in these electrodes to aid in flushing. This is a very efficient method of
producing holes without a stud.
c. Orbiting flushing: Orbiting an electrode in a cavity allows the electrode to mechanically force the
eroded particle from the cavity. Orbiting flushing is the most efficient method for cutting.
Furthermore, if the orbiting is larger than the radius of the flushing holes in the electrode, it will
produce no studs.
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4.5 EDM process parameters

1. Spark gap: It is very small gap between tool and workpiece about 0.0125-0.125 mm. Decrease
in spark gap results in lower metal removal rate.
2. Current: The D.C. power supply with a current of 0.5 – 400 A is used in this process.
3. Voltage (DC): It is the voltage which is provided by the power supply system. The voltage
supplied in the range of 50 – 400 volts.
4. Pulse duration: It is the duration between successive pulses for producing sparks. It is about 2 –
2000 µs. Pulse duration has effect on tool wear rate. Increase in pulse duration results in lower
metal removal rate.
5. Dielectric pressure: It is the pressure under which the dielectric fluid is forced or circulated. It
is less than 0.2 MPa.
6. Surface finish: It is the finish obtained after machining. It is about 3 – 10 µm for rough
machining and 0.8 – 3 µm for machining.
7. Material removal rate: It is the volume of metal removed per unit time. It depends of the material
to be cut and spark frequency.
8. The material removal rate (MRR) varies inversely as the melting point of the metal.
9. During roughing out of steel with graphite, electrode MRR is about 400 mm3 / min with 50 A.
The selection of EDM parameters is important in determining the accuracy and surface finish
obtained for a particular application.
Spark frequency, current & surface finish
 As current is increased, each individual spark removes a larger crater of metal from the work
piece. Although the net effect is an increase in material removal rates, when holding all other
parameters constant it also has the effect of increasing surface roughness.
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 The same effect is also observed when spark voltage is raised.

 Electrical discharge machining equipment is available that is able to operate between 0.5 and 400
amp and with voltages ranging from 40 to 400 V DC.
 Increasing spark frequency and holding all other parameters constant, results in a decrease in
surface roughness.
 The frequency capability of EDM machines ranges from a low of 180 Hz when performing
roughing cuts, to a high of several hundred kilohertz when generating the fine finishes required
for finishing cuts.
Spark gap
 The gap between the electrode and workpiece is determined by the spark voltage and current.
 Typical values for the gap range from 0.012 to 0.050 mm (0.0005 to 0.002 in.).
 The smaller the gap, the closer the accuracy with a better finish and slower material removal rate.
 As the gap decreases, efficient flushing becomes difficult to achieve.
 Increasing the pulse duration of the sparks has the effect of increasing the removal rate, increasing
the surface roughness, and decreasing the electrode wear.
 The values of pulse duration available with currently available EDM machines range from a few
microseconds to several milliseconds.
Heat affected zone
 Heat affected zone is the area of the base material, which has its properties altered by heat
intensive machining in EDM.
 Heat from the arc formation and subsequent flushing of molten material leaves behind un-melted
material that cools unevenly forming a layer whose properties are altered.

4.6 Process characteristics

1. Metal removal rate:
 It is the volume of metal removed from the workpiece per unit time.
 The metal removal rate depends upon the current density.
 It increases with increases in the current.
 The metal removal rate in EDM is 5 to 80 mm3/sec, which is very low as compared to
conventional machining rate.
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2. Tool wear:
 As sparking takes place, tool wear is inevitable.
 Increases in pulse duration decreases tool wear.
 It depends upon metal removal rate, current and the spark gap.
3. Surface finish:
 Surface finish depends on the metal removal rate.
 High metal removal arte produces poor surface finish.
 For enough cuts heavy current is used and for finish cuts less current is used.
 Increase in spark frequency results in improved surface finish.
4. Accuracy:
 Tolerance value of ± 0.05 could be easily achieved in EDM.
 By close control of several variables, a tolerance of ± 0.003 mm can be obtained.
 An overcut of minimum of 100 micron is produced.
 The overcut increases with high current

4.7 Advantages of EDM

 Any material can be machined irrespective of its hardness.
 Any complicated shape can be produced on the work piece.
 There is no contact between the tool and workpiece; therefore, no stresses are produced in the
workpiece.
 Delicate workpiece (small electronic parts) which cannot withstand cutting forces can be
machined.
 Very fine holes can be easily drilled. Micro holes, deep hole, like in fuel injecting nozzles.
 A very good surface finish can be obtained.
 The process is generally automated, hence little operator skill is required.
 Time of machining is less than conventional machining.

