Chapter 1

Earth
Science
Origin and Structure of Earth
 1.1 Origin of the
Universe and the Solar
System

The Earth and other planets were formed

at the same time according to the beliefs
of many researchers
The Big Bang
Theory
The universe began approximately 13.8
billion years ago from a singularity—a
point of infinite density and temperature,
leading to its current state.

The universe has been expanding since its

inception, evidenced by the observed
redshift of distant galaxies and the cosmic
microwave background radiation.
Georges Lemaître
Was there an explosion in the
Big Bang Theory?
 Proof for Big
Bang Theory
•Redshift – An indication
that distant galaxies are
receding from Earth at
an increasing velocity
•Cosmic microwave
background (CMBR) –
The electromagnetic
radiation left from an
early stage of the
universe. It was
discovered by Arno
Penzias and Robert
Wilson in 1964.
Steady State Theory
• Proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Herman
Bondi et al.
• It states that the universe has been present ever
since.
• It has no beginning and no end, and has been
expanding constantly.
•Matter is continually being created to keep the
universe’s density constant.
 Pulsating Theory
• This theory states that the universe follows infinite
self-sustaining cycles such as expanding and
contracting.
• After the universe has contracted to a certain size,
explosion occurs, and the universe will start
expanding.
• Also called, “Oscillating or Cylic Model.
• Proponents: Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok, Roger
Penrose
Alternative Theories to
Standard Models
Ekpyrotic Theory
(Multiverse
Theory)
• Parallel universes exist and
occasionally interact with each
other Universes collide
• repeatedly, giving rise to a new
universe with each collision
 Black Holes
The theory suggests that the
universe could have originated
from a singularity, a point of
infinite density similar to what is
found at the center of black holes.
This idea posits that the Big Bang,
which marked the beginning of
our universe, might have been the
result of a black hole collapsing in
a higher-dimensional space.
“Matrix” Theory

The universe is a computer simulation.

Creation of
Worlds by Quantum
Theory

“Web of universes” The universe

is not one but many. A collision
between two universes gives
rise to a new one.
The __________ is a theory that explains the origin of the universe
from a singularity. __________ was the scientist who proposed the
concept of the expanding universe. __________ are regions in
space with gravitational fields so intense that not even light can
escape. The __________ proposes that our universe might be one
of many universes existing simultaneously. __________ is a
concept in physics and cosmology that suggests the universe
could be described as a complex computer simulation, where
fundamental particles and forces are represented by matrices.
According to the __________, the universe undergoes a cyclical
process of expansion and contraction. __________ refers to the
shifting of light toward the red end of the spectrum from distant
galaxies, indicating an expanding universe. Finally, __________ is
the residual thermal radiation from the early universe, providing
crucial evidence for the Big Bang Theory.
Answers:

1. Big Bang Theory

2. Georges Lemaître
3. Black Holes
4. Multiverse Theory
5. Matrix Theory
6. Pulsating Theory
7. Redshift
8. Cosmic Background Radiation
Origin of the Solar
System
The Solar
System
 The Sun
The Sun is the central star of our solar system, providing
essential light and heat that sustain life on Earth. Its
gravitational pull keeps Earth and other planets in orbit,
while its energy drives weather and climate patterns.
 Terrestrials

Gas Giants
 Mercury
The closest planet to the Sun, characterized by its
extreme temperature variations and lack of a significant
atmosphere. Its surface is marked by craters and has a
very slow rotation relative to its orbit around the Sun.

Venus
The second planet from the Sun and is known for its
thick, toxic atmosphere and intense surface
temperatures due to a runaway greenhouse effect. Its
surface is obscured by dense clouds, making it one of
the brightest objects in the night sky.
Earth
The third planet from the Sun, featuring
diverse ecosystems and liquid water. It
supports life and has a dynamic
atmosphere that influences weather and
climate.

