Difference Between Classical and Operant

Conditioning of Learning
Introduction
Learning is an intrinsic part of human development and behaviour. It encompasses a wide range
of processes through which individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours.
Two primary forms of learning that have been extensively studied and theorized within the field
of psychology are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. These two paradigms, while
both contributing significantly to our understanding of behavioural learning, operate through
distinct mechanisms and principles.

Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning, was discovered by

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the early 20th century. Pavlov's experiments with dogs
revealed that certain stimuli could evoke reflexive responses when paired with a neutral stimulus.
This ground-breaking discovery laid the foundation for classical conditioning, which has since
become a cornerstone of behavioural psychology.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, was developed by B.F. Skinner in the 1930s. Influenced
by Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect, Skinner expanded upon this concept to develop a
comprehensive theory of learning through reinforcement and punishment. Operant conditioning,
also known as instrumental conditioning, emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping
behaviour, distinguishing it from classical conditioning.

This paper aims to explore the differences between classical and operant conditioning in detail.
By examining their historical development, underlying mechanisms, applications, and theoretical
distinctions, we can gain a deeper understanding of how each conditioning method contributes to
the learning process.

Classical Conditioning

History and Development

Classical conditioning emerged from the work of Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist known for
his research on the digestive systems of dogs. In the early 1900s, Pavlov observed that dogs
would begin to salivate not only when presented with food but also in response to stimuli
associated with food, such as the sight of the food bowl or the sound of the laboratory assistant's
footsteps. Intrigued by this phenomenon, Pavlov conducted a series of experiments to investigate
the underlying mechanisms.

Pavlov's most famous experiment involved the use of a bell as a neutral stimulus. Initially, the
bell had no effect on the dogs' salivation. However, when Pavlov consistently rang the bell
before presenting food, the dogs began to associate the sound of the bell with the impending
arrival of food. Eventually, the sound of the bell alone was sufficient to elicit salivation. This
learned response, where a previously neutral stimulus (bell) elicited a conditioned response
(salivation), became known as classical conditioning.

Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning

The process of classical conditioning involves several key components:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a

response without prior learning. For example, food is an unconditioned stimulus that
naturally elicits salivation in dogs.
2. Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction
to the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, the salivation in response to food
is the unconditioned response.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with
the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response. The sound of the bell,
initially neutral, becomes a conditioned stimulus after being associated with food.
4. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus, which is
typically similar to the unconditioned response. In this case, the salivation in response to
the bell is the conditioned response.

Classical conditioning can be understood through several stages:

 Acquisition: The initial stage of learning during which the conditioned response is
established. This occurs through repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (bell) with
the unconditioned stimulus (food).
 Extinction: The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned
response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus. If the bell is rung repeatedly without presenting food, the dogs'
salivation response will diminish over time.
 Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned
response after a rest period without further conditioning trials. This indicates that the
learned association is not entirely forgotten.
  Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit
similar responses. For instance, a dog conditioned to salivate in response to a bell might
also salivate in response to a similar-sounding tone.
 Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and
other similar stimuli that do not signal the unconditioned stimulus. The dog learns to
respond only to the specific bell that was paired with food.

Applications and Examples

Classical conditioning has a wide range of applications in various fields, including psychology,
education, and advertising. Some notable examples include:

 Psychotherapy: Techniques such as systematic desensitization and exposure therapy are

based on classical conditioning principles. These methods are used to treat phobias and
anxiety disorders by gradually exposing individuals to fear-inducing stimuli in a
controlled manner, helping them to form new, non-fearful associations.
 Education: Teachers can use classical conditioning to create a positive learning
environment by associating learning activities with positive stimuli. For example, pairing
praise or rewards with academic tasks can foster a positive attitude toward learning.
 Advertising: Marketers often pair products with positive stimuli, such as pleasant music,
attractive visuals, or celebrity endorsements, to evoke positive emotional responses from
consumers. This association increases the likelihood that consumers will develop
favourable attitudes toward the products.

Operant Conditioning

History and Development

Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist who expanded
upon the work of Edward Thorndike. Thorndike's Law of Effect posited that behaviours followed
by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by
unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated. Skinner built on this idea and conducted
extensive research to formulate a comprehensive theory of operant conditioning.

Skinner's experiments often involved the use of an operant conditioning chamber, commonly
known as a "Skinner box." In these experiments, animals such as rats or pigeons were placed in a
controlled environment where they could perform specific behaviours, such as pressing a lever or
pecking a key. The consequences of these behaviours, in the form of rewards or punishments,
were systematically manipulated to study their effects on behaviour.
Mechanisms of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves the following key components:

1. Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour.

Reinforcement can be positive or negative:
 Positive Reinforcement: The addition of a rewarding stimulus following a
behaviour. For example, giving a child a treat for completing homework is
positive reinforcement.
 Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an aversive stimulus following a
behaviour. For example, turning off an annoying alarm when a task is completed
is negative reinforcement.
2. Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
Punishment can also be positive or negative:
 Positive Punishment: The addition of an aversive stimulus following a
behaviour. For example, scolding a child for misbehaviour is positive punishment.
 Negative Punishment: The removal of a rewarding stimulus following a
behaviour. For example, taking away a child's video game privileges for
misbehaviour is negative punishment.
3. Extinction: The gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the reinforcement is
no longer provided. For example, if a behaviour is no longer followed by reinforcement,
it will eventually diminish.