4.8 Limitations of EDM

 High tool wear rate: the wear rate of tool electrode is considerably higher, sometimes more than
one electrode may be required to finish the job.
 More energy required: the EDM process needs more energy for the machining than
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conventional machining. high specific power consumption.

 Workpiece should be electrically conductive to be machined by EDM.
 Reproduction of sharp corners: it causes reproduction sharp corners at the workpiece surface.
 Surface cracking due to sparks: some materials may surface cracking due to higher energy given
by the sparks.
 High machining cost: The setup requires high cost and power hence higher machining cost.
 Dielectric fluid: Dielectric fluid is used to fill the gap between tool and workpiece. It is stored
in a tank and circulated through high pressure pump. A dielectric fluid is a liquid which acts as
an insulator between consecutive spark discharge and as a conductor during the spark discharge.
It has dielectric properties, to act as an insulator at one time and to acts as conductor at other
time. Most commonly dielectric fluids are hydrocarbon fluids, silicon-based oils, deionised
water, kerosene and water with glycol are also used. Kerosene is suitable for machining intricate
shaped jobs as it will give high accuracy, lower tool wear and better quality of surface.

4.9 Application of EDM

 Machining dies for forging, blanking, extrusion etc.

 Machining of hydraulic valve spools.

 Internal threads, internal helical gears can be cut in hardened materials.

 Felting of delicate parts in to vacuum tubes.

 Machining of exotic materials used in aerospace industries, refractory metals, hard carbides,
hardened steels.

 Some of the shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure.

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4.10 Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)

Fig. Electrical discharge grinding

EDG is abrasive machining method where controlled spark discharges from an electrically charged,
rotating wheel grinds the workpiece surface. The tool consists of a disc, which rotates around its
horizontal axis. Connection via power supply makes the disc act as the cathode and workpiece as the
anode. When the disc is brought close to the workpiece, intermittent spark discharges occur, which
means that the workpiece is melted and vaporized. The discharge is supported by a dielectric liquid,
which in combination with the rotation of the disc helps to cool the process and carry away the
removed material while the disc is moved over the workpiece. The spark gap makes the machined
surface slightly below the disc's outer diameter. It is important that the electrode, i.e., the rotating
wheel is electrically conductive so it’s normally made of metal or graphite.

4.11 Wire EDM

A method of precision machining called electrical discharge machining (EDM) removes material
from a workpiece using thermal energy rather than mechanical force. A thin, single-strand metal
wire and deionized water used to conduct electricity are used in the electrical discharge machining
method known as wire electrical discharge machining (EDM) to cut through metal while preventing
rust. In wire EDM, the tool electrode is a metallic wire, typically constructed of brass or layered
copper. To cut or shape a workpiece, utilize the metallic wire. The thin electrode wire travels along
a predetermined route. Although smaller and larger diameters are available, the typical electrode
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diameters range from 0.004 inches to 0.012 inches (0.10mm to 0.30mm). The wire is coiled between
two spools so that the active portion of the wire is continually changing. This design prevents the
wire from eroding to the point where it breaks. The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure.

In this process, a slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from
the work piece. Wire EDM uses electro- thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive
materials. The material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire electrode and
the work piece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the fluid
becomes ionized in the gap. The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high
temperature, so that the surface is melted and removed. The removed particles are flushed away by
the flowing dielectric fluids. The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric
and aerospace industries. This non-traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel
for die manufacturing.
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The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc or brass coated wires
are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process should posses high tensile
strength and good electrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also employ to cut cylindrical objects with
high precision. The sparked eroded extrusion dies are presented in Figure. This process is usually
used in conjunction with CNC and will only work when a part is to be cut completely through. The
melting temperature of the parts to be machined is an important parameter for this process rather than
strength or hardness. The surface quality and MRR of the machined surface by wire EDM will depend
on different machining parameters such as applied peak current, and wire materials.

PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

4.12 Introduction to PAM

A plasma is defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas .PAC uses a plasma stream operating
at temperatures in the range from 10,000 to 14,000ºC to cut metal by melting. The cutting action
takes place by directing the high velocity plasma stream at the work, thus melting it and blowing
the molten metal through the kerf. Plasma is encountered in electrical discharges, such as fluorescent
tubes and electric arcs, lightning, high temperature combustion flames and the sun. Most application
of PAC involve cutting of flat metal sheets and plates. Operations include hole piercing and cutting
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along a defined path. PAC was initially employed to cut metals that are difficult to machine by
conventional methods. However, in recent years, PAC has also been used to cut plain carbon steel,
stainless steel and aluminum.
Plasma:
Plasma is a mixture of free electrons positively charged ions and neutral atoms. Plasma is obtained
by heating a gas to a very high temperature so that it is partially ionized. Plasma torch confirms the
formation of gas in an arc chamber and the arc supplies a large input of electrical energy.
The changes that takes place when gases are heated to a few 1000 degrees are:
1. The number of collisions, elastic or inelastic between atoms increases.
2. The gas ionizes, so that a portion of the atoms are stripped off their outer electrons resulting in
the creation of electrons and ions.
3. The electrons thus produced, in turn, collide with atoms, heat them through relaxation processes
so that their thermal kinetic energy increases, excite them so that de-exitation light is emitted from
the atoms and ionize them so that more electrons and ions are produced.

4.13 Non thermal generation of plasma

 The method of heating the gas by first ionizing is one of the popular methods of generating hot
plasma. This can be done either by applying a suitable electric field across the gas column or by
imposing the gas to ionizing radiation.
 When gases are heated by an applied electric field ignite supplies the initial electrons, which
accelerates in the field before colliding and ionizing the atoms
 The free electrons in turn gets accelerated (increased) and cause further ionization and heating of
the gases.
 This continues till steady state is obtained in which the rate of production of free charges is
balanced by recombination and loss of the free charges to the walls and electrodes.
 The actual heating of the gas takes place due to the energy liberated when free ions and electrons
recombine into atoms or when atoms recombine into molecules.
 The bonding energy thus liberated is manifested in the form of kinetic energy of the atom or
molecule formed by the recombination.
 It is thus clear that the heat content of molecular gases is higher than that of mono atomic gases.
 The energy input for such a mechanism is determined by the enthalpy of gas at the required
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temperature, thermal conductivity of the gas and loss of energy in the form of radiation.
 The electrical conductivity of the gas is a relevant parameter for ascertaining the current density
in the plasma for the given field.
 The high velocity electrons of the arc collide with the gas molecules and produce dissociation of
diatomic molecules followed by ionization of the beam.
 The plasma forming gas is forced through the nozzle duct in such a manner as to stabilize the
arc.
 Heating of the gas takes place in the constricted region of the nozzle duct, resulting in relatively
high exit gas velocity and very high core temperatures up to 16000°C.

4.14 Mechanism of Metal Removal

 The metal removal in plasma arc machining is basically due to the high temperature produced.
 The heating of workpiece is as a result of anode heating, due to direct electron bombardment plus
convection heating from the high temperature plasma that accompanies the arc.
 The heat produced is sufficient to raise the workpiece temperature above its melting point and
the high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away.
 Under optimum conditions, upto approximately 45% of the electrical power delivered to the torch
is used to remove metal from the workpiece.
 Plasma arc cutting was primarily employed to cut metals that form a refractory oxide outer skin.
 The arc heat is concentrated on a localized area of the workpiece and it raises it to its melting
point.
 The quality of cut is affected by the heat flow distribution; uniform heat supply throughout the
thickness of the material produces a cut of excellent quality.
 The optimum cutting speed (for a given torch) is dependent upon the uniform distribution of heat
flow at the plasma to material surface.
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4.15 Elements of PAC system