Moon
Earth's only natural satellite, characterized
by its surface covered in craters,
mountains, and plains. It affects Earth's
tides through gravitational interactions
and has phases resulting from its orbit
around Earth.
 Mars
The fourth planet from the Sun,
known for its reddish appearance
due to iron oxide on its surface. It
has the largest volcano and canyon in
the solar system and has potential
signs of past water activity.
 Jupiter
The largest planet in the solar system,
distinguished by its Great Red Spot, a massive
storm, and its prominent banded cloud
structure. It has a strong magnetic field and a
large number of moons, including the largest
moon, Ganymede.

sATURN
Renowned for its stunning ring system,
composed of ice and rock particles. It is the
second-largest planet in the solar system and
has a collection of moons, including Titan,
which has a thick atmosphere.
 Uranus Neptune
The seventh planet from the Sun, The eighth planet from the Sun, known
notable for its extreme tilt on its axis, for its deep blue color due to methane
causing its poles to face the Sun. It has in its atmosphere. It has a dynamic
a faint ring system and is composed weather system with strong winds and
mainly of ice and gas. the Great Dark Spot, a large storm.
Category Objects Quantity

Sun Sun 1

Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune 8

Earth's Moon, Phobos and Deimos (Mars), Europa, Ganymede, Io,

Moons Over 200 (known)
Callisto (Jupiter), Titan, Enceladus (Saturn), Triton (Neptune)

Dwarf Planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Ceres 5 (officially recognized)

Ceres (also classified as a dwarf planet), Vesta, Pallas, Hygiea,

Asteroids numerous smaller asteroids in the Asteroid Belt and more in the Over 150 million
Kuiper Belt

Halley's Comet, Comet Hale-Bopp, Comet NEOWISE, Comet

Comets Millions
Encke, Comet Hyakutake, millions more in the Oort Cloud

Hypothetical cloud of icy bodies at the edge of the Solar System,

Oort Cloud Estimated trillions
believed to be the source of long-period comets
 Solar
Nebular
Theory
It suggests that the Sun and
planets formed from a rotating
cloud of gas and dust, called
the solar nebula, which
gradually collapsed under
gravity, leading to the creation
of the Sun at the center and
planets from the remaining
material.
Planetesimals are small,
solid objects formed in
the early solar nebula
that combined to create
planets. The frost line is
the distance from the Sun
where it was cold enough
for ices to form, leading
to the formation of gas
giants beyond it.
Condensation Theory
•Also called, “dust cloud theory”
and “protoplanets theory”.
•Universe began from a nebula
which later condensed and
eventually became planets.
•With nuclear fusion, a star was
born. Our Sun.
•Unlike Solar Nebula Theory, it has
an absence of supernova input.
Planetesimal
Theory
• Also called, “collision
theory”.
• Does not explain
how our sun was
formed.
•A nearby star
collided with ours
and this cataclysmic
event gives birth to
our solar system.
 Tidal Theory
• Also called, “near collision
theory or hypothesis or
encounter theory”.
• Does not explain how our
sun was formed.
• A nearby star almost
collided with our sun and
this event , stellar matter
from our sun thrown out
into space which would
eventually become the
planets.
Capture
Theory
• Our sun captured stellar
matter from a nearby
smaller star and this
stellar matter began to
orbit the sun which would
eventually become the
planets through
condensation and
accretion.
The __________ explains the formation of the Solar System,
suggesting that the Sun and planets formed from a rotating cloud of
gas and dust. The __________ is a distant, spherical shell of icy
objects surrounding the Solar System, believed to be the source of
long-period comets. A __________ is a massive stellar explosion
that can trigger the formation of new stars and planetary systems.
The __________ proposes that planets and moons were captured
by the gravitational pull of a star or planet after forming elsewhere.
According to the __________, small solid bodies in the early solar
system collided and merged to form planets. The __________ is the
region around a star where conditions are suitable for liquid water
to exist, making it potentially supportive of life.
 Answers:

