Unit 1 Introduction:

Social Psychology & Applied Social Psychology;

“Scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are influenced by the real imagined, or implied presence of other
people” - Allport 1985
Social Psychology Applied Social Psychology

- Developing theories & testing - Resolving & understanding practical problems

- Find the attempts to gain a better understanding of the - Systematic application of constructs principles theories,
nature & causes of behaviour intervention techniques & research problems

1898 Norman Triplett → social facilitation Understand the causes of behaviour & thought

1930 Kurt Lewin → gestalt Characteristics and actions of others

1940 Persuasion & Propaganda Cognitive process

1960 Cognitive dissonance, bystander effect, aggression Environmental factors

1970 Crisis in SP → ethical concerns Cultural context

’80-’90s Theory & Methodology Biological & evolutionary factors

Theories
Social facilitation An increase in response merely from the sight or sound of others making the same movement
(1924)
Co-action Audience Social inhibition

- Doing things together - In front of people - Can't perform

Social loafing Where people tend to exert less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone.

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 This is mostly applicable when individual contributions are not obvious.

Bystander effect Individuals feel less responsible to intervene when many other people are around.
If no one else reacts → might not be an emergency

Research methods in social psychology

Hypothesis A simple declarative statement derived from a theory, Answer to research question
usually regarding the nature of a construct
Tentative

Testable

Research design The framework of research methods & techniques chosen by the research.

The methods Experiment → lab vs field

Observation → controlled, naturalistic, participant

Surveys → online, telephone, mail

Case study

Correlation → variable (∓0)

Classic Albert Bandura Bobo doll Aggression 1966

experiments
Kenneth Clark Doll test Stereotypes 1940

Stanley Milgram Lost letter Prejudice 1977

Muzafer Sherif Robbers cave Aggression and prejudice 1961

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Unit 2 Social Cognition & Attitudes:
Social cognition
Definition Processes that influence how people process, interpret and respond to social signals

Common Mental process

factors - Perception, memory, thought

Social Mental representation of social patterns & norms

schema → organise

Attitude “Learned the tendency to view and judge things in a certain way. Umbrella terms include opinions, emotions,
perceptions, beliefs, expectations, values and intentions”

Self-perception
Affects our motivations, attitudes, and behaviours, and our age.
Roger’s 3 parts of Ideal self The self you want to be attributes either working toward or want to possess.
self-concept
Self-image How do you see yourself at this moment in time?

Self-esteem How much do you like to accept and value yourself all contribute to your SE? how others
see you, and your role in society?

Incongruence Conditional love

Congruence Unconditional love

Social Identity theory Personal That makes you unique

Social Based on your membership in a social group

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Formation and change of attitude
Definition - Set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours towards a particular object, person, thing or event.
- Result of experiences, education, upbringing and social influences.
- Enduring but can change

Components Affective → how the object, person, or issues make you feel

Behavioural → how you respond

Cognitive → your perception of the issues

Explicit → we are consciously aware Implicit → unconsciously effects

Formation Experience Learning (Learning theory)

Classical Operant Observational

Impact on - If you are an expert

behaviour - Have passion
- Comfortable expressing
- You stand to lose something

Theories Elaboration likelihood theory

- Appeal to logic is more likely to lead to permanent changes in attitude
- Influenced by the likeable characteristics of the speaker

Group processes - Refers to the behaviour of the members of small working groups (3-12) as they engage in
decision-making and task performance.
- Study of how members’ characteristics interact with the behaviour → to create (in)effective GP
- Norms, rules, status, identity, social interaction → group task performance
- Development over time, typologies, decision-making schemes
- Outcomes → cohesion, process loss & grain, free riding.
- Difficulties brainstorming, group thinking, group polarisation

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 Pro-social behaviour
Benefits Types Why do we help others Other influences

- Mood-boosting - Proactive - Evolutionary - Fear of

effects - Reactive influences judgement or
- Social support - Altruistic - Personal embarrassment
benefits benefits - How other
- Stress-reducing - Reciprocal people will
effects behaviour respond
- Socialisation - The no. of
people present.
+ Bystander effect

Interpersonal attraction - Physical Attractiveness: People tend to be drawn to others who they find visually appealing.
- Similarity: Shared values, interests, and attitudes can foster connection, as people often feel more
comfortable with those who are like them.
- Proximity: Physical closeness increases chances of interaction, which can lead to attraction over
time.
- Reciprocity: Knowing that someone likes you can increase your attraction toward them.
- Personality Traits: Warmth, kindness, and a good sense of humour often enhance interpersonal
attraction.