The setup of the process consists of:

1) Plasma cutting torch: A plasma cutting torch carries a tungsten electrode fitted in a small
chamber. At other end of the torch is a small converging orifice called as nozzle. One side of the
torch provides a passage for supply of gas into the torch.
2) Tool and workpiece: The electrode is connected to negative terminal of D.C. power supply and
therefore acts as a cathode. The nozzle is made anode by connecting to the positive terminal of the
power supply through a suitable resistor. This resistor limits the current through the nozzle to about
50 A. The workpiece to be machined is also connected to the positive terminal of the supply. The
anode and cathode are separated by an insulator.
3) Gas supply unit: It consists of gas cylinder, regulators and gas supply hoses. The commonly
used gases are argon or nitrogen or the mixture of two. For certain useful purposes, a percentage of
hydrogen may be added. The choice of the gas depends upon the material to be cut, economics and
the quality of the cut edge desired. The flow rate of the gas varies directly with the thickness of the
workpiece. Typical gas flow rate is 2 to 11 m3/hr.
4) Cooling system: A provision is made for circulating the water around the torch so that the
electrodes and the nozzle both remains water cooled.
5) Power supply: A D.C. power supply of 400 V, 200 KW and upto 10000 A is supplied to the
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nozzle. When supply is made ON, a strong arc is struck between the electrode and the nozzle and
then gas is forced into the chamber. When the gas molecules collide with the high velocity electrons
of the arc, plasma is formed. This plasma is forced through the nozzle (anode) onto the workpiece.
The heat produced from this jet of plasma is sufficient to raise the workpiece temperature above its
melting point and high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away.

Working of Plasma Arc Machining

 When DC power is applied to the circuit, a potent arc emerges between the cathode (electrode)
and the anode (nozzle). Subsequently, gas is introduced into the chamber, selected from options
like hydrogen, nitrogen, argon, or a mixture tailored to the specific metal being worked upon.
The gas is then heated to extraordinarily high temperatures, ranging from 11,000°C to 28,000°C,
utilising the arc formed between the cathode and anode. As the arc interacts with the gas,
electrons collide with gas molecules, causing them to dissociate into individual atoms.
 Due to the arc's intense heat, certain atoms lose their electrons, leading to ionisation, thereby
transforming the gas into plasma—an electrically charged state. This ionised gas releases a
significant amount of thermal energy. Directed towards the workpiece with high velocity, the
plasma jet benefits from the electric arc in several ways. It further elevates the ionised gas's
temperature, almost aligns the beam in parallel, and enhances the gas's velocity.
 Upon reaching the workpiece, the plasma jet efficiently melts the material, while the high-
velocity gas effectively blows away the molten metal. This process of plasma arc machining
effectively removes material from the workpiece, demonstrating its remarkable utility in various
industrial applications.

4.16 Plasma torch

 The modified stabilized arcs came to be known as plasma torches or plasma jets because the
plasma of the arc column is pushed out of the nozzle in the form of a high velocity jet.
 An additional feature of the plasma torches is that the anode tube is in the form of a constricting
nozzle, so that further confinement and acceleration of the arc takes place, in addition to the
constriction due to the stabilizing flow and ‘Maecker effect’.
 The plasma torch consists of a non consumable cathode rod of 2 percent thoriated tungsten and
a converging anode nozzle with a suitable orifice.
 The two electrodes are separated by an insulator of high carbonate resin or some suitable rubber.
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Usually for vortex stabilized torches, the gas is fed tangentially through an inlet in the insulator.
For sheath stabilization, the gas is fed through small parts around the cathode. Both the electrodes
are water cooled.

PAC system uses DC power source. PAC systems operate either on non-transferred arc mode
or transferred arc mode. In case of a transferred arc mode, the arc is maintained between the
electrode (negative polarity) and the electrically conductive work piece (positive polarity). In
non-transferred arc mode, the thermal efficiency is low (65-75%) and power is transferred
between the electrode and the nozzle. This non-transferred arc ionizes a high velocity gas that
is streaming towards the work piece. The work piece may be electrically conductive or non-
conductive.

