EEE 4381

Electronics and Digitization Techniques

Lecture-1
Ref: Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad & Louis Nashelsky (11th edition)
Article: 1.1-1.5

Creating Global Citizens Rooted with Islamic Values

 Materials

Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

• High electrical conductivity • Low electrical conductivity • The conductivity is
• Large numbers of free • Electrons are tightly bound to greater than insulators
electrons their atoms but less than that of
• Copper, silver, iron • Rubber, glass conductors
• Silicon, germanium
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a
good conductor and that of an insulator.

• Four electrons in the outermost shell- tetravalent

• Four valence electrons of one atom form a bonding arrangement with four adjoining atoms
• This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called covalent bonding
Semiconductors • The covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the
valence electrons and their parent atom. But it is still possible for the
valence electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external
natural causes to break the covalent bond and assume the “free”
state.
• Intrinsic Semiconductor- any semiconductor material that has been
carefully refined to reduce the number of impurities to a very low
level—essentially as pure as can be made available through modern
technology.
• Intrinsic Carriers- The free electrons in a material due only to
external causes.
• Relative Mobility- The ability of the free carriers to move throughout
the material. Higher the relative mobility factor, faster the response
time.
• Conductors- Increase in temperature causes increase in resistance.
• Semiconductors- Increase in temperature causes increase in
conductivity. Because more valence electrons absorb sufficient
thermal energy to break the covalent bond resulting in more free
carriers.
 Energy Levels
Isolated atoms

• The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher is

the energy state.
• Any electron that has left its parent atom has a higher
energy state than any electron in the atomic structure.
• Only specific energy levels can exist for the electrons in
the atomic structure of an isolated atom.
• Series of gaps between energy levels where carriers are
not permitted.
 Energy Levels
Crystal Lattice Structure
• As the atoms of a material are brought closer together to form the crystal lattice structure.
• There is an interaction between the atoms. The discrete energy levels of the atoms interact and split into
many closely spaced levels called energy bands.
• To become a free carrier, the electrons in the valence band must overcome the Energy Gap between the
conduction band and the valence band.
 Energy Levels

• Energy gap of Ge < Energy gap of Si < Energy gap of GaAs.

• The difference in energy gaps is related to the sensitivity of each type of semiconductor to
changes in temperature.
• Ge has a small energy gap. As temperature increases, the number of electrons that can absorb
thermal energy and enter the conduction band will increase rapidly.
• As temperature increases, the number of electrons entering the conduction band of Si or GaAs
will be less than that of Ge.
• Ge devices: Photodetectors (sensitive to light)
• Si devices: larger energy gaps, less sensitive to temperature changes. Suitable for BJTs.
 Extrinsic Materials

• The characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered significantly by the addition of

specific impurity atoms to the relatively pure semiconductor material.
• These impurities can alter the band structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical
properties of the material. Impurity: 1 part in 10 million.
• Extrinsic material- A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process.
• Two types of extrinsic materials-
• n-Type
• p-Type
 n-Type Material
• An n -type material is created by introducing impurity elements
that have five valence electrons (pentavalent),such as antimony,
arsenic ,and phosphorus.
• Four covalent bonds are still present.
• There is an additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom,
which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond.
• This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony)
atom, is relatively free to move within the newly formed n -type
material.
• Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor
atoms.
• Even though a large number of free carriers have been
established in the n -type material, it is still electrically neutral
since ideally the number of positively charged protons in the
nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting negatively
charged electrons in the structure.
 n-Type Material
The effect of doping process

• A discrete energy level (called the donor level) appears in the forbidden band with an Eg significantly less
than that of the intrinsic material.
• Those free electrons sit at this energy level and have less difficulty absorbing a sufficient measure of thermal
energy to move into the conduction band at room temperature.
 p-Type Material

• The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or

silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence
electrons(trivalent), such as boron, gallium, and indium.
• There is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete
the covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting
vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a small circle or a
plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative charge.
• The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms.
• The resulting p -type material is electrically neutral.
 Electron Vs Hole Flow

• If a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created
by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released the electron.
• A transfer of holes to the left and electrons to the right.
 Majority and Minority Carriers

• In an n-type material ( Fig. 1.11a ) the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the
minority carrier.
• In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.