Theory of cognitive - Psychological distress due to conflicting beliefs and behaviour

dissonance - May alter beliefs to match behaviour

Unit 3 Social Processes:

Attribution theory
Concept and nature Attribution theory explains how people interpret and assign causes to behaviour—either their own or others.
Developed by Fritz Heider, it suggests that people attribute behaviour to either internal (dispositional) or
external (situational) factors. For example, if someone arrives late to work, colleagues might attribute this

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 behaviour to personal habits (dispositional) or heavy traffic (situational).

Applications In the workplace: Helps explain employee motivation and performance evaluations

In education: Teachers might use attribution to understand students' academic performance, encouraging
students to see success as due to effort (an internal factor) rather than ability

In social psychology: Helps to understand biases like the fundamental attribution error, where people
overemphasise dispositional factors and underestimate situational influences on others' behaviour.

Groups Processes:
Types of Groups Primary Groups: Small, close-knit groups, such as family or close friends, characterised by intimate,
personal relationships.

Secondary Groups: Larger, goal-oriented groups with impersonal, formal relationships, like a work team or
a professional association

Formal and Informal Groups: Formal groups have structured roles and rules, whereas informal groups
form naturally based on social interactions

Group Cohesiveness Cohesiveness is the bond that holds group members together, often strengthened by shared goals, values, and
a sense of belonging. High cohesiveness can enhance group performance, loyalty, and morale but can also
lead to conformity or groupthink if unchecked

Group Morale Group morale refers to the collective spirit and confidence of a group. Positive morale can improve
productivity, creativity, and satisfaction, while low morale can lead to disengagement and conflict

Social Climate The social climate of a group involves the overall atmosphere, including how supportive, competitive, or
cooperative members are. A positive social climate fosters openness, trust, and creativity.

Groups vs. Individuals in Groups often bring diverse perspectives, leading to more comprehensive problem-solving.
Problem-Solving However, individual problem-solving can be faster and less prone to biases like groupthink, where

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 the desire for harmony overrides critical thinking

Positive and Negative Positive: Encourages support, cooperation, and shared accountability.
Impacts of Group Influence
Negative: This can lead to groupthink, conformity, or social loafing (where individuals put in less
effort because they rely on the group).

Cooperation and Competition Cooperation involves working together towards a common goal, fostering trust and mutual support.
Competition, on the other hand, can motivate but may also lead to conflict, stress, and decreased
morale if it becomes excessive

What would you choose Prisoner 1

Silence Betray

Prisoner 2 Silence (1,1) (3,0)

Betray (0,3) (2,2)

Types of Leaders: Autocratic Leaders: Make decisions unilaterally, often effective in urgent situations but may stifle
team input

Democratic Leaders: Involve group members in decision-making, which fosters trust and creativity
but may slow down the process

Laissez-faire Leaders: Provide minimal guidance, offering autonomy to team members. Works well
with highly skilled teams but may lead to a lack of direction if misapplied.

Functions of Leaders Leaders provide direction, set goals, and help resolve conflicts. They also motivate, inspire, and act
as role models

Basic Styles of Leaders Task-oriented: Focus on setting and achieving goals, efficient in high-stakes situations

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 People-oriented: Emphasise team morale, building strong interpersonal relationships, and
supportive work environments

Transformational: Inspire and motivate team members to exceed expectations, often leading to
innovative outcomes

Personal Qualities of Leaders Effective leaders typically exhibit qualities like integrity, empathy, adaptability, vision, and
resilience. These traits help them inspire trust, guide through challenges, and foster group
cohesiveness and morale.

Unit 4 Application of Social Psychology:

Process of intervention
Assessment and Diagnosis Identify and analyse the issue by collecting relevant data. Understanding root causes, stakeholders, and
current dynamics is crucial at this stage.

Planning Develop a clear intervention strategy, defining goals, timelines, and necessary resources. This plan
should specify the desired changes, steps for implementation, and responsibilities.

Implementation Execute the intervention plan, often in phases. This stage involves applying the designed actions,
monitoring progress, and managing resistance to change.