There are many torch design practically used:

1. Air plasma:
 Air plasma torch uses compressed air as the gas that ionizes and does cutting.
 The air to be used should be uncontaminated.
 The nozzle of this torch may result in prematured failure because of double arcing i.e, arcing
between the electrode and the nozzle, and between the nozzle and the work piece.
 Zirconium or hafnium are used as electrode material because of their higher resistance to
oxidation.
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Air plasma torch

2. Oxygen injected:
 To avoid oxidation of electrode (or to enhance the life of the electrode), oxygen injected torch
uses nitrogen as the plasma gas.
 Oxygen is injected downstream of the electrode. However, it lowers down the nozzle life. This
torch gives high MRR and poor squareness of the cut edges. It is commonly used for mild steel
plate cutting.
 The presence of oxygen in the air helps in increasing MRR in case of oxidizable materials like
steel.

Oxygen injected plasma torch

3. Dual gas system:
 It uses one gas (nitrogen) as the plasma gas while another gas as the shielding gas (O2, CO2,
argon-hydrogen etc).
 Secondary or shielding gas is chosen according to the material to be cut. Secondary gas system
helps in maintaining sharp corners on the top side of the cut edges.
 Non-Traditional Machining

Dual gas plasma torch

4. Water injected torch:

 Water (pressure =1.2 MPa) is injected (radially or swirling vertically) to constrict the plasma. A
small quantity (about 10%) of water vaporizes. This thin layer of steam constricts the plasma
and also insulates the nozzle.
 Nitrogen at about 1 MPa is used as the plasma.
 To avoid double arcing, the lower part of the nozzle is made of ceramic.
 Water constriction helps in reducing smoke, enhancing nozzle life, reducing HAZ, and limiting
formation of oxides on the cut edges of the workpiece.

 Water muffler (a device that produces a covering of water around the plasma torch and extends
down to the work surface) helps in reducing smoke and noise.
 Water mixed with a dye also absorbs part of the ultraviolet rays produced in PAC.
 In some cases, a water table is also used to reduce the level of noise and extent of sparks. Water
below the workpiece quenches sparks and damps sound level.
 Underwater PAC systems are also available which effectively reduce the noise and smoke
levels.
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Water injected plasma torch

4.17 Process parameters

 Non-Traditional Machining

1) Stand-off distance: increase in the stand-off distance reduces the depth of penetration and hence
narrows the cut width at the bottom. The stand-off distance depends on the thickness of the metal to
cut. The typical value of the stand-off distance varies from 5 mm to 10 mm.
2) Cutting speed: increase in the cutting speed reduces the depth of immersion of the plasma jet,
leading to narrowing of the cut in the lower portion. Decrease in the cutting speed will cause the
opening of the cut at the bottom of the workpiece. For example, the typical cutting speed for
aluminium at 80 KW power and 4 mm orifice diameter is 8 mm/sec.
3) Gas: the gas flow rate is directly proportional to the thickness of the material. The selection of a
particular of a particular gas depends on the quality of cut and the economics.

4.18 Process Characteristics

 The cutting rate in PAM are 250 to 1700 mm/min. depending on the thickness and material of
workpiece. A 25 mm thick aluminium plate can be cut at 4000 mm/min. A 6 mm carbon steel sheet can
be cut at 4000 mm/min. the use of water injection can increase the cutting rate in carbon steel to 6000
mm/min for a 5 mm thick plate. Surface cut by plasma torch are smoother than cut by oxyacytelene
flame but edges are round. The corner radius is a minimum of 4 mm on thinner plates. The walls of a cut
have a V shape with an angle of 5 to 10°.
 Accuracy on width of the slots and diameter of holes is from ±0.8 mm on 6-30 mm thick plates
and ±0.3 mm on 100 -150 mm thick plates.
 The depth of heat affected zone depends on the work material, thickness and cutting speed.
 On a work piece of 25 mm thickness the heat affected zone is about 4 mm and is less at high
cutting speed.

