12,6. REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL 555 signals and disturbances, there are schemes which employ stochastic controt con- cepts, e.g., minimization of some expected value of an integral quadratic error cri- terion, Usually, this results in the design of the Kalman filter, which is of value for the control of small random disturbances. 12.6 REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL, The generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reac tive power flow. The generator excitation of older systems may be provided through slip rings and brushes by means of de generators mounted on the same shaft as the rotor of the synchronous machine. However, modern excitation systems usually use ac generators with rotating rectifiers, and are known as brushless excitation. ‘As we have seen, a change in the real power demand affects essentially the frequency, whereas a change in the reactive power affects mainly the voltage mag- nitude. The interaction between voltage and frequency controls is generally weak enough to justify their analysis separately. The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactors. The generator reactive powers are controlled by field excitation. Other supplementary methods of improving the voltage profite on electric transmission systems are transformer load-tap changers, switched capacitors, step-voltage regulators, and static var control equipment. The primary means of generator reactive power con- tol is the generator excitation control using automatic voltage regulator (AVR), which is discussed in this chapter. The role of an (AVR) is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specified level. The schematic diagram of a simplified AVR is shown in Figure 12.29 ‘An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a drop in the terminal voltage magnitude, The voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential transformer on one phase. This voltage is rectified and compared to a de set point signal. The amplified error signal controls the exciter field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the generator field current is increased, which results in an increase in the generated emf. The reactive power generation is in- creased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal voltage to the desired value. We will look briefly at the simplified models of the component involved in the AVR system, 12.6.1 AMPLIFIER MODEL ‘The excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic amplifier, rotating amplifier, or modem electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by a gain K’, and atime556 12. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL Exciter rn + adi JAmplifie) vp C) ———+ ar At whe Stabilizer PT on Rectifier URE 12.29 A typical arrangement of a simple AVR. constant 74, and the transfer function is Vals) __K, Ve(s) 1 +748 ‘Typical values of K's are in the range of 10 to 400. The amplifier time constant is very small, in the range of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and often is neglected. 12.6.2 EXCITER MODEL There is a variety of different excitation types. However, modem excitation sys~ tems uses ac power source through solid-state rectifiers such as SCR. The output voltage of the exciter is a nonlinear function of the field voltage because of the satu- ration effects in the magnetic circuit. Thus, there is no simple relationship between the terminal voltage and the field voltage of the exciter. Many models with various degrees of sophistication have been developed and are available in the IEEE rec. ommendation publications. A reasonable model of a modem exciter is a linearized =~ model, which takes into account the major time constant and ignores the satura- tion or other nonlinearities. In the simplest form, the transfer function of a modern’ exciter may be represented by a single time constant 7 and a gain Kg, ic, Ve(s) _ _Ke_ (12.30) Vals) ~ 14758 The time constant of modem exciters are very small.126, REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL 557 12.6.3 GENERATOR MODEL The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine magneti- zation curve, and its terminal voltage is dependent on the generator load. In the linearized model, the transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage to its field voltage can be represented by a gain Kg and a time constant 7, and the transfer function is Vs) _ Ke Ve(s) 1 +78 ‘These constants are load dependent, Kg may vary between 0.7 to 1, and 7¢ be- tween 1.0 and 2.0 seconds from full-load to no-load. (12.31) 12.6.4 SENSOR MODEL The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and, in one form, itis rectified through a bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a simple first order transfer function, given by (12.32) Tris very small, and we may assume a range of 0.01 to 0.06 second. Utilizing the above models results in the AVR block diagram shown in Figure 12.30. Veg 3) Ve(s) | Ka, Wels) (ie rel K Vi(s) Teta Tere Tea Vs(s) Amplifier Exciter Generator Sensor Kn Teta FIGURE 12.30 ‘A simplified automatic voltage regulator block diageam. ‘The open-loop transfer function of the block diagram in Figure 12.30 is KaKeKoKr K )H(s) = ———_____* = * * SHC) = ETL tes)(i + ro8 LF TRS) and the closed-loop transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage V;(s) to the reference voltage Vyes(s) is (12.33) KakKeKoKr(1ttrs) aR RE RU t tRS) 12,34) (1+ 748)(1 + res)(1 + 7¢8)(1 + Tes) + KaKeKoKr t J58°12. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL, or Vis) = T(s)Vees(s) (12.35) For a step input V;e;(s) = 4, using the final value theorem, the steady-state re- sponse is (12.36) Example 12.6 The AVR system of a generator has the following parameters Gain___ Time constant Amplifier Ka Ta=0.1 Exciter = Kp =1 Generator, Kg = 1 Sensor Ky {Sensor _Kr=1 m=005 | (a) Use the Routh-Hurwitz array (Appendix B.2.1) to find the range of K‘, for control system stability. (b) Use MATLAB rlocus function to obtain the root focus plot. (c) The amplifier gain is set to K4 = 10 (i) Find the steady-state step response. i) Use MATLAB to obtain the step response and the time-domain perfor- mance specifications. (d) Construct the SIMULINK block diagram and obtain the step response. Substituting the system parameters in the AVR block diagram of Figure 12.30 re- sults in the block diagram shown in Figure 12.31. Yees(8) 7, Vals) s Tea als) Mele) Med wits Troms we Vs(s) FIGURE 12.31 AVR block diagram for Example 12.6,12.6. REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL 559. ‘The open-loop transfer function of the AVR system shown in Figure 12.31 is Ka (1+ 0.1s)(1 + 0.45)(1 + 8)(1 + 0.085) 500K a (s + 10)(s + 2.5)(s + 1)(s + 20) _ 500K 4 ~~ s# 433.539 + 307.55? + 775s + 500 KG(s)H(s) = (a) The characteristic equation is given by 500K4 s4 + 33.58 + 307.5s? + 775ss + 500 which results in the characteristic polynomial equation 1+ KG(s)H(s) =1+ st + 33.58? + 307.5s? + 775s + 500 + 500K, =0 ‘The Routh-Hurwitz array for this polynomial is then (see Appendix B.2.1) st] 307.5 500 + 500K 4 s* | 33.5 115 0 s? | 284.365, 500+ 500K, 0 s) | 58.9K,-716.1 0 0 8° | 500 + 500K From the s’ row we see that, for control system stability, K/4 must be fess than 12.16, also from the s° row, A’, must be greater than —1. Thus, with positive values of Kg, for control system stability, the amplifier gain must be Ka < 12.16 For K = 12.16, the auxiliary equation from the s® row is 284.365s* + 6580 = 0 or s = +£4.81. That is, for K = 12.16, we have a pair of conjugate poles on the jus axis, and the control system is marginally stable. (b) To obtain the root-locus plot for the range of K from 0 to 12.16, we use the following commands. num*500; den=[1 33.5 307.5 775 500); ‘igure(1), rlocus(num, den);560 12. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL, 25 5.0 FIGURE 12.32 Root-locus plot for Example 12.6. The result is shown in Figure 12.32. The loci intersect the ju axis at s = +£4.81 for K'4 = 12.16. Thus, the system is marginally stable for K’, = 12.16. (©) The closed-loop transfer function of the system shown in Figure 12.31 is Vis) 25K ais +20) Veeg(s) 4+ 33.559 + 907.58? + 775s + 500 + 500KA (i) The steady-state response is Ka 1+Ka For the amplifier gain of K'4 = 10, the steady-state response is V,, = lim s¥i(s) = 10 Vou = 90 = 0.909 and the steady-state error is Vex, = 1.0 = 0.909 = 0.091 In order to reduce the steady-state error, the amplifier gain must be increased, which results in an unstable control system. (ii) To obtain the step response and the time-domain performance specifications, we use the following commands126, REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL 561 33.5 307.5 775 §00+ S00sKA); t=0: .05:20; c=step(numc, denc, t); figure(2), plot(t, c), grid timespec(aumc, denc) The time-domain performance specifications are Peak time = 0.791 Rise time 0.247 Settling time = 19.04 Percent overshoot = 82.46 The terminal voltage step response is shown in Figure 12.33. Terminal voltage step response 10 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 4 8 12 16 20 ty sec FIGURE 12.33 ‘Tecminal voltage step response for Example 12.6. (d) A SIMULINK model named sim12ex6.mdl is constructed as shown in Figure 12.34. The file is opened and is run in the SIMULINK window. The simulation results in the same response as shown in Figure 12.33. From the results, we see that for an amplifier gain K'4 = 10, the response is highly oscillatory, with a very large overshoot and a long settling time. Furthermore, the steady-state error is over 9 percent. We cannot have a small steady-state error and a satisfactory transient response at the same time.56212, POWER SYSTEM CONTROL, Vees — 9 + rte hat] ah Step Amplifier Exciter Gen. q | Mux Scope y 1 Me O50 Sensor ‘To workspace FIGURE 12.34 ‘Sumulation block diagram for Example 12.6. 12.6.5 EXCITATION SYSTEM STABILIZER — RATE FEEDBACK ‘As we have seen in Example 12.6, even for an small amplifier gain of Ka = 10, AVR step response is not satisfactory, and a value exceeding 12.16 resulls in an unbounded response. Thus, we must increase the relative stability by introducing a controller, which would add a zero to the AVR open-loop transfer function, One way to do this is to add a rate feedback to the control system as shown in Figure 12.35. By proper adjustment of Af and rp, satisfactory response can be obtained. Vees(s) Ves) Ge |Vale) eg | Yel) [Ge _EO) eas Tees ihe ) ‘Amplifier Exciter Generator Stabilizer FIGURE 12:35 Block diagram of the compensated AVR system.