Evaluation and Feedback Measure the outcomes of the intervention against predefined goals. This stage involves analysing
effectiveness, gathering feedback from participants, and identifying any gaps in the process.

Sustaining Change Ensure that the intervention's positive effects are sustained by institutionalising changes, providing
ongoing support, and making necessary adjustments based on feedback.

Impact analysis
Defining Metrics Establish criteria for evaluating success, such as improved productivity, employee satisfaction, or
increased engagement.

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Data Collection Gather quantitative and qualitative data before, during, and after the intervention.

Comparison and Analysis Compare data against baseline measures to determine the effectiveness of the intervention.

Interpretation Analyse whether observed changes align with goals, noting any unexpected effects.

Reporting Share findings with stakeholders, highlighting successes, challenges, and recommendations for future
actions.

Communication:
Process Sender: The person or entity initiating the communication.

Encoding: The process of converting thoughts or ideas into a message format, often through language or symbols

Channel: The medium through which the message is conveyed, such as spoken words, emails, or body language

Receiver: The person or group for whom the message is intended

Decoding: The receiver interprets the message, trying to understand the sender's intent

Feedback: The response from the receiver, indicating whether the message was understood or if clarification is
needed

Noise: Any factor that can distort or interfere with the clarity of the message, like background sounds,
distractions, or misunderstandings

Channels Verbal Channels: Face-to-face conversations, phone calls, video conferences.

Written Channels: Emails, letters, reports, and text messages

Nonverbal Channels: Body language, gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice

Digital and Social Media: Online platforms such as social networks, websites, and forums

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Types Formal Communication: Structured communication, usually within professional or organisational settings, such
as reports, official emails, and presentations

Informal Communication: Casual or unstructured communication, often occurring between friends or

colleagues, like chatting or informal meetings

Vertical Communication: Communication between hierarchical levels, like manager-to-employee

Horizontal Communication: Communication among peers, such as between team members

Diagonal Communication: Communication that crosses both levels and departments in an organisation

Barriers to Physical Barriers: Distance, noise, or poor technological infrastructure

communication
Psychological Barriers: Prejudices, emotions, or anxiety that interfere with clarity

Language Barriers: Jargon, complex vocabulary, or linguistic differences that can lead to misunderstandings

Perceptual Barriers: Personal biases or assumptions that shape the interpretation of messages

Cultural Barriers: Differences in cultural norms or values that impact understanding and expression

Communication & Interpersonal behaviour

Shapes relationships Positive communication Poor communication Key behaviour Behaviour facilitates
through

- Verbal and - Foster trust - Conflicts - Openness - Understanding

nonverbal - Encourage collab - Misunderstandings - Assertiveness - Healthy
interactions - Mutual respect - Causes reduced - Empathy relationships
- Active listening, morale
empathy, and
effective feedback

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Unit 5 Application of Social Psychology:
Application of Social Psychology
Work Social psychology applies to workplaces by understanding behaviours that impact productivity, motivation, and teamwork

Concepts such as group dynamics, motivation, leadership styles, and organisational culture are applied to improve
workplace relationships and outcomes

Conflict resolution, communication strategies, and interventions to boost employee satisfaction and reduce stress are also
critical applications

Aggression The Nature of Aggression: Aggression refers to behaviours intended to cause harm to others, whether physically,
verbally, or psychologically. It can be reactive (emotional and impulsive) or proactive (planned and instrumental).

Process of Aggression: Aggression often follows a sequence: arousal (trigger), provocation, interpretation, emotional
reaction, and response. The interpretation of a situation as threatening or hostile can escalate aggression.

Causes Biological Factors: Genetics, hormones (e.g., testosterone), and neurological factors.

Psychological Factors: Personality traits, learned behaviour, and exposure to aggressive models

Environmental Factors: Stress, crowding, heat, and lack of personal space.

Social and Cultural Influences: Norms, values, and social conditioning play roles.

Reducing Techniques include anger management, improving communication skills, stress reduction practices, and creating
supportive social environments

Social interventions can involve educating on empathy, promoting nonviolent conflict resolution, and fostering
cooperative goals

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War and Peace
Various Social Social settings, such as schools, workplaces, and communities, can either exacerbate or reduce aggression
Settings
Exposure to aggression in media or within social groups can normalise violent behaviours, leading to increased aggression

Psychological Factors include nationalism, dehumanisation of enemies, obedience to authority, and in-group vs. out-group dynamics
Causes
Propaganda, economic inequality, and fear-based ideologies can also psychologically fuel conflicts

Facts War often stems from complex interplays of political, economic, and social factors

Wars have profound psychological effects on individuals, including PTSD, anxiety, and societal trauma.