4.19 Safety Precautions

 Machines are operated after ensuring that all health safety measures are observed.
 The plasma flame emits a highly intense beam, particularly strong in ultraviolet and infrared
radiations.
 These radiations, if taken in large doses, might cause permanent damage to the eye in the form
of cataract.
 Over exposure results in reddening and a gritty feeling in the eyes due to loss of sleep.
 Over exposure to ultraviolet rays may also cause painful skin burns, and in extreme cases, these
lead to cancer.
 Non-Traditional Machining

 Though these radiations are very intense in all the plasma flames, the laminar plasma flame is
much more dangerous.
 Hence. It is imperative that proper glasses and proper dresses are worn before going close to the
torch.
 The glasses should be good at ultraviolet and infrared cut off and most of the body should be
covered.
 It is necessary to operate the torch in an airy room with proper exhaust, as many toxic gases, etc)
are synthesized in the atmosphere.
 These are very much above permissible levels when proper exhausting facilities do not exist.
 The noise level while operating the torch is also very high. Hence, ear muffs or plugs should be
used.

 Asbestos gloves with an inner layer of leather should be worn for operating hand torches.
 Health physicians should be consulted regarding the number of hours the operator can remain to
the plasma torch.
 In the spraying and chemical synthesis of toxic powders, it is prederable to mechanise the torch
and operate it from a distance.

4.20 Applications of PAM

 Cryogenic and High-Temperature Alloys: PAM is extensively employed in working with
cryogenic and high-temperature corrosion-resistant alloys, thanks to its ability to handle
challenging materials effectively.
 Titanium Plate Cutting: PAM is an ideal choice for cutting titanium plates up to 8 mm in
thickness, providing precise and efficient machining capabilities.
 Aerospace and Defense: PAM plays a vital role in the aerospace and defence industries, being
utilised in nuclear submarine pipe systems and welding steel rocket motor cases, where precision
and reliability are paramount.
 Stainless Tubes and Tube Mills: PAM is a staple for applications related to stainless tubes and
tube mills, enabling accurate cutting and shaping of these materials.
 Medical Device Manufacturing: PAM is also employed in manufacturing medical devices,
particularly in intricate and precision-focused components, where its versatility and accuracy are
crucial.
 Automotive and Power Generation: The automotive industry utilises PAM for fabricating
 Non-Traditional Machining

critical components, such as engine parts and exhaust systems. Additionally, power generation
equipment benefits from PAM's capability to work with high-temperature materials.

4.21 Advantages of PAM

 Versatility: PAM can easily handle hard and brittle metals, making it applicable to a wide range
of metal materials.
 Universal Applicability: Almost all types of metals can undergo plasma arc machining,
showcasing its broad range of applications.
 Enhanced Cutting Rate: One of the primary benefits is the ability to achieve higher cutting
rates, ensuring increased productivity and efficiency.

 Superior Dimensional Accuracy: PAM excels in machining small cavities, delivering superior
dimensional accuracy, and allowing for intricate and precise work.
 Simplicity and Efficiency: The process of plasma arc machining is straightforward to execute,
and its efficiency contributes to streamlined manufacturing operations.
 Vital Role in Jet Engine Repairs: PAM plays a significant role in the automatic repair of jet
engine blades, showcasing its importance in critical industries like aerospace and aviation.

4.22 Limitations of PAM

 High Equipment Cost: PAM requires various specialised equipment, which can be expensive,
posing a significant initial investment for implementation.
 Inert Gas Consumption: The process consumes substantial amounts of inert gases like nitrogen
or argon, contributing to increased operating costs.
 Narrow Surfaces: PAM can produce narrow and unnecessary surfaces, which may not be
desirable in certain applications.
 Surface Changes: One drawback is the occurrence of surface changes on the workpiece, which
may require additional finishing or post-processing steps.
 Safety Precautions: The operator or personnel involved in the process must take proper safety
precautions due to the intense heat and potential hazards associated with plasma arc machining.
 Eye Protection: PAM can emit intense light that may harm the human eye. Operators must wear
appropriate goggles or helmets with protective filters to shield their eyes during the operation.
 Non-Traditional Machining