1. Solar Nebular Theory

2. Oort Cloud
3. Supernova
4. Capture Theory
5. Planetesimal Theory
6. Habitable Zone
 SEATWORK #1:"UNIVERSE ORIGINS:
CREATE YOUR OWN THEORY"

For this activity, you will design your own idea of how the
universe begins. Draw your concept on a short bond paper,
including any elements from existing theories or your own
imagination. Be sure to label each part of your drawing. On the
back of your paper, provide a brief description explaining your
idea and why you think it is a plausible explanation for the
universe's origin. If you choose to color your drawing, you will
earn higher points.
Earth
It is the only known planet that can support life. It is composed of
70% water, which is why it is sometimes called as the water planet or
blue planet.
Conditions that Support Life on Earth

• Neither too hot nor too cold

• Has both air and water
• Presence of oxygen in the air
• Has the right amount of distance from the
Sun (circumstellar habitable zone)
•
Has protective atmosphere
 Habitable zone- the region around a star
where conditions are just right for liquid
water to exist on a planet's surface, making
it potentially suitable for life.
Stable climate
and
temperature
• Earth has a climate and
temperature that are
remarkably stable
when compared with
those of other planets.
• The average
temperature of Earth’s
surface is 20°C.
 Latest Discoveries
About the Solar System
A. Living organisms may have been
flourishing in Mars in the past
B. Asteroids orbiting our Sun could impact
Earth which would lead to our extinction.
C. The Sun with its solar storms and
sunspots, could significantly disrupt life in
our planet and effect climate change.
D. Saturn’s moon Enceladus was discovered
to have a saltwater ocean below it’s
frozen surfaces.
Mars Exploration
• The keen interest NASA devotes
to Mars exploration arises from the
possibility of finding life on Mars,
or finding evidence life may have
flourished in the red planet
in the past.
Asteroids as
Astronomical Hazards
Asteroid already struck our planet
in the past and caused massive
extinction of living things. Earth
always faces a potentially
catastrophic encounter with
asteroids that orbit the Sun. The
possibility is not entirely remote,
because the surface of the moon
itself reveals telltale evidence of
frequent asteroids impact in our
planet’s neighborhood.
Solar Storms and
Sunspots
The sun also emits high energy
particles called, solar flares – a
sudden flash of brightness near the
surface of the sun which are harmful
to organisms. It is known to affect
radio signals which disrupt wireless
communication.
Sunspots are dark patches on the
Sun’s surface that appear from time
to time. They are regions of intense
magnetic field that fives rise to
solar flares and coronal mass
ejections.
 Geosphere
(Lithosphere)

• It makes up the solid portion of the Earth,

• It includes the non-living land features
 Hydrosphere

• It is composed of all the waters on or near

the Earth’s surface.
• It includes oceans, rivers, and lakes
Cryosphere

•Earth’s hydrosphere can be in a form of

liquid, vapor, and ice such as glaciers, ice
caps, and icebergs.
 Atmosphere
• It composes the air we breathe and the blanket of gas that
surrounds our planet up to the edge of the space.
•Earth’s atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and the rest are
Argon, Carbon dioxide, methane, and trace elements of inert
gases.
•Through Rayleigh scattering, the atmosphere also scatters high
frequency light waves reducing their intensity when they reach the
Earth’s biosphere.
 OF THE ATMOS
RS PHE
YE R
A

E
L
LAYERS OF EARTH'S
ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere
 TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere is the lowest
layer of Earth's atmosphere,
extending from the surface up
to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9
miles) in altitude. It is where
weather occurs and where most
of the atmosphere's mass,
including water vapor and
pollutants, is found.
 er
STRATOSPHERE

ay
eL
Ozon
The stratosphere is the layer of
Earth's atmosphere located above

yer
the troposphere and extending from

La
about 15 to 50 kilometers (9 to 31

e
miles) above the surface. It contains

on
the ozone layer, which absorbs and

Oz
scatters ultraviolet solar radiation,

er
protecting life on Earth from harmful

ay L
UV rays.

