Review

Evaluation of Green Strategies for Prolonging the Lifespan

of Linear Wireless Sensor Networks
Valery Nkemeni 1, * , Fabien Mieyeville 2 , Godlove Suila Kuaban 3 , Piotr Czekalski 4 , Krzysztof Tokarz 4 ,
Wirnkar Basil Nsanyuy 1 , Eric Michel Deussom Djomadji 5 , Musong L. Katche 1 , Pierre Tsafack 1
and Bartłomiej Zieliński 4

1 Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Buea, Buea P.O. Box 63, Cameroon
2 University de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, INSA Lyon, CNRS,
Ampère, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; [email protected]
3 Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Baltycka 5,
44-100 Gliwice, Poland; [email protected]
4 Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology,
Akademicka 16, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland; [email protected] (P.C.); [email protected] (K.T.)
5 College of Technology, University of Buea, Buea P.O. Box 63, Cameroon
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Battery-powered sensor nodes encounter substantial energy constraints, especially in linear
wireless sensor network (LWSN) applications like border surveillance and road, bridge, railway,
powerline, and pipeline monitoring, where inaccessible locations exacerbate battery replacement
challenges. Addressing these issues is crucial for extending a network’s lifetime and reducing
operational costs. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the factors affecting WSN energy
consumption at the node and network levels, alongside effective energy management strategies
for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime. By categorizing existing strategies into node energy reduction,
network energy balancing, and energy replenishment, this study assesses their effectiveness when
implemented in LWSN applications, providing valuable insights to assist engineers during the design
Citation: Nkemeni, V.; Mieyeville, F.; of green and energy-efficient LWSN monitoring systems.
Kuaban, G.S.; Czekalski, P.; Tokarz, K.;
Nsanyuy, W.B.; Deussom Djomadji,
Keywords: energy management; energy conservation; energy balancing; energy harvesting; linear
E.M.; Katche, M.L.; Tsafack, P.;
wireless sensor networks; green wireless sensor networks; network lifetime
Zieliński, B. Evaluation of Green
Strategies for Prolonging the Lifespan
of Linear Wireless Sensor Networks.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024. https://
doi.org/10.3390/s24217024
1. Introduction
1.1. Wireless Sensor Networks and Applications
Academic Editors: Petr Musilek,
A wireless sensor network (WSN) comprises numerous embedded nodes equipped
Darius Andriukaitis and
Michal Prauzek
with sensing, processing, and wireless communications functionalities strategically de-
ployed across a designated area to observe physical or environmental conditions [1]. As
Received: 10 October 2024 distributed systems, WSNs utilize wireless communication for inter-node communication,
Revised: 28 October 2024 rendering them suitable for a wide range of applications.
Accepted: 29 October 2024 In tandem with WSNs, the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged. The
Published: 31 October 2024
IoT can be defined as the interconnection of identifiable devices within an internet network
for the purpose of sensing and monitoring processes [2]. WSN is thus a central component
of the IoT [3], as the IoT leverages the capabilities of WSNs to collect data about the
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
environment and execute actions based on the analysis of the gathered data [4]. In contrast
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. to WSNs, which do not inherently require internet connectivity, the IoT predominantly
This article is an open access article utilizes internet protocol (IP) connectivity to assign each of its components, or “things”, a
distributed under the terms and unique address. Figure 1 depicts the relationship between the IoT and WSN, illustrating a
conditions of the Creative Commons typical IoT scenario where data collection is facilitated using WSNs.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The application areas of WSNs encompass a wide range of domains, including geo-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ graphical monitoring, habitat monitoring, transportation, military systems, business pro-
4.0/). cesses, structural health monitoring, microclimate research, medical care, and others [5,6].

Sensors 2024, 24, 7024. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24217024 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 “things,”
“things,” a unique
a unique address.
address. Figure
Figure 1 depicts
1 depicts thethe relationship
relationship between
between thethe
IoTIoT andand WSN,
WSN,
illustrating a typical IoT scenario where data collection is facilitated
illustrating a typical IoT scenario where data collection is facilitated using WSNs. using WSNs.

Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 TheThe application

application areas
areas of WSNs
of WSNs encompass
encompass a wide
a wide range
range of domains,
of domains, including
including geo-
geo-
graphical monitoring, habitat monitoring, transportation, military systems,
graphical monitoring, habitat monitoring, transportation, military systems, business pro- business pro-
2 of 43
cesses,
cesses, structural
structural health
health monitoring,
monitoring, microclimate
microclimate research,
research, medical
medical care,
care, andand others
others [5,6].
[5,6].
In a survey conducted by Kandris et al. [7], the applications of WSNs
In a survey conducted by Kandris et al. [7], the applications of WSNs were classified into were classified into
six primary categories (military, environmental, health, flora and fauna, industrial, andand
six primary categories (military, environmental, health, flora and fauna, industrial,
In a survey conducted by Kandris et al. [7], the applications of WSNs were classified into
urban)
six based
primary on their
categories respective
(military, usage scenarios,
environmental, as illustrated
health, flora
urban) based on their respective usage scenarios, as illustrated in Figure 2. in Figure
and 2.
fauna, industrial, and
urban) based on their respective usage scenarios, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure
Figure
Figure 1.Relationship
Relationship
1.1.Relationship between
between IoT
IoTIoT
between and
andand WSN.
WSN.
WSN.

Figure
Figure 2. Application
2. Application areas
areas for for
WSN.WSN.
Figure 2. Application areas for WSN.

1.2. Linear Wireless Sensor Networks

In many WSN applications, the structure of the monitored area necessitates a linear
deployment of sensor nodes, giving rise to a special class of WSNs known as linear wireless
sensor networks (LWSNs) [8]. Prominent examples include border surveillance [9,10],
road monitoring [11], railway/subway monitoring [12,13], powerline monitoring [14–16],
sea/river shore monitoring [17], and pipeline monitoring [18–24]. In all the aforementioned
applications, the common characteristic is that the area under consideration extends solely
in one dimension [25]. Figure 3 depicts a LWSN deployed for pipeline monitoring.
 less sensor networks (LWSNs) [8]. Prominent examples include border surveillance [9,10],
road monitoring [11], railway/subway monitoring [12,13], powerline monitoring [14–16],
sea/river shore monitoring [17], and pipeline monitoring [18–24]. In all the aforemen-
tioned applications, the common characteristic is that the area under consideration ex-
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 tends solely in one dimension [25]. Figure 3 depicts a LWSN deployed for pipeline moni-
3 of 43
toring.

Figure 3. LWSN deployed for pipeline monitoring.

Figure 3. LWSN deployed for pipeline monitoring.

Linearwireless
Linear wirelesssensor
sensornetworks
networks(LWSNs)
(LWSNs)present
presentseveral
severalchallenges,
challenges, such
such as
as ensuring
ensur-
ing successful end-to-end delivery, providing a reasonable packet delivery timeframe,
successful end-to-end delivery, providing a reasonable packet delivery timeframe, and
and maintaining energy efficiency. The main reason for this is that the linear topology
maintaining energy efficiency. The main reason for this is that the linear topology restricts
restricts the number of neighbors and, consequently, the potential transmission routes,
the number of neighbors and, consequently, the potential transmission routes, making data
making data delivery more vulnerable to failure compared to traditional WSNs. In addi-
delivery more vulnerable to failure compared to traditional WSNs. In addition to critical
tion to critical node failures (caused by energy exhaustion of nodes closer to the sink due
node failures (caused by energy exhaustion of nodes closer to the sink due to an uneven
to an uneven load distribution), failures can also arise from an increased number of re-
load distribution), failures can also arise from an increased number of retransmissions,
transmissions, leading to higher packet collision rates and traffic congestion [26,27]. Fur-
leading to higher packet collision rates and traffic congestion [26,27]. Furthermore, LWSNs
thermore, LWSNs usually span over long distances [28], and the deployment of nodes in
usually
LWSNsspanoftenover long
occurs distances
in remote [28], and the
or inaccessible deployment
areas, of nodes
such as mountain in LWSNs
ranges, often
overhead
occurs in remote
transmission or inaccessible
lines, areas, such
under water pipelines, etc.as[29],
mountain ranges, overhead
posing difficulties transmission
for battery replace-
lines, under water pipelines, etc. [29], posing difficulties for battery replacement
ment when the nodes become depleted [30]. Replacing the batteries of sensor nodes when
the nodes become depleted [30]. Replacing the batteries of sensor nodes deployed in
such areas presents significant challenges, including being labor-intensive and logistically
complex to access the sensor nodes [31]. Moreover, the associated costs of frequent battery
replacements contribute to the project’s operational expenses, making energy efficiency a
prominent concern in such applications. Additionally, depleted batteries directly hinder
the project’s goal of achieving continuous monitoring over extended periods, which may
compromise data collection and analysis efforts. Addressing this challenge has given rise to
an active research area referred to as green WSN/IoT [32–35]. In green WSNs, alternative
power sources (energy harvesting) and energy-efficient (energy savings) strategies are
used to minimize the reliance on battery power and prolong the operational lifespan of
sensor nodes. This reduces the frequency of battery replacement, reduce the amount of
electronic waste (pollution), and also reduce the carbon footprint. Therefore, prioritizing
energy efficiency is crucial in the design of LWSN solutions and by effectively addressing
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 4 of 43

energy consumption challenges, LWSN solutions can extend their operational lifetimes and
enhance their reliability in monitoring and data collection applications.