Suggestions for Encourage diplomacy, cross-cultural communication, and conflict resolution.

peace
Promote educational initiatives that reduce prejudice, foster empathy, and emphasise shared human values

Support social and economic policies that reduce inequality and resource competition

Violence Violence is an extreme form of aggression, often resulting in physical harm or death.

Social psychology studies violence in various forms, from domestic abuse to hate crimes, to develop preventive strategies.

Cultural Social psychology helps in understanding how cultural diversity impacts behaviours, attitudes, and social norms
diversity
Studies in this area promote inclusion, reduce stereotypes and biases, and improve intergroup relations by emphasising
cultural empathy and tolerance

Health Social psychology applies to health by promoting behaviours that enhance well-being, such as healthy lifestyles, stress
management, and coping mechanisms

Health psychology also studies the effects of social support, the impact of stress on health, and psychological barriers to
adopting healthy behaviours

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Environment Social psychologists study how people perceive and interact with their physical environment, including attitudes toward
environmental conservation

Research encourages sustainable behaviours, promotes awareness of environmental issues, and investigates social influences
on eco-friendly practices, such as recycling and conservation efforts

Unit 6 Public opinion and propaganda:

Dynamics of Public Opinion
Public Opinion: Collective attitudes and beliefs of a population on issues, events, or policies

Formation and Shaped by media, education, cultural values, and significant events.
Influence:
Socialisation processes, peer influence, and family background play roles

Change and Public opinion can shift due to new information, social movements, influential leaders, or significant events.
Evolution
Critical moments, such as crises or political shifts, can dramatically alter public opinion

Measurement of Public Opinion

Surveys and The most common method; uses samples of the population to infer public attitudes.
Polls
Includes telephone surveys, online polls, and face-to-face interviews

Focus Groups Small, diverse groups provide detailed insights into specific issues.

Useful for understanding the reasoning behind opinions

Social Media Analyses posts, trends, and engagement to gauge public sentiment in real time.
Analysis

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 Provides insights into how quickly opinions shift and how different demographics respond

Content Examines media, publications, and other content to understand recurring themes and public reactions
Analysis
Often used to understand trends over time and the impact of media on opinion.

Limitations Sampling errors, biases, and response accuracy can affect results.

Interpretation may vary depending on question-wording, timing, and sampling method.

Changing Public Opinion and Propaganda

Changing Public Opinion: Change methods include education campaigns, framing issues in a particular way, and emphasising
Public opinion can be certain values or facts over others
influenced through
information, persuasion, and Opinion leaders (celebrities, experts, or community figures) often play a key role in changing
social pressures opinions.

Propaganda: Propaganda involves communication aimed at influencing public opinion, often by presenting
biassed or selective information.

Used by governments, organisations, and individuals to shape attitudes and behaviours.

Techniques of Propaganda Bandwagon: Encourages people to follow the majority or "jump on the bandwagon."

Testimonials: Use endorsements from celebrities or authority figures to lend credibility.

Plain Folks Appeal: Tries to present ideas as relatable to "ordinary people."

Fear Appeal: Creates fear to prompt a desired response or discourage opposition

Name-Calling: Uses negative labels to discourage support for an opposing idea or individual

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 Glittering Generalities: Uses vague, emotionally appealing words (e.g., "freedom" or "patriotism") to
gain support without specifics

Transfer: Connects a product, person, or policy to a respected symbol (like the national flag) to boost
its appeal.

Instruments of Propaganda Media Television, radio, newspapers, and online platforms are primary channels for
spreading propaganda widely and rapidly

Social media Social media platforms allow targeted messaging, viral content, and micro-level
persuasion.

Hashtags, memes, and influencers are frequently used to spread specific

viewpoints.

Public speeches Speeches by influential figures can reinforce messages and boost emotional
and rallies responses.

Advertisements Visual and written ads, posters, and billboards communicate key messages in
and posters public spaces.

Movies, music Entertainment media and art can embed ideologies, subtly shaping public
and art perception over time

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