ne
zo
O
 MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the layer of
Earth's atmosphere situated above
the stratosphere and below the
thermosphere, extending from about
50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles)
above the surface. It is characterized
by decreasing temperatures with
altitude, and it is where most
meteorites burn up upon entering the
atmosphere.
 THERMOSPHERE
The thermosphere is the layer of
Earth's atmosphere located above
the mesosphere and extending from
about 85 kilometers (53 miles) to 600
kilometers (373 miles) above the
surface. It is characterized by a
dramatic increase in temperature
with altitude, and it contains the
ionosphere, where auroras occur and
radio waves are reflected back to
Earth.
 EXOSPHERE
The exosphere is the outermost
layer of Earth's atmosphere,
extending from about 600 kilometers
(373 miles) above the surface to the
edge of space. In this layer,
atmospheric particles are extremely
sparse and gradually transition into
the vacuum of space, making it where
satellites orbit and where the
atmosphere merges with outer space.
The __________ is situated above the stratosphere and extends from
about 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles), where most meteorites
burn up. The __________ is the outermost layer, extending from
about 600 kilometers (373 miles) to the edge of space, where
atmospheric particles gradually transition into space. The
__________ is located above the mesosphere, from about 85
kilometers (53 miles) to 600 kilometers (373 miles), and features a
significant increase in temperature with altitude. The __________
extends from approximately 15 to 50 kilometers (9 to 31 miles) and
contains the ozone layer. The __________ is the layer closest to
Earth's surface, extending up to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles)
and where weather occurs.
 Answers:
1. Mesosphere
2. Exosphere
3. Thermosphere
4. Stratosphere
5. Troposphere
 Biosphere

• “zone of life”
• It is the part of the Earth where life exists
• It produces the succession of life forms needed to
keep the planet inhabitable
How do Earth’s spheres interact?
•Open system – where
matter and energy are
exchanged with the
surroundings.
•Closed system – where
only energy but not
matter is exchange with
the surroundings.
•Earth is a closed system,
but its subsystems are
open.
The __________ includes all living organisms on Earth and
their interactions with each other and their environments. The
__________ refers to the solid part of Earth, including the crust
and mantle. The __________ encompasses all the frozen water
on Earth, including glaciers and polar ice. The __________ is
the layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential for sustaining
life. An __________ is a system that exchanges both energy
and matter with its surroundings. A __________ is a system
that exchanges only energy, not matter, with its surroundings.
 Answers:

1. Biosphere
2. Geosphere
3. Cryosphere
4. Atmosphere
5. Open System
6. Closed System
SOME SCIENTISTS AND
THEIR
CONTRIBUTIONS IN
THE STUDY OF EARTH
SYSTEMS
Alexander von Humboldt
(1769-1859)
•Father of Modern Geography.
•A German explorer and naturalist.
•His most important ideas are the following:

a) The physical conditions of an environment

affect the distribution of plants and animals.
b) He laid the foundations for the modern
science of climatology.
c) He championed a quantitative approach to
studying nature.
d)
Humboldt’s magnum opus was Kosmos, it
was the most comprehensive publication
about the universe of its time.
Charles Lyell (1797- 1875)

Charles Lyell was a pioneering geologist who

popularized the concept of
uniformitarianism, the idea that Earth's
geological features were shaped by
continuous and consistent processes over
long periods of time.

He authored the influential book "Principles

of Geology," which greatly influenced the
scientific community, including Charles
Darwin.
UNIFORMITARIANISM
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Charles Darwin was an English
naturalist who developed the
theory of evolution by natural
selection.
His work revolutionized biology
by explaining how species adapt
and evolve over time.
 Alfred Wegener was a German scientist who
Alfred proposed the theory of continental drift,
Wegener arguing that Earth's continents were once joined
and have since drifted apart. His ideas were
(1880-1930) foundational to the modern theory of plate
tectonics.