1.3. Contributions of This Paper

Numerous studies in the literature have reviewed energy management strategies
for extending the lifespan of WSNs [34,36–38]. However, due to the unique topology of
LWSNs, the challenges and solutions pertinent to LWSNs differ from those of conventional
WSNs [25]. Consequently, strategies effective for conventional WSNs may not be directly
applicable to LWSNs. Hence, there is a need to explore energy management strategies
specifically tailored to prolong the lifespan of LWSNs. To the best of our knowledge,
no existing study has comprehensively evaluated energy management strategies for en-
hancing the lifespan of LWSNs. This paper aims to address this gap by first providing a
comprehensive review of energy management strategies used in traditional WSNs and
then evaluating their suitability and impact in LWSNs. It highlights the ineffectiveness of
certain energy management techniques designed for traditional WSNs when used in the
context of LWSNs.
The contributions of this paper are threefold:
1. Novel Classification and Evaluation of Energy Management Techniques for LWSNs:
This paper provides a comprehensive taxonomy of energy management techniques
specifically tailored to LWSNs. Unlike traditional WSNs, LWSNs possess unique struc-
tural and operational challenges, particularly in critical applications such as border
surveillance, pipeline monitoring, powerline monitoring, etc. This research is among
the first to categorize and evaluate energy conservation strategies, balancing methods,
and energy replenishment solutions within this context, providing a roadmap for
engineers and researchers working on green LWSN deployments.
2. Significance in Prolonging the LWSN’s Lifespan: Extending the operational lifespan
of battery-powered LWSNs is crucial due to the high cost and logistical challenges
associated with battery replacement in remote or inaccessible areas. This study goes
beyond reviewing energy management strategies; it also offers insights into the
effectiveness of each technique under the constraints of LWSNs. By identifying the
techniques that significantly reduce energy consumption and by evaluating their
feasibility in LWSNs, this study contributes essential knowledge that will enhance the
reliability and sustainability of such networks.
3. Practical Implications for a Green LWSN Design: The findings of this research con-
tribute directly to the design of eco-friendly LWSNs by minimizing reliance on battery
replacements and reducing the environmental impact. This study identifies specific
energy management techniques that are both feasible and effective in LWSNs. The
proposed taxonomy and analysis offer practical guidelines for network designers
to develop energy-efficient solutions in environmentally sensitive and economically
challenging regions.

1.4. Organization of This Paper

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a framework for
classifying LWSNs, and Section 3 presents a classification of the energy management tech-
niques aimed at extending a WSN’s lifetime. Sections 4–6 delve into energy conservation
techniques, energy-balancing techniques, and energy-harvesting techniques, respectively,
evaluating the effectiveness of the techniques in the context of LWSNs. Section 7 discusses
the challenges associated with adopting energy management techniques from conventional
WSNs in LWSNs. Finally, Section 8 concludes the paper.

2. Framework of Linear Wireless Sensor Networks

2.1. Classification of LWSNs
A LWSN is a special class of WSN, characterized by its distinct topology, where nodes
are arranged in a straight or near-straight line, creating unique challenges in routing,
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 5 of 43

energy management, and network reliability [8]. Unlike traditional WSNs, which are often
designed for multi-dimensional topologies or random deployments, LWSNs are optimized
for applications where monitoring follows a linear path, making energy efficiency and
routing optimization critical [39]. In addition to its distinct topology, LWSNs also differ
from traditional WSNs in terms of node heterogeneity. While traditional WSNs may feature
homogeneous nodes with similar roles, LWSNs often comprise a mix of different types
of nodes.
Nodes in a LWSN are categorized based on their roles in the network, which impacts
how data are gathered and transmitted. Jawhar et al. [8] identified three primary types of
nodes in LWSNs:
1. Basic Sensor Nodes (BSNs): These are the standard sensing units in the network.
Their primary function is to collect data from the environment and transmit it to other
nodes for further processing. BSNs are typically energy-constrained, with limited
communication ranges and computing power, making energy efficiency essential for
extending the network’s lifespan.
2. Data Relay Nodes (DRNs): These nodes act as intermediaries between the BSNs and
the data dissemination nodes. Their function is to forward data collected by BSNs
along the linear path, ensuring that data reach their final destination (the central
processing system). DRNs help maintain network connectivity over long distances,
and they typically have more power than BSNs.
3. Data Dissemination Nodes (DDNs): These are high-level nodes responsible for col-
lecting data from DRNs and transmitting the data to the base station or central
monitoring system. They have stronger processing capabilities and higher energy
reserves than the other types of nodes, enabling them to manage large amounts of
data and handle long-range communication. These nodes make use of long-range
wireless communication technologies such as LoRa, satellite, cellular, etc.
According to the study by Jawhar et al. [8], LWSNs can be classified both topologically
and hierarchically. A LWSN from a given topological category can belong to any of the
three hierarchical categories depending on the application.
From a topological point-of-view, the authors classified LWSNs under three categories:
thin, thick, and very thick LWSNs. In thin LWSNs, sensor nodes are sparsely deployed along
the linear path, resulting in minimal coverage and reduced redundancy. These networks
are suitable for applications where only a basic level of monitoring is required, such as
pipeline and powerline monitoring [40]. Thick LWSNs feature a moderate density of nodes
along the monitored path, providing greater redundancy and more robust monitoring.
They are commonly used in scenarios requiring higher data reliability, such as railway or
highway monitoring [39]. Very thick LWSNs have a high density of sensor nodes, ensuring
comprehensive coverage and redundancy. These networks are typically used in critical
infrastructure monitoring, such as border surveillance or high-security installations, where
data loss and network failure are unacceptable [41].
From a hierarchical point-of-view, the authors classified LWSNs under three categories:
one-level, two-level, and three-level. In one-level LWSNs, there is no hierarchy among
the nodes, with all nodes having the same role (sensing, aggregation, and compression)
and transmitting data directly to a central base station or processing node. Two-level
LWSNs introduce a basic hierarchical structure, where BSNs relay data to DRNs, which
perform aggregation and then forward the information to a DDN for further processing.
In three-level LWSNs, a more complex hierarchy is established, with multiple layers of data
transmission. BSNs relay data to DRNs, which aggregate the data and send it to DDNs for
transmission to the central system. This hierarchical design improves network efficiency
and reduces the load on individual sensor nodes.

2.2. The Need for Specialized Protocols in LWSNs

The presentation of LWSNs provided in Section 2.1 shows that the most significant
difference between traditional WSNs and LWSNs lies in the network topology and routing.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 6 of 43

Traditional WSNs are typically deployed in multi-dimensional or randomly distributed

configurations, allowing nodes to have multiple neighboring nodes and offering more
flexibility in routing and data transmission. LWSNs, on the other hand, are constrained
by their linear deployment, where each node has only a few immediate neighbors along
the path.
From a routing point-of-view, the overheads required in traditional WSNs for tasks
such as route discovery, route maintenance, handling node failures to ensure network relia-
bility, and managing node heterogeneity are significantly reduced in LWSNs due to their
well-defined and structured topology [8]. In traditional WSNs, nodes are often deployed
randomly across a wide area, requiring complex routing protocols to establish multi-path
and multi-hop communications, deal with dynamic network changes, and ensure robust
data delivery. In contrast, LWSNs feature a linear topology where nodes are typically
placed along a defined path (e.g., pipelines, borders, or roads), meaning the routing paths
are more straightforward and predictable. This defined structure simplifies routing, as
nodes generally forward data in a unidirectional or bidirectional manner along the line.
Consequently, the need for frequent route updates and resource-intensive discovery pro-
cesses is minimized, leading to lower overheads [42]. Additionally, the concept of shortest
path routing, which is commonly used in traditional WSNs, is not well-suited for LWSNs
because of the linear configuration that limits the routing options to either forwarding
data to the left or to the right. Given this constrained topology, routing decisions are less
about finding the shortest path and more about ensuring reliable data transmission along
the linear structure while minimizing energy consumption [28]. Lastly, fault tolerance
mechanisms can be more straightforwardly implemented, e.g., using the opposite direction
of the failed node to reach the sink or increasing the transmission power to jump over the
failed sensor node and reach the next node along the line [8]. The focus is on maintaining
linear connectivity, reducing the need for energy-intensive recovery protocols, and opti-
mizing energy consumption in LWSNs [43]. Therefore, LWSNs require specialized routing
protocols that can account for the limited routing possibilities, focusing on factors such as
node energy levels, link quality, and fault tolerance to extend the network’s operational
lifetime [30].

2.3. Hypothesis on Energy Management Techniques in LWSNs

Energy management techniques commonly employed in traditional WSNs, particu-
larly those targeting the optimization of network topology and routing layers, may not
be as effective in LWSNs due to the constrained and unique linear topology. We hypothe-
size that the energy management techniques that involve the network layer will be most
impacted by the differences between traditional WSNs and LWSNs. Consequently, only
WSN energy management techniques that directly affect the network layer are likely to
have a considerable impact when applied to LWSNs, requiring a rethinking of strategies to
accommodate the network’s linear structure. Also, the most impactful energy management
techniques in LWSNs will be those that are capable of reducing the number of multi-hop
communications in LWSNs.
In this study, we focus only on thin LWSNs. Instead of focusing on a hierarchical
network structure, such as those found in clustered networks, our interest lies in flat LWSNs,
where all sensor-generated messages are relayed in a multi-hop fashion toward the sink
node. The following sections present a comprehensive review of the green strategies and
energy management techniques used in traditional WSNs and evaluate their applicability
to LWSNs. By categorizing these techniques into node energy reduction, network energy
balancing, and energy harvesting, we analyze the effectiveness of every technique in each
of the categories when applied to the specific requirements of LWSNs.

3. Classification of Energy Management Techniques for Prolonging WSN’s Lifetime

In this section, we begin by examining the energy consumption patterns within a
WSN, followed by an exploration of the various taxonomies used to classify the energy
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 7 of 43

management techniques in WSNs from previous studies. We conclude the section by intro-
ducing a taxonomy that we have adopted for categorizing energy management techniques
aimed at prolonging the lifespan of WSNs.

3.1. Energy Consumption Analysis of WSN

To comprehensively study the range of energy management techniques applicable to
WSNs, it is important to first analyze the power dissipation characteristics of a sensor node
and identify the factors that influence energy consumption both at the node level and across
the entire network. Conducting a thorough and systematic analysis of energy consumption
within a sensor node is crucial for identifying the key parameters that impact WSN energy
consumption. This analysis aids in gaining a deeper understanding of how various energy
management strategies function to effectively minimize energy consumption and extend
the lifespan of WSNs. In this subsection, we undertake an examination of WSN energy
consumption by first modeling the energy consumption of a sensor node. Subsequently,
we outline the parameters influencing energy consumption within a WSN, both at the node
level and across the network as a whole, as well as the sources of energy wastage.

3.1.1. Analysis of the Energy Consumption of a Sensor Node

A wireless sensor node comprises a sensing unit, processing unit, communication unit,
and power supply unit, as depicted in Figure 4.
• The sensing unit serves as an interface between the real world and the digital world. It
detects different phenomena from the environment, ranging from light, heat, pressure,
acceleration, etc., which serve as inputs to the sensor nodes. It is usually made up of
transducer and signal conditioning (ADC, filter, and amplifier) parts. The transducer
generates an electric signal proportional to the event or condition being monitored
or measured [44], and the generated electric signal is typically converted to digital
form using the ADC since the processing unit of sensor nodes can only process digital
data [45].
• The processing unit is the core of a wireless sensor node, and it is involved with the col-
lection of data from the sensors, processing this data (data filtering, data compression,
data aggregation, data routing, etc.), deciding when and where to send it, reception
of data from other sensor nodes, and the setting of actuators’ behaviors (if they are
present). It has to execute various programs, ranging from time-critical signal process-
ing to communication protocols of application programs. The categories of processing
and control units used in a sensor node include the microcontroller (MCU), digital
signal processor (DSP), programmable gate arrays (FPGA), and application-specific
integrated circuits (ASIC) [32,44].
• The communication unit is in charge of sending and receiving packets to or from
other sensor nodes in the network via wireless communication. The transceiver has
different modes of operation, which include transmitting, receiving, and idle/sleep
modes, with each state consuming a different amount of energy [46]. The choice
of the communication unit is very crucial in determining the sensor node’s energy
consumption since this unit consumes the highest energy compared to the processing
and sensing units [1,47].
• The power supply unit provides the node with the energy required to cater to the
node’s operations (sensing, data processing, and communication). Sensor nodes
are usually powered via energy stored in batteries or capacitors in applications that
require deployment in areas without access to the power grid. The batteries used
can either be rechargeable or non-rechargeable. For long-lasting WSN applications
where there is a need for sensor nodes to go for long periods unattended and without
replacing their energy source, the limited energy storage capacity of batteries is not
attractive. Currently, most sensor nodes are designed to have the optional ability to
recharge their battery from energy harvested through scavenging techniques such
 usually powered via energy stored in batteries or capacitors in applications that re-
quire deployment in areas without access to the power grid. The batteries used can
either be rechargeable or non-rechargeable. For long-lasting WSN applications where
there is a need for sensor nodes to go for long periods unattended and without re-
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 placing their energy source, the limited energy storage capacity of batteries is not 8 of 43
attractive. Currently, most sensor nodes are designed to have the optional ability to
recharge their battery from energy harvested through scavenging techniques such as
photovoltaics,
as photovoltaics, temperature gradients,
temperature vibrations,
gradients, pressure
vibrations, variations,
pressure the flow
variations, of of
the flow
air/liquid, etc. [48,49].
air/liquid, etc. [48,49].

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Components
Componentsof
ofaasensor
sensornode.
node.

To model
To model the
the energy
energyconsumption
consumptionofofa asensor
sensornode, it is
node, it essential to account
is essential for the
to account for the
energy consumed
energy consumed by byits
itsvarious
variouscomponents.
components. The
Theenergy
energyconsumed
consumed by abysensor node
a sensor is is
node
the sum
the sum of
of the
the energy
energy consumed
consumedininthe
theactive
activeand
andinactive (sleep)
inactive states.
(sleep) states.
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �(𝐸𝐸
 + 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝑘𝑘 ) (1) (1)
Etotal = ∑ E𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴,𝑘𝑘
Active,k + ESleep, k
𝑘𝑘
k
where 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the total energy, 𝐸𝐸𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴,𝑘𝑘 and 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝑘𝑘 represent the energy consumed in
the active
where and
Etotal is sleep states
the total in a single
energy, timeand
E Active,k Sleep, k k,
stepE(cycle) respectively.
represent the energy consumed in the
active and sleep states in a single time step (cycle) k, respectively.
Assuming that at every cycle (time step k), which lasts for a total duration of T, the sen-
sor node undergoes a wake-up from sleep for a duration of TWU, k , performs measurements
for a duration of TSU, k , performs data processing for a duration of Tproc, k , takes TWUT, k
to wake the transceiver up from sleep, perform data transmission and data reception for
TTX, k and TRX, k , respectively, and sleeps for a duration of TSleep, k [50,51], then

T = TWU,k + TSU, k + Tproc, k + TWUT, k + TTX, k + TRX, k + TSleep, k (2)

The energy consumed in the sleep state is given by

ESleep,k = PSleep,k × TSleep, k (3)

where PSleep,k and TSleep, k are the power consumption and the time duration in the sleep
mode, respectively, at time step k.
The energy consumed in the active state is the sum of the energy consumed by the
constituent parts of the sensor node and is given by

E Active,k = EPU,k + ECU, k + ESU, k (4)

Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 9 of 43

where EPU,k , ECU, k , and ESU, k are the energy consumed by the sensor node’s processing
unit, communication unit, and sensing unit, respectively, at time step k.
The processor’s energy consumption, EPU,k , is derived by adding the switching (dynamic)
and leakage (static) energies in the circuits. Dynamic energy is the energy needed to activate
parasitic capacitors on an IC from a digital zero voltage to a digital one voltage, while static
energy is the energy dissipated as a result of the current leakage from power to ground
that occurs constantly in the circuitry [52]. The energy consumed by the processing unit is
given by
EPU,k = PPU,k × TPU, k + Est,k (5)
where PPU,k is the power consumed by the processing unit when it is active. This power is
dependent on the operational frequency ( f PU, k ) of the processing unit. Est,k is the leakage
(static) energy, and TPU, k is the total duration for which the processing unit is active.

TPU,k = TWU,k + TSU, k + Tproc, k + TWUT, k + TTX, k + TRX, k (6)

PPU,k = C × V 2 × f PU, k (7)

where C and V denote the switching capacitance and supply voltage, respectively, and
f PU, k is the operational frequency of the processing unit.
A major part of the processing unit’s energy is consumed during data processing. The
duration for data processing (Tproc, k ) is dependent on the operational frequency ( f PU, k ) of
the processing unit and the number of instructions (Ninst ). Thus, the energy consumption
of the processor unit in the active state depends on the number of processed bits and the
frequency of the processor based on the following equation:

Ninst
Tproc,k = (8)
f PU,k

Since the processing unit encompasses the memory unit in our model, the energy
consumption of the processing unit is affected by the number of stored bits, the number of
memory reads and writes, and the duration of storage.
The energy consumed by the sensing unit is given by

ESU,k = PSU,k × TSU,k (9)

where PSU,k and TSU,k represent the power of the sensing device and the duration of sensing,
respectively. The energy consumption of the sensing unit is dependent on the sensor’s
coverage radius, the data generation rate, and the number of generated bits.
The energy consumed by the communication unit is given by

ECU,k = ETX,k + ERX,k (10)

where ETX,k and ERX,k are the power of the transceiver when operating in the transmit and
receive modes, respectively.
The sensor node’s transmission energy model is given from [52] as:

PRX × A × dn
  
L
ETX,k = PWUT,k × TWUT,k + PTX + (11)
R η

where PWUT,k and TWUT,k represent the starting power and starting time of the transceiver,
PTX is the power of the transceiver in the transmitting mode, L is the length of the packet
transmitted/received, R is the data rate, PRX × A × dn is the power sent to the antenna of
the transmitting node, in which PRX is the power received by the antenna of the receiving
node and delivered to the low noise amplifier (LNA), A is determined by characteristics of
the transmitting and receiving antennas, n is the path loss exponent, which depends on the
nature of the clutter type, and η is the drain efficiency of the power amplifier (PA).
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 10 of 43

The sensor node’s reception energy model is given from [52] as:

L
ERX,k = PWUT,k × TWUT,k + PRX + L × Edec (12)
R
where PRX,k is the power of the transceiver in the reception mode, and Edec is the energy
consumed in decoding a single bit.
Combing Equations (11) and (12), the energy consumed by the communication is
given by

PRX × A × dn
  
L L
ECU,k = PWUT,k × TWUT,k + PTX + + PRX + L × Edec (13)
R η R

The energy consumption of the communication unit for digital signal processing in an
active state depends on the number of received and transmitted bits and the amount of
energy needed for coding and decoding packets [53].
This energy consumption analysis is focused at the node level, making the modeling
applicable to both traditional WSNs and LWSNs.
After modeling the energy consumption of a wireless sensor node, the following
subsection will present the parameters that influence the energy consumption of a WSN
and also the sources of energy wastage in the WSN.

3.1.2. Parameters Influencing Energy Consumption of WSN

There are several parameters that affect the energy consumption of a WSN. These
parameters can have an influence on the energy consumption of the WSN, either at the
node level or at the network-wide level [54]. In this subsection, we present the parameters
that affect the energy consumption of a WSN at both the node and network-wide levels
and the sources of energy waste in a WSN.
The parameters that affect the energy consumption of the WSN at the sensor node
level are parameters that have a direct influence on the energy consumption of the sensor
node. These parameters belong to the physical layer and basically operate on individual
nodes. They encompass both hardware and software parameters [55]. Understanding
and optimizing these parameters is essential for designing energy-efficient WSNs that can
prolong the network’s lifespan and enhance its overall performance [56]. Table 1 presents a
list of parameters and the components of the sensor node that is affected.

Table 1. Parameters affecting energy consumption in a sensor node.

Component Affected Parameter

Sensor duty cycle, sampling frequency, sensor resolution, sensor radius, sensor
Sensing unit
type
Supply voltage, operational frequency, MCU duty cycle, MCU operating modes,
number of processed bits
Channel time slot allocation, MAC duty cycle, message size, channel sampling
interval
Processing unit (MCU, algorithms, protocols, OS,
and applications, memory unit) Application parameters
OS scheduling
Number of stored bits, number of memory reads and writes, duration of storage
Transceiver duty cycle, transceiver operational modes, transmission power
Communication unit (transmission distance), modulation scheme, data rate, packet size, packet
transmission interval, antenna direction

The parameters listed in Table 1 are focused at the node level and thus have a similar
effect on both traditional WSNs and LWSNs. However, we recognize that the parameters
influencing energy consumption at the network-wide level pertain to the entire network
rather than individual nodes. Optimizing these parameters at the network-wide level is
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 11 of 43

crucial for enhancing energy efficiency and extending the lifespan of WSNs while also
meeting the application requirements and ensuring reliable data delivery. However, their
optimization may be less effective in LWSNs. Table 2 outlines the parameters that influence
energy consumption at the network-wide level, identifies the corresponding network layers
involved, and assesses their impact in the context of LWSNs.

Table 2. Parameters influencing energy consumption at the network-wide level and their associ-
ated layers.

Layer Affected Parameters Influence in LWSN Configuration

Transmission power, transmission range, packet The influence of these parameters on energy consumption is in
Physical layer
size, data rate, modulation scheme much the same way as in traditional WSNs
The influence of these parameters on energy consumption may
differ slightly from traditional WSNs due to the fixed linear
Topology, duty cycle, synchronization, MAC topology of LWSNs since each node typically has two neighbors
Data link layer protocol, error control mechanism, frame size, (one preceding and one following), making the topology
acknowledgment mechanism, neighbor discovery predictable. Despite this, since the data link layer primarily handles
point-to-point communication, its overall influence on energy
consumption remains similar to that in traditional WSNs.
The influence of these parameters on energy consumption
Routing protocol, route discovery and significantly differs from traditional WSNs. The fixed routing
maintenance, routing metric, multicast and structure in LWSNs eliminates the flexibility found in traditional
Network layer broadcast operations, quality of service (QoS) WSNs, where nodes can dynamically choose among multiple
requirements, maximum jump factor (MJF), fault neighbors. Furthermore, broadcast operations, which are commonly
detection and recovery used for route discovery and network maintenance in traditional
WSNs, are largely absent in LWSNs due to the linear structure.
Retransmission rate, timeout interval, These parameters remain relevant in LWSNs, similar to traditional
Transport layer retransmission limit, window size, protocol WSNs. However, the one-dimensional nature of LWSNs can limit
overhead, security mechanism, traffic pattern the effectiveness of certain optimization techniques.
Message size, task scheduling, data fusion and Functions similar to those in traditional WSNs. Data fusion and
aggregation, data compression, data filtering, aggregation strategies are still relevant and effective, but they are
Application layer
application protocol, data collection frequency, tailored to the specific roles of the different node types within the
quality of service (QoS) requirements linear structure.

Non-optimal tuning of these parameters at both the node and network-wide levels
can lead to energy wastage in WSNs. Therefore, careful consideration and optimization of
these parameters are essential to maximize energy efficiency and prolong the network’s
lifetime. The main sources of energy wastage in WSNs (and LWSNs) include idle listening,
overhearing, over-transmitting, packet collision, interference, control packet overhead,
redundant data, etc. [57,58].
Now that we have analyzed the energy consumption of a sensor node and identified
the parameters influencing WSN energy consumption at both the node and network-
wide levels, our next step is to review the existing taxonomies for classifying the energy
management techniques aimed at prolonging the WSN’s lifetime.

3.2. A Review of Taxonomies for Classifying Energy Management Techniques in WSN

A number of earlier studies have reviewed the energy management techniques for pro-
longing the WSN’s lifetime as follows: [34,36–38,56,57,59–65]. Most of these studies have
developed a taxonomy for classifying the energy management techniques for prolonging
the WSN’s lifetime. However, there is no generally accepted taxonomy for classifying en-
ergy management techniques prolonging the WSN’s lifetime. In this subsection, we discuss
the existing studies that have reviewed the energy management techniques for prolonging
the WSN’s lifetime and their taxonomies, and finally, we present an adapted taxonomy. Our
adapted taxonomy will then permit us to classify the energy management techniques that
have been used in existing studies to prolong the lifespan of LWSN monitoring systems.
Anastasi et al. [36] conducted a review on energy conservation in WSNs. They de-
veloped a taxonomy that broadly classified energy conservation schemes into techniques
for minimizing energy consumption at the node level and techniques for minimizing
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 12 of 43

energy consumption during network activities. The techniques for minimizing energy
consumption during network activities include energy-efficient routing protocols and the
implementation of mobile sinks, while the techniques for minimizing energy consumption
at the node level include duty cycling techniques (radio optimization, sleep/wake-up
schemes, transmission power control, dynamic voltage frequency scaling), and data-driven
approaches (in-network processing, data compression, data aggregation, data prediction,
hierarchical sensing, adaptive sampling, and model-based active sensing). All the tech-
niques presented in this study are principally involved with energy savings, except for
techniques such as mobile sink, energy-efficient routing protocols, and transmission power
control, which can also be used for balancing the battery residual energy of the sensor nodes
in the WSN. In another study, Rault et al. [38] carried out a review of energy efficiency
in WSNs. They provided a taxonomy for energy management techniques that is similar
to that presented in [36], except for the inclusion of battery repletion, which included
energy-harvesting and wireless-charging techniques.
Singh et al. [65] developed a taxonomy that classified energy management techniques
into battery management schemes, transmission power management schemes, system
power management schemes, and miscellaneous. The battery management strategies
include techniques that seek to leverage the internal characteristics of batteries to reclaim
their charge, aiming to optimize the quantity of power supplied by the energy source. They
range from node energy management schemes that dynamically vary the power supplied
to the node depending on the workload to energy-balancing schemes that strive to attain
a balance between the energy generated and energy consumed. The transmission power
management schemes focus on techniques that restrict the transmission power of sensor
nodes using parameters such as battery residual energy, energy-harvesting rate, etc. They
range from the MAC layer management schemes to energy-aware routing schemes. The
system power management schemes involve techniques that achieve a significant reduction
in power consumption via efficient hardware design by using energy-efficient processors
and peripherals that possess smart power-saving features. These techniques range from
processor power management to device management. Finally, the miscellaneous schemes,
according to the authors, involve techniques ranging from load balancing, duty cycling,
mobile sink, and cross-layer optimization. The techniques presented in this study can be
categorized into two main groups: techniques that seek to reduce the energy consumption
at the node and network levels and techniques that seek to ensure a balance in the battery
residual energy of all the sensor nodes in the network. The battery management and
system management schemes seek to reduce the energy consumption at the node level
and, therefore, belong to the former, while the transmission power management schemes
and miscellaneous schemes, such as load balancing and mobile sink, seek to balance the
residual battery energy of all the nodes in the network and therefore belong to the latter.
This study did not discuss any techniques for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime by scavenging
energy from external sources.
In [37], Engmann et al. reviewed techniques for prolonging the lifetime of the WSN.
López-Ardao et al. [34] carried out a similar review, where they reviewed current trends
in green wireless sensor networks. Both studies, [34,37], categorized energy management
techniques for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime into energy conservation, energy harvesting,
and energy transfer/charging techniques. The energy conservation techniques aim to
extend the lifetime of the WSN by minimizing energy consumption at the sensor node level
or network level while the WSN continues to operate as required. The energy-harvesting
techniques aim to increase the energy available to the nodes by scavenging energy from
the external environment such as solar, wind, vibrations, radio frequency, thermal, etc. The
energy transfer/charging techniques aim to extend the lifetime of the WSN by engaging in
wireless energy transfer from energy-rich nodes to energy-deficient nodes. Evangelakos
et al. [57] broadly classified energy-saving methods into hardware-based and algorithmic-
based energy-saving methods. The hardware-based methods encompass techniques like
low-power sensors, low-power processors, low-power transceivers, energy harvesting,
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 13 of 43

and wireless energy transfer. The algorithmic-based methods encompass techniques like
data-driven approaches, duty cycling, and energy-efficient routing.
The studies of [62,66] classified energy management techniques for prolonging the
WSN into two main groups: energy consumption and energy provision. According to
the author, the former focuses on the operations and devices that deplete energy through
performing transmission, reception, and data processing, whereas the latter intends to
discover different methods for supplying the sensor node with the required energy source
in order to allow the WSN to operate for as long as possible. From their taxonomy, it
can be seen that the energy consumption schemes consist of energy-saving techniques
(duty cycling and data-driven) and energy-balancing techniques (mobility-based), while
the energy provision schemes involve energy-scavenging techniques (harvesting) and
energy-balancing techniques (transference).

3.3. Adopted Taxonomy for Classifying Energy Management Techniques Is WSN

From surveying existing studies and their taxonomies for classifying energy man-
agement techniques for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime, we discovered that the lifetime
of a WSN can be prolonged by either of the following three ways: reducing the energy
consumed by individual sensor nodes or a group of sensor nodes, ensuring a balance
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 46
in the battery residual energy of the sensor nodes in the WSN, or replacing the energy
consumed in the batteries of sensor nodes. From this observation, we were able to develop
a taxonomy that categorizes techniques for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime into three main
in the batteries of sensor nodes. From this observation, we were able to develop a taxon-
categories: techniques that decrease the power consumption of individual nodes or the
omy that categorizes techniques for prolonging the WSN’s lifetime into three main cate-
network (energy
gories: techniquesconservation
that decreasetechniques), techniques
the power consumption that provide
of individual nodesa or
balanced
the net- energy
work (energy
consumption, i.e.,conservation techniques),
balanced residual techniques
energy thatsensor
amongst providenodes
a balanced energy con-
(energy-balancing tech-
sumption,
niques), i.e., balanced
and techniques residual
that replace energy amongstconsumed
the energy sensor nodesin (energy-balancing tech- nodes
the batteries of sensor
niques), and techniques
(energy-harvesting that replace
techniques). Ourtheadopted
energy consumed
taxonomyin theisbatteries of sensor
presented nodes 5. The
in Figure
(energy-harvesting
taxonomy presented techniques).
in Figure 5Our adopted
applies taxonomy is presented
to traditional WSNs but in Figure 5. The
can also be tax-
adapted to
onomy presented in Figure 5 applies to traditional WSNs but can also be adapted to
LWSNs. While many energy management techniques used in traditional WSNs will be
LWSNs. While many energy management techniques used in traditional WSNs will be
similarly effective in LWSNs, those that rely on topology and routing may be less efficient
similarly effective in LWSNs, those that rely on topology and routing may be less efficient
or even ineffective
or even ineffective dueduetotothe
the linear topologyofof
linear topology LWSNs.
LWSNs. We analyze
We will will analyze these specific
these specific
casescases in detail.
in detail.

Figure 5. Taxonomy for classifying WSN lifetime prolongation strategies.

Figure 5. Taxonomy for classifying WSN lifetime prolongation strategies.
4. Energy Conservation Techniques
This section presents energy conservation techniques aimed at prolonging the
lifespan of WSNs and evaluates their effectiveness in LWSNs.
Energy conservation techniques are principally involved with energy savings at the
sensor node level or network level [59,60,64,67]. This can be done by implementing tech-
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 14 of 43

4. Energy Conservation Techniques

This section presents energy conservation techniques aimed at prolonging the lifespan
of WSNs and evaluates their effectiveness in LWSNs.
Energy conservation techniques are principally involved with energy savings at the
sensor node level or network level [59,60,64,67]. This can be done by implementing tech-
niques that are aimed at minimizing energy consumption during network activities and/or
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 46
implementing schemes that involve switching off node components that are not temporar-
ily needed or dynamically adapting their power consumption [68]. The reason is that a
large amount of energy
WSN’s lifetime is consumedand
into node-level-focused by network-level-focused
the node components (CPU,
techniques. Onradio,
the one sensor, etc.)
even inhand,
idlenode-level
mode [36].energy savings
Hence, are achieved
energy by reducing
conservation the energy primarily
strategies consumptiontarget
of the minimizing
different
the energy sub-componentsofofthe
consumption the sensor node (processor,
communication, transceiver, and
processing, andsensors)
sensing via the
subsystems to
use of duty cycling (power management), data-driven schemes (data reduction and en-
extend the lifetime of WSNs. Figure 6 presents a taxonomy we developed for classifying the
ergy-efficient sensing), or mobility-based schemes (mobile sink/relay). On the other hand,
energyenergy
conservation techniques
savings at the thatare
network level extend thebyWSN’s
achieved reducing lifetime.
the energyInconsumption
our proposed of taxonomy,
a subsetclassified
we broadly of nodes inenergy
the WSNconservation
via topology control
schemesschemes
for(location-driven
extending the and connec-lifetime into
WSN’s
tion-driven schemes)
node-level-focused andornetwork-level-focused
energy-efficient routing protocols (cluster-based,
techniques. On thedata-based,
one hand,and node-level
geographic-based routing). The aim of the network-level energy-saving techniques is to
energy savings are achieved by reducing the energy consumption of the different sub-
maintain the network with a maximum node life [54].
components Tableof3 the sensor
presents node (processor,
the different categories and transceiver,
sub-categoriesand sensors)
of energy via the use of duty
conservation
cycling (powerfor
techniques management),
extending the WSN’sdata-driven schemes
lifetime. For (data reduction
each technique, the strategyand energy-efficient
adopted,
the components
sensing), affected inschemes
or mobility-based order to achieve
(mobile energy savings, theOn
sink/relay). layer
thewhere
otherthehand,
technique
energy savings
at the is implemented,
network levelandareits suitabilityby
achieved forreducing
LWSNs arethe presented.
energyTable 4 presents an
consumption ofevalua-
a subset of nodes
tion of the energy conservation technique discussed in this subsection. The pros and cons
in the of
WSN via topology control schemes (location-driven and connection-driven schemes)
each technique and an analysis of how the efficiency of these techniques could be ap-
or energy-efficient
plied to LWSNs are routing protocols
presented, (cluster-based,
while a detailed discussion isdata-based, and geographic-based
provided in Section 7. This
can be
routing). Thehelpful
aim ofto engineers by assisting energy-saving
the network-level them in making the best decision
techniques is during the de- the network
to maintain
with asign of energy-efficient
maximum node life LWSN[54].monitoring systems.

Figure 6. Taxonomy for classifying energy conservation techniques in WSNs.

Figure 6. Taxonomy for classifying energy conservation techniques in WSNs.

Table 3 presents the different categories and sub-categories of energy conservation

techniques for extending the WSN’s lifetime. For each technique, the strategy adopted, the
components affected in order to achieve energy savings, the layer where the technique is
implemented, and its suitability for LWSNs are presented. Table 4 presents an evaluation
of the energy conservation technique discussed in this subsection. The pros and cons of
each technique and an analysis of how the efficiency of these techniques could be applied
to LWSNs are presented, while a detailed discussion is provided in Section 7. This can be
helpful to engineers by assisting them in making the best decision during the design of
energy-efficient LWSN monitoring systems.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 15 of 43

Table 3. Rationale behind energy conservation techniques for extending WSN lifetime.

Targeted Components for Layer of Suitability

Energy Conservation Techniques Strategy Implemented for Achieving Energy Savings
Energy Reduction Implementation in LWSN
Reduces the energy consumption of the sensor node by
Data
Sleep/Wake-up applying duty cycling on the MCU, radio, and sensor, MCU, radio, and/or sensor Yes
Link/Application
switching them between active and sleep modes.
Reduces the energy consumption of the radio transceiver
by dynamically adjusting radio parameters (coding and
modulation rate, transmission power, antenna direction)
Radio Optimization Radio Physical Yes
using techniques such as transmission power control,
cooperative communication schemes (SISO and MIMO),
radio sleep/wake-up.
Power Management
Reduces the energy consumption of the radio by affecting
Energy-Efficient radio idle listening, overhearing, over-transmitting, error
Radio Data Link Yes
MAC Protocol control, retransmission rate, channel collisions, medium
access, etc.
Reduces the energy consumption of the microprocessor
by dynamically adjusting the power with respect to
workload. It enables intelligent trade-offs between energy
Processor Power
consumption and operational fidelity using techniques MCU Application Yes
Management
such as dynamic voltage scaling (DVS), dynamic voltage
frequency scaling (DVFS), dynamic power management
(DPM), etc.
Reduces the energy consumed during data transmission
within the WSN by removing redundancies in the
received data from the neighboring nodes and extracting
Data Aggregation Radio Application Yes
the useful information by means of aggregation functions
(maximum, minimum, average, etc.) as data travel over
the network.
Data Reduction Reduces the energy consumed during data transmission
by reducing the amount of data to be transmitted. This
Data Compression Radio Application Yes
involves minimizing the number of bits required to
represent each data block.
Reduces energy consumption by minimizing the number
Data Prediction of data transmissions. It involves predicting part of the Radio Application Yes
sensed data without any transmission.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 16 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Targeted Components for Layer of Suitability

Energy Conservation Techniques Strategy Implemented for Achieving Energy Savings
Energy Reduction Implementation in LWSN
Reduces energy consumption by trading-off accuracy for
energy efficiency. It involves using low-power sensors to
Hierarchical Sensing acquire coarse-grained information about the sensing Sensor Application Yes
field, with the power-hungry and more accurate sensors
only activated when an event is detected.
Energy-Efficient Sensing
Reduces energy consumption by taking advantage of
Adaptive Sampling temporal and/or spatial correlations between Sensor and Radio Application Yes
sensed data.
Reduces energy consumption by minimizing the number
Model-Based Active Sensing Sensor and Radio Application Yes
of data samples collected and transmitted.
Reduces energy consumption by minimizing data
transmissions thanks to data fusion, reduces
communication range by limiting communication within
Cluster-Based Routing Network energy Network Yes
the cluster, limits energy-intensive data fusion and
coordination tasks to cluster heads, and selectively
powers off other nodes in the cluster.
Energy-Efficient Routing
Energy savings by eliminating data redundancy during
Data-Centric Routing Network energy Network Yes
transmission throughout the network.
Reduces transmission energy by preferably using the
Geographic Routing shortest distance between nodes when maintaining or Network energy Network No
establishing a routing table.
Reduces energy consumption by dynamically adapting
the network topology based on the application needs and
Location-Driven Network energy Data Link No
location of sensor nodes so as to allow network
Topology Control operations while minimizing the number of active nodes.
Reduces energy consumption by dynamically
Connection-Driven deactivating some nodes while maintaining network Network energy Data Link No
operations and connectivity.
Energy savings thanks to reduced link errors, contention
Mobility-Based Mobile Sink Radio Network/Application Yes
overhead, and forwarding range during communication.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 17 of 43

Table 4. Evaluation of energy conservation techniques and their impact on LWSNs.

Energy-Saving Techniques Key Parameters Pros Cons Impact in LWSN

Limited sensing capabilities, Similar effect as in traditional WSNs.
Reduced energy consumption,
Low-Power Sensors [57] Power efficiency, sensor accuracy. potential compromise on More effective when combined with
extended battery life.
data accuracy. other techniques.
Potential impact on real-time data Beneficial in LWSN as nodes in the
Reduced energy consumption collection and responsiveness, linear topology can better
Node synchronization, duty
Duty Cycling [69,70] during periods of inactivity, increased latency in data synchronize sleep/wake cycles and
cycle scheduling.
extended battery life. transmission, and potential reduce idle listening for efficient
data loss. energy use.
Potential impact on processing
Processor workload predictability, Optimal energy consumption based performance or latency depending Less impactful in LWSN with
Processor Power
task scheduling, and power on workload, improved battery life, on power management settings, predictable node behavior and little
Management [55,68]
control mechanisms. enhanced performance efficiency. increased complexity in system or no processing at the node level.
design and management.
Transmission power control, sleep
scheduling, and radio duty cycling
are more straightforward and
Transmission range, radio power Potential impact on communication
Reduced energy consumption effective in LWSNs due to little
Radio Optimization [37,38,71] control, and range or reliability depending on
during wireless communication. variability in topology and radio
interference management. optimization settings.
parameters. Idle listening and
overhearing are also reduced
in LWSNs.
More effective in LWSNs due to the
reduced complexity in
Channel access control, collision communication coordination and
Reduces unnecessary energy Increased complexity in protocol
Energy-Efficient MAC Protocols [72] management, idle listening, and the simplified linear topology. Less
expenditure in communication. design and overhead.
retransmission interval. energy is wasted on idle listening,
collision avoidance,
and retransmissions.
Potential loss of fine-grained data Less effective in LWSNs due to
Data accuracy and processing load Reduces overall network energy
insights increases latency and fewer aggregation points along
Data Aggregation [73] at aggregation points consumption and minimizes
requires more processing power at linear paths, resulting in modest
(DDNs, DRNs). data transmissions.
aggregation nodes. energy savings.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 18 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Energy-Saving Techniques Key Parameters Pros Cons Impact in LWSN

More efficient in terms of energy
consumption because of the
simplified data flow and fewer
Lowers the energy cost of Compression may increase
nodes handling data aggregation
Compression ratio, computational transmission by reducing the computational complexity, leading
Data Compression [74] tasks. The linear topology ensures
load, and transmission power. amount of data sent and decreasing to higher processing
that data are passed along a single
bandwidth usage. power consumption.
path, reducing the need for
re-compression or handling
redundant data.
Ineffective in highly dynamic
Effective in LWSN when monitoring
environments with unpredictable
Prediction models and environments where data trends are
Data Prediction [75] Reduced data transmission cost. data patterns, potential inaccuracies
computational power. predictable, reducing
in prediction, complexity of
transmission costs.
model training
Beneficial in LWSNs as nodes can
Reduces energy used for process data locally, minimizing
Local processing power and data Increases computational energy at
Edge Computing [21,76] transmitting data over long-distance transmissions via
transmission distances. the node level.
long distances. multi-hop communications in the
linear path.
Reduced energy consumption by
Similar effect as in traditional WSN.
Sensor accuracy and frequently using low-power sensors Complexity in coordinating sensors
Hierarchical Sensing [77,78] More effective when combined with
power consumption. monitoring when events of interest with different capabilities.
other techniques.
have not occurred.
Highly effective in LWSN for
May miss critical events due to
Sampling rate, environmental Reduces unnecessary data collection conserving energy when monitoring
infrequent sampling; requires
Adaptive Sampling [79] monitoring sensitivity, and and energy consumption by only uniform conditions, but risks losing
effective prediction or
node synchronization. sampling when necessary. important data in
detection mechanisms.
event-driven applications.
Highly effective in LWSNs for
Model accuracy is critical; incorrect
Model accuracy and event Reduced sensor activation, long-term monitoring scenarios
Model-Based Active Sensing [80] predictions may lead to energy
prediction capability. minimized energy consumption. with predictable
waste or missed events.
environmental conditions.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 19 of 43

4.1. Node-Level-Focused Energy Conservation Schemes

The node-level-focused energy conservation techniques can be categorized into duty
cycling, data-driven, and mobility-based schemes. In this subsection, we describe the
different energy-saving strategies that can be implemented using these techniques.

4.1.1. Power Management Techniques

A sensor node exhibits various operational modes, which are determined by the
states of its individual components, namely the processor, sensing subsystem, and radio
transceiver. Each of these states is associated with distinct levels of power consumption.
The term duty cycle is defined as the fraction of time a node is active during its lifetime.
Thus, duty cycling techniques reduce the sensor node’s energy consumption by turning off
the sensor node’s hardware components when they are not needed and waking them up
whenever necessary [81]. This establishes a small duty cycle for the nodes based on the
events occurring in the monitored environment [61]. Thus, techniques based on duty cy-
cling rely on the fact that active nodes do not need to maintain their radios, processors, and
sensing devices as being continuously on. According to the survey by Anastasi et al. [36],
duty cycling is achieved by two complementary approaches, with one approach taking
advantage of the redundancy in WSNs by adaptively selecting only a minimum subset
of nodes to remain active for maintaining connectivity while the other approach ensures
that the active nodes do not maintain their radio and sensors as being continuously on
by constantly switching them off (i.e., placed in the low-power sleep mode) when there
is no network activity. The authors termed the former topology control and the latter
power management. Energy savings in WSNs via power management can be achieved
through strategies such as adaptive sleep/wake-up, radio optimization, energy-efficient
MAC protocols, and processor power management.
The strategy adopted by sleep/wake-up schemes is to reduce the energy consumption
of the sensor node by applying duty cycling on the MCU, radio, and sensor, switching them
between active and sleep modes. As generally known in the literature, the communication
unit (radio module) consumes most of the sensor node’s energy [1,47]. By reducing the
activities (transmission, reception, idle listening) of the radio module, higher energy savings
can be achieved at the node level. Detailed information about this strategy is found
in [36,57,59,61].
Several factors affect the power consumption characteristics of a radio module, in-
cluding the radio duty cycle, modulation scheme, data rate, and transmission distance [59].
To optimize the radio and minimize sensor node energy consumption, researchers have
developed radio optimization techniques that focus on optimizing radio parameters such
as radio coding and modulation, transmission power, and antenna direction [37,38], using
techniques such as adaptive transmission power control, dynamic frequency selection,
duty cycling and low-power listening, smart antenna systems, etc. These techniques are
implemented in energy-efficient cognitive radio [57]. Detailed information about these
techniques is found in [36,38,82–85].
Energy-efficient MAC protocols impact various aspects, such as radio idle listening,
overhearing, over-transmitting, error control, retransmission rate, channel collisions, and
medium access [34]. Notably, their focus is often directed towards optimizing commu-
nication links between neighboring nodes rather than considering the broader network
context. Consequently, mechanisms ensuring data reliability, including error detection and
correction techniques, can be leveraged to achieve energy savings. The MAC layer proto-
cols can be categorized into contention-less, contention-based, and hybrid protocols [36].
Singh et al. [65] presented a review of energy-efficient MAC layer protocols that have been
used in WSNs.
Processor management techniques reduce the energy consumption of the micropro-
cessor by dynamically adjusting the power with respect to the workload. They enable
intelligent trade-offs between energy consumption and operational fidelity using tech-
niques such as dynamic voltage scaling (DVS), dynamic voltage frequency scaling (DVFS),
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 20 of 43

dynamic power management (DPM), hardware acceleration, etc. [55]. Detailed information
about these techniques is found in [61,63,86]
Power management techniques, such as sleep/wake-up strategies and energy-efficient
MAC protocols, are effective in LWSNs due to the minimal overhead associated with the
node synchronization imposed by the linear topology. However, these techniques have a
limited impact on reducing the number of multi-hop communications. In contrast, radio
optimization techniques are more effective in LWSNs because the linear topology favors
the use of directional antennas (beamforming in the 0◦ and 180◦ directions), which increase
antenna gain without raising power consumption. This is particularly advantageous in
LWSNs, especially when coverage needs to be extended due to the failure of a direct
neighbor along the linear path. Traditional WSNs, on the other hand, typically require
omnidirectional antennas, which consume more energy in long-range communications
compared to directional antennas. Processor power management schemes are less effective
in LWSN applications, where the processing load of the sensor nodes remains constant,
and minimal processing is performed at the sensor node level.

4.1.2. Data-Driven Techniques

The classification of data-driven techniques involves two main categories: data reduc-
tion and energy-efficient data acquisition schemes, each addressing specific challenges in
WSNs [36,87,88]. Data reduction schemes primarily focus on minimizing the number of
data transmissions and the volume of data transmitted as information travels from the
sensor nodes to the base station. Conversely, energy-efficient data acquisition schemes con-
centrate on decreasing energy consumption within the sensing subsystem, often achieved
by reducing the number of samples generated by the sensors.
Data reduction schemes in data-driven approaches are primarily executed through
in-network processing within the WSN. In-network processing involves distributed com-
puting, where data are processed as it traverses through the WSN towards the sink. This
process includes tasks such as the fusion and aggregation of data as it progresses from
one sensor node to another, effectively reducing the amount of redundant data that needs
to be transmitted. Various techniques exist for in-network processing, with popular ones
including data aggregation, data compression, and data prediction [34,36,37,65,88,89]. Data
aggregation techniques play a crucial role in extending the network lifetime by efficiently
merging data as it traverses through the network from one node to another until it reaches
the sink [90,91]. Similarly, data compression involves encoding information at the sensor
nodes and decoding it at the sink, effectively reducing the volume of data transmitted
by source nodes [36]. This reduction in data transmission not only decreases the radio
module’s active time but also reduces the energy consumption of sensor nodes. Addi-
tionally, data prediction techniques aim to minimize energy consumption by minimizing
communication costs. These techniques create a model describing the evolution of sensed
data, enabling the prediction of sensor node values within specified error bounds. The
prediction model is deployed both at the sensor nodes and at the sink [57]. Transmissions
between nodes and the sink occur only when the sensor node measurements deviate from
the prediction model’s threshold [37], thereby reducing the transmission frequency and
communication energy consumption.
The category of energy-efficient data acquisition data-driven schemes encompasses
adaptive sensing techniques, including hierarchical sensing, adaptive sampling, and model-
based active sensing [57,61]. These techniques aim to reduce the number of samples
generated by sensors, thereby minimizing the amount of data to be processed and poten-
tially transmitted by sensor nodes, leading to energy savings. In hierarchical sensing, a
sensor node is equipped with multiple sensing devices that monitor the same physical
parameter, each offering varying levels of sensing accuracy and power consumption. This
setup allows for a trade-off between accuracy and energy efficiency, as lower-power sensors
can provide a rough estimate of the monitored parameter [78]. Once an event is detected,
higher-accuracy, power-hungry sensors can be activated to provide more precise readings,
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 21 of 43

albeit at the expense of increased energy consumption. Adaptive sampling strategies

are designed to minimize the number of measurements and communications required to
achieve an accurate estimate by leveraging spatio-temporal correlations within the sensed
data. These strategies involve dynamically adjusting the sampling rate and activating only
a subset of sensors, thereby reducing the energy consumption associated with sensing [92].
Spatial correlation exploits the fact that measurements from sensor nodes in close proximity
exhibit minimal differences. By activating only a few sensors in spatially correlated regions,
energy expenditure on sensing can be reduced significantly. Temporal correlations, on the
other hand, rely on the observation that if the monitored phenomenon changes slowly
over time, the sampling rate can be decreased without sacrificing relevant information [36].
This allows for further energy savings by reducing unnecessary sampling activities during
periods of stability [79]. Model-based active sampling aims to minimize the number of data
samples by leveraging computational models. This approach involves the utilization of
forecasting models to create an abstraction of the sensed phenomenon. Initially, the model
is constructed using a set of sampled data, after which it is employed to predict future
data points rather than continuously sampling in the field. By relying on these predictive
models, the energy expended on data sensing and transmission can be conserved, leading
to significant energy savings [80].
Data reduction schemes like data compression, data prediction, and edge computing
are effective in LWSNs as they can greatly reduce the number of multi-hop communications.
However, the gain of data aggregation in LWSNs is less effective compared to that of the
traditional WSNs. This is because the linear topology prevents the creation of large clusters.
Also, node redundancy in LWSNs is minimized by the linear topology. For energy-efficient
data acquisition, hierarchical sensing and model-based active sampling have the same
effect in LWSNs as in traditional WSNs, as they do not affect the number of multi-hop
communications and are not affected by the linear structure of the network. The impact
of adaptive sampling will be less effective in event-driven LWSN applications due to the
linear topology, which does not benefit from spatio-temporal correlations.

4.1.3. Mobility-Based Techniques

The mobility-based schemes use a few mobile nodes to achieve energy conservation
in the network [62]. They leverage the mobility of nodes to dynamically adapt to changing
environmental conditions and network requirements, thereby contributing to a prolonged
WSN’s operational lifespan. By moving the sink or relay closer to the sensor nodes, they
achieve energy savings thanks to reduced link errors, contention overhead, message loss,
and forwarding range during communication. This eliminates multi-hop communications
and reduces the energy consumed by the radio of sensor nodes. Mobility-based energy
saving is achieved via a mobile sink and/or mobile relay [65]. Integrating mobile sinks or
relays into WSNs introduces dynamic data collection mechanisms. Mobile sinks, equipped
with enhanced processing capabilities, can intelligently navigate through the sensor field to
collect data directly from nodes. By minimizing the need for extensive data transmissions
and long communication routes, this mobility-based approach significantly reduces the
energy expenditure of individual sensor nodes.
The impact of mobility-based schemes is highly effective in LWSNs compared to
traditional WSNs because mobility-based schemes greatly reduce the number of multi-hop
transmissions, which is the main source of energy wastage in LWSNs.

4.2. Network-Level-Focused Energy Conservation Schemes

Network-level-focused energy conservation schemes refer to strategies that are specifi-
cally designed to optimize energy consumption at the network level in the WSN. These
schemes aim to enhance the overall energy efficiency and prolong the operational lifetime
of the network by considering interactions and communication patterns among nodes.
The rationale behind network-level-focused energy conservation schemes is grounded in
minimizing energy wastage, improving communication reliability, and promoting sus-
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 22 of 43

tainability. Network-level-focused energy conservation schemes are principally focused

on reducing the energy consumption of the entire network rather than individual nodes.
They may involve duty cycling schemes that can deactivate a subset of sensor nodes
(topology control) or energy-efficient routing algorithms that reduce energy consumption
by being energy-aware when routing data in the WSN.

4.2.1. Topology Control

Topology control is a duty cycling scheme at the network level that takes advantage of
network redundancy to prolong network longevity by dynamically adapting the network
topology based on the application needs to minimize the number of active nodes [34]. It
leads to turning off a subset of nodes while maintaining another subset of active nodes.
This is because when sensors are redundantly distributed to provide good coverage, not
all the nodes will be required to maintain network operation and connectivity [57]. It is
thus possible to turn off the nodes that are not needed to ensure coverage or connectivity
in order to prolong the lifetime of the WSN [93].
Topology control protocols can be generally classified into two main categories:
location-driven and connectivity-driven approaches [36]. In the location-driven approaches,
the activation or deactivation of nodes is determined by their specific locations. The as-
sumption underlying these approaches is that the nodes’ positions are already known,
enabling them to collaborate in deciding which nodes within a specific area should be deac-
tivated without compromising the coverage of that particular area. Connectivity-driven
protocols dynamically enable or disable sensor nodes to ensure the fulfillment of network
connectivity or complete sensing coverage.
Topology control (location-driven and connection-driven) is not suitable in thin LWSNs
because of the absence of node redundancy imposed by the linear structure. As such, all
the nodes, not a subset of the nodes, are needed to maintain coverage.

4.2.2. Energy-Efficient Routing

The goal of routing is to establish an effective path for data exchange between sensor
nodes and the base station. This introduces certain overheads and entails energy con-
sumption, particularly for the nodes in close proximity to the base station. In WSNs, a key
design consideration for routing algorithms revolves around ensuring energy efficiency.
Energy-efficient routing in WSNs refers to the implementation of routing protocols and
strategies that optimize the energy consumption of sensor nodes during data transmission.
This requires the design of routing mechanisms that minimize energy dissipation, reduce
communication overhead, and ultimately extend the operational lifetime of the entire WSN.
Energy-efficient routing techniques play an important role in optimizing communi-
cation processes, minimizing energy consumption, and ultimately extending the lifetime
of WSNs. In the literature, three notable strategies for achieving energy savings at the
network level are cluster-based routing, data-centric routing, and geographic-based rout-
ing [38,62,65].
Cluster-based routing organizes the sensor nodes into clusters, with each cluster hav-
ing a designated cluster head. Nodes within a cluster communicate with their respective
cluster head, which, in turn, communicate with the base station or sink. This hierarchical
structure facilitates energy savings through localized communication and efficient data
aggregation. The rationale behind cluster-based routing lies in reducing the overall com-
munication distance, minimizing the number of node-to-sink transmissions, and enabling
energy-aware management within clusters. By aggregating data at the cluster level be-
fore forwarding it to the sink, redundant transmissions are avoided, leading to energy
savings [94–96].
Data-centric routing revolves around the concept of organizing communication around
the data rather than the nodes. Nodes collaborate to efficiently route data toward the sink
based on the content or attributes of the information being transmitted. The rationale for
data-centric routing is to minimize unnecessary transmissions by focusing on the data of
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 23 of 43

interest. This strategy is particularly useful in applications where specific types of data
need to be gathered or monitored, as it optimizes energy consumption by transmitting only
relevant information. Data-centric routing schemes provide benefits such as selective data
transmission and enhanced energy efficiency [97].
Geographic-based routing relies on the spatial information of nodes to determine the
optimal path for data transmission. Nodes use location data to forward information towards
the destination, often leveraging geographic coordinates or proximity-based strategies [98].
The rationale behind geographic-based routing is to exploit the physical positions of the
nodes to minimize communication distances. This approach is particularly beneficial
in scenarios where the geographic location of the nodes correlates with the efficiency of
communication paths. Geographic-based routing schemes provide benefits such as shorter
communication paths, adaption to node mobility, and scalability.
The impact of cluster-based routing is less effective in LWSNs compared to traditional
WSNs because the number of multi-hop transmissions is not greatly reduced since the
linear topology prevents the creation of large clusters. Data-centric routing can be effective
in LWSNs as it has the capability to reduce the number of multi-hop communications.
Geographic routing has little or no effect on LWSNs because of the limited routing options
in LWSNs imposed by the linear topology. Routing in LWSNs is more concerned with
reliable data delivery rather than the shortest path since there are just two routing options
in LWSNs: forwarding to the left or forwarding to the right.

5. Energy-Balancing Techniques
This section presents the energy-balancing techniques aimed at prolonging the lifespan
of WSNs and evaluates their effectiveness in LWSNs.
To achieve a longer network lifespan, both efficient and balanced power consumption
are highly significant [65]. Energy-balancing techniques seek to ensure that the energy
consumption is evenly distributed in the WSN so that the nodes have a fairly equal amount
of energy. This reduces the likelihood of a black hole (energy hole) developing in the WSN
and prolongs the WSN’s lifetime [37]. Thus, the objective of the energy-balancing technique
is to balance the communication burdens of the sensor nodes in the WSN by ensuring that
they spend their energy at approximately the same rate. The main rationale behind energy-
balancing techniques is to maintain the same residual battery energy for all sensor nodes in
the network. This can be achieved via energy-efficient routing schemes, load balancing,
mobility-based schemes, topology control, and wireless energy transfer/charging. Figure 7
presents a taxonomy we developed for classifying the energy-balancing techniques for
extending the WSN’s lifetime. Table 5 presents the different energy-balancing techniques
and the strategies they employ. Table 6 presents an evaluation of the energy-balancing
technique discussed in this subsection. The pros and cons of each technique and an analysis
of the impact of these techniques when applied to LWSNs are presented.
Sensors 2024, 24,
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FOR PEER REVIEW 2524ofof 46
43

Figure 7. Taxonomy for classifying energy-balancing techniques in WSNs.

Figure 7. Taxonomy for classifying energy-balancing techniques in WSNs.
5.1. Energy-Efficient Routing Protocols
Energy-efficient
5.1. Energy-Efficient routing
Routing protocols are needed for large-scale battery-powered WSNs
Protocols
to ensure uniform energy consumption and load balancing. Moreover, they also need to
Energy-efficient routing protocols are needed for large-scale battery-powered WSNs
achieve reliable and real-time data forwarding to the sink. This has led to many research efforts
to ensure uniform energy consumption and load balancing. Moreover, they also need to
devoted to the design of energy-efficient routing protocols and/or enhancement of existing
achieve reliable and real-time data forwarding to the sink. This has led to many research
ones [63]. In the literature, two prominent strategies, cluster-based routing and energy-aware
efforts
routing,devoted to the design
are particularly of energy-efficient
effective routing
in addressing the protocols
challenge and/or
of energy enhancement of
imbalance.
existing ones [63]. In the literature, two prominent strategies, cluster-based routing and
energy-aware routing, are particularly effective in addressing the challenge of energy im-
balance.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 25 of 43

Table 5. Rationale behind energy-balancing techniques for extending WSN lifetime.

Suitability
Energy-Balancing Technique Strategy Implemented for Achieving Energy Balancing Target
in LWSN
Organizes the network into clusters, where each cluster is managed by
a selected node known as the cluster head (CH) and balances energy
Load balancing
consumption among sensor nodes via CH rotation. The selection is Network energy No
(cluster-based routing)
dynamic, and it is based on the residual energy. The node with the
Energy-efficient routing highest residual energy is selected as CH.
Balances energy consumption among nodes by considering the residual
Energy-aware routing Network energy No
energy when selecting the next hop during the setup path phase.
Multi-path routing Balances energy among nodes by alternating forwarding nodes. Network energy No
Balances the load between nodes by using a mobile base station, which
Mobile sink Network energy Yes
moves around the network to collect node information.
Mobility-based approach
Balances energy among nodes by introducing special mobile nodes to
Mobile relay Network energy Yes
offer the service of message relaying.
Improves energy balance between nodes via optimal placement of
Optimal node placement nodes through even distribution or by adding a few relay nodes with Network energy Yes
enhanced capabilities.
Topology control Balances energy consumption among nodes by allowing nodes to
dynamically adjust their transmission power levels without losing
Transmission power control connectivity. Nodes can increase or decrease their transmission power Network energy Yes
based on factors such as proximity to the destination and the necessity
to reach neighboring nodes.
Balances energy among nodes by wireless transmitting energy from
Wireless charging energy-harvesting sources or nodes with high residual energy to nodes Network energy Yes
with low residual energy.
Energy transfer Balances energy consumption by achieving the desired network
performance that can be supported by the energy harvested from the
Energy-neutral operation required energy sources (i.e., solar, vibration, and RF) and the Network energy Yes
network-wide operations (i.e., routing, clustering, and duty cycling)
over longer periods of time.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 26 of 43

Table 6. Evaluation of energy-balancing techniques and their impact in LWSNs.

Energy-Balancing
Key Parameters Pros Cons Impact in LWSN
Techniques
Balances communication energy by Effective in LWSNs, but placement must
Complex planning process; may not
Optimal node Node density, communication optimizing the distance between account for the linearity of the network,
adapt well to
placement [99] range, and message density. nodes, thereby optimizing message, and node densities to ensure
dynamic environments.
energy distribution. uniform energy consumption.
Very effective in LWSNs, as adjusting power
Reduces energy consumption by for short-range communications between
Requires real-time power
Transmission power Transmission power level and transmitting at the minimum adjacent nodes minimizes energy waste. Also
adjustments; overhead in measuring
control [100] distance between nodes. required power level; useful in achieving reliability during node
node distances.
lowers interference. failure by increasing the transmission power
to jump over the failed sensor node.
Limited effectiveness in LWSNs due to fewer
Reduces energy consumption Uneven energy depletion if cluster nodes in each cluster imposed by the linear
Node-to-cluster head distance,
Clustering [101] through data aggregation; heads are not rotated properly; topology; optimal cluster head placement is
cluster size, and number of clusters.
improves scalability. overhead in maintaining clusters. difficult, and cluster formation may be
inefficient in long-distance deployments.
Suboptimal routing decisions may
Prolongs network lifetime by Limited effectiveness in LWSNs due to fewer
Energy-efficient routing Residual energy and increase overall energy
preventing overuse of path options in LWSNs imposed by
protocols [102] routing overhead. consumption; increased
specific nodes. linear topology.
computational overhead.
Increases fault tolerance and Less effective in LWSNs due to the minimal
Multipath routing Path length, number of alternative Increased overhead in maintaining
reliability; balances energy use path options, resulting in suboptimal
[103,104] paths, and route maintenance. multiple routes; higher complexity.
across multiple nodes. load balancing.
Reduces communication energy
Increased complexity in sink Very effective in LWSNs by reducing