Skinner identified several schedules of reinforcement that influence the learning process:

 Continuous Reinforcement: A schedule in which every occurrence of the behaviour is

reinforced. This schedule is effective for establishing new behaviours but may lead to
rapid extinction once reinforcement is discontinued.
 Partial Reinforcement: A schedule in which only some occurrences of the behaviour are
reinforced. Partial reinforcement schedules include fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-
interval, and variable-interval schedules. These schedules tend to produce more resilient
behaviours that are less prone to extinction.

Applications and Examples

Operant conditioning has significant applications in various domains, including education,

behaviour modification, and animal training:

 Education: Teachers use reinforcement and punishment to shape student behaviour and
encourage learning. For example, a teacher might use a token economy system where
students earn tokens for completing assignments, which can be exchanged for rewards.
  Behaviour Modification: Techniques such as token economies and behaviour contracts
are based on operant conditioning principles. These methods are used to modify
undesirable behaviours and reinforce positive behaviours in various settings, including
schools, therapy, and rehabilitation programs.
 Animal Training: Trainers use reinforcement to teach animals new behaviours, such as
performing tricks or assisting individuals with disabilities. For example, a dog might be
trained to sit on command by receiving treats as positive reinforcement for the desired
behaviour.

Differences

1)Nature of Learning

The most fundamental difference between classical and operant conditioning lies in the nature of
the learning process. Classical Conditioning involves learning through association between two
stimuli. The learner is passive and responds reflexively to the stimuli. For example, a dog learns
to associate the sound of a bell with food and salivates in response. Operant Conditioning
involves learning through consequences. The learner is active and must perform a behaviour to
receive a consequence (reinforcement or punishment). For example, a rat learns to press a lever
to receive food.

2)Type of Behaviour

The types of behaviours involved in each conditioning method also differ. Classical
Conditioning primarily deals with involuntary, reflexive behaviours (e.g., salivation, blinking).
These behaviours are automatically elicited by specific stimuli. Operant Conditioning primarily
deals with voluntary behaviours (e.g., studying, working). These behaviours are performed by
the organism to obtain or avoid specific consequences.

3)Role of Reinforcement and Punishment

In classical conditioning, reinforcement and punishment do not play a direct role in the learning
process. Instead, learning occurs through the pairing of stimuli. The focus is on the association
between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. In contrast, operant
conditioning relies heavily on reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease the
likelihood of behaviours. The focus is on the consequences of behaviour and how they influence
future actions.
4)Temporal Relationship Between Stimuli and Responses

In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus must be presented before the unconditioned
stimulus to create an association. The timing of the stimuli is crucial. For example, the bell must
ring before the food is presented to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the
reinforcement or punishment follows the behaviour. The timing is less critical as long as the
consequence is perceived to be linked to the behaviour. For example, a reward given
immediately after a desired behaviour is more effective than a delayed reward.

5)Generalization and Discrimination

Both classical and operant conditioning involve generalization and discrimination, but the
processes differ slightly. In Classical Conditioning, generalization occurs when a stimulus
similar to the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. For example, a dog
conditioned to salivate in response to a bell might also salivate in response to a similar-sounding
tone. Discrimination occurs when the organism learns to differentiate between the conditioned
stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal the unconditioned stimulus. In Operant
Conditioning, generalization occurs when a behaviour is performed in response to stimuli similar
to the original reinforcement context. For example, a pigeon trained to peck a key for food might
also peck keys of different colours. Discrimination occurs when the organism learns to respond
only to the specific stimuli that are reinforced. For example, the pigeon might learn to peck only
the red key if it is the only one that produces food.

6)Underlying Theoretical Assumptions

Classical and operant conditioning are grounded in different theoretical assumptions about
learning and behaviour. Classical Conditioning is based on the idea that behaviour is primarily
shaped by the association between stimuli. It emphasizes the automatic and reflexive nature of
responses. Operant Conditioning is based on the idea that behaviour is shaped by its
consequences. It emphasizes the active role of the organism in learning and the influence of
reinforcement and punishment on behaviour.

7)Biological Constraints

Both classical and operant conditioning are subject to biological constraints that can influence
the learning process. In the case of Classical Conditioning, some associations are easier to form
than others due to biological predispositions. For example, animals are more likely to associate
taste with nausea (a form of classical conditioning known as taste aversion) than other types of
stimuli. This reflects an evolutionary adaptation that enhances survival. In the case of Operant
Conditioning on the other hand, certain behaviours are more easily learned than others based on
biological predispositions. For example, animals are more likely to learn behaviours that are
naturally occurring in their repertoire. This concept is known as biological preparedness.

Conclusion
Classical and operant conditioning are two essential forms of learning that have significantly contributed
to our understanding of behavior. Classical conditioning focuses on learning through association and is
primarily concerned with involuntary, reflexive behaviors. Operant conditioning, on the other hand,
emphasizes learning through consequences and deals with voluntary behaviors. Both methods have
unique mechanisms, applications, and implications for various fields, including psychology, education,
and behavior modification. Understanding the differences between these two conditioning methods
provides valuable insights into how learning occurs and how behaviors can be shaped effectively.

References
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Domjan, M. (2014). The principles of learning and behaviour (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the

cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. The Macmillan Company.

Aarushi Roy

20022053