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The Bhopal School of Social Sciences, Bhopal

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7 views

The Bhopal School of Social Sciences, Bhopal

Uploaded by

Arpit Pachole
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The Bhopal School of Social Sciences, Bhopal

(An Autonomous Institute Reaccredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC)


Affiliated to Barkatullah University, Bhopal

Department of Science
B.Sc. Semester V, SEC Course: Introduction to Mathematical Typesetting Softwares
Title of Practical: Creating a document with Mathematical Typesetting (inline and display
mode)-I
Practical number: 02

Theorem 8.6. If p is a prime number and d|p-1,then there are exactly 𝜙(𝑑) Incongruent integers
having order d modulo p.

Proof . Let d|p-1 and 𝜓(𝑑) denote the number of integers 𝑘,1≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑝 – 1,that have order d
modulo p. Because each integer between 1 and p-1 has order d for some d |p-1,

𝑝−1= ∑ 𝜓(𝑑)
(𝑑 |𝑝 − 1)

At the same time, Gauss’theorem tells us that

𝑝−1= ∑ 𝜙(𝑑)
(𝑑 |𝑝 − 1)

And therefore, putting these together,

∑ 𝜓(𝑑) = ∑ 𝜙(𝑑) (1)


(𝑑 |𝑝 − 1) (𝑑 |𝑝 − 1)

Our aim is to show that 𝜓(𝑑) ≤ 𝜙(𝑑) for each divisor d of p-1,because this,in conjunction with
Eq.(1), would produce the equality 𝜓(𝑑) = 𝜙(𝑑) ≠ 0 (otherwise,the first sum would be strictly
smaller than the second).

Given an arbritrary divisor d of p-1, there are two possibilities: we either have𝜓(𝑑) = 0 or 𝜓(𝑑)
> 0. If 𝜓(𝑑) = 0, then certainly 𝜓(𝑑) ≤ 𝜙(𝑑). Suppose that 𝜓(𝑑) > 0, so that there exists an
integer a of order d .Then the d integers a,𝑎2, … . , 𝑎𝑑are incongruent modulo p and each of
them satisfies the polynomial congruence

𝑥𝑑 – 1 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝) (2)

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The Bhopal School of Social Sciences, Bhopal
(An Autonomous Institute Reaccredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC)
Affiliated to Barkatullah University, Bhopal

Department of Science
B.Sc. Semester V, SEC Course: Introduction to Mathematical Typesetting Softwares
For,(𝑎𝑘)𝑑 ≡ (𝑎𝑑)𝑘 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝) . By the corollary to Lagrange’s theorem , there can be no other
solutions of Eq.(2). It follows that any integer having order d modulo p must be congruent to
one of 𝑎,𝑎2, … , 𝑎𝑑. But only 𝜙(𝑑) of just- mentioned powers have order d, namely those 𝑎𝑘
for which the exponent k has the property gcd(k,d) = 1. Henve the present situation 𝜓(𝑑) =
𝜙(𝑑), and the number of integers having order d modulo p is equal to 𝜙(𝑑). This establishes
the result we set out to prove.

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