QUESTION BANK
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
1. Define Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM).
2. List advantages and disadvantages of Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM).
3. Mention the applications of Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM).
4. Explain the mechanism of Metal removal in EDM process.
5. Briefly explain the rotary pulse generator in EDM process, with a neat sketch. (6 Marks) (VTU
Dec 2011)
6. Explain the various parameters that govern the metal removal rate, using a R-C circuit. (8
Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
7. Explain with a neat sketch, the traveling wire EDM. (6 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
8. List the commonly used dielectric fluids in EDM process. What properties should they posses
? (6 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
9. Define dielectric. Write a note on it indicating its functions and characteristics. (10 Marks)
(VTU Dec 2012)
10. Explain the mechanism of EDM showing the circuit and movements of ions. (10 Marks) (VTU
Dec 2012)
11. Explain the advantages of EDM. (5 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)
12. Draw a diagram of electrode feed control of EDM and label it. (5 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)
13. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of electrode material in EDM. (5 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2013)
14. Explain with help of a neat sketches any two types of flushing methods used in EDM. (5 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2013)
15. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the mechanism of metal removal in EDM process, and
also mention its advantages and disadvantages. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
16. Explain with sketch the electrode feed control in electric discharge machining process. (8
Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
17. Explain the different dielectric flow patterns of electric discharge machining process (6 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2014)
18. Explain with sketch the traveling wire electric discharge machining process. (6 Marks) (VTU
 Non-Traditional Machining

June/July 2014)
19. Name some of the dielectric fluids commonly used in EDM. Name some of the tool material
used in EDM. (6 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
20. What are the basic requirements of the dielectric fluid used in EDM? (4 Marks) (VTU Dec
2014/Jan 2015)
21. With the help of neat sketch, explain wire cut electrical discharge machining. (10 Marks) (VTU
Dec/Jan 2015)

22. Explain with sketch, the mechanism of metal removal in electric discharge machining. (7
Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
23. Explain the elementary relaxation circuit for EDM. (7 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
24. Explain the different methods of dielectric flushing in Electrical Discharge Machining. (6
Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
25. Draw neat diagram of EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining). Explain its construction and
working. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
26. Explain briefly EDM process characteristics. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
1. Define Plasma Arc Machining (PAM).
2. List advantages and disadvantages of Plasma Arc Machining (PAM).
3. Mention the applications of Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) process.
4. Discuss the various process parameters and characteristics involved in Plasma Arc Machining
(PAM).
5. Explain the mechanism of Metal removal in Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) process.
6. Explain with a neat sketch, the non-thermal generation of plasma and mechanism of metal
removal. (9 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
7. What are the different modes of operation of plasma torches? Explain. (4 Marks) (VTU Dec
2011)
8. Discuss the plasma arc surfacing and plasma arc spraying. (7 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
9. Sketch and explain transferred and non-transferred plasma arc system. (10 Marks) (VTU June
2012)
10. Write a note on process performance in plasma arc cutting process. (4 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
11. Explain the non-thermal generation of plasma with the related diagram. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec
2012)
 Non-Traditional Machining (BME405A) Module 5 notes

12. With a neat sketch, explain the plasma arc machining (PAM) process and also mention its
applications. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
13. Which are the important considerations are to be made in the design of plasma torch? (6 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2013)
14. Mention any two advantages and disadvantages of plasma arc machining. (4 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2013)

15. Explain with sketch the principle of working of plasma arc machining. (8 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)
16. Explain the transferred arc and non transferred arc method of plasma arc machining. (6 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2014)
17. Mention the advantages, disadvantages and applications of plasma arc machining. (6 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2014)
18. Explain the basic principle of PAM (4 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
19. With a neat sketch, explain the working of PAM. List out the advantages and limitations of
PAM process. (16 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
20. Explain with diagram the working of plasma arc machining. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
21. What are the factors that govern the performance of plasma arc machining? Explain any one of
them. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
22. Write the applications of plasma arc machining. (4 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
23. Explain the construction and working principle of Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) with neat
sketch. (8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
24. List the general guideline for designing the torch. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
25. What are the application of PAM and also mention advantages and limitations ? (6 Marks)
(VTU June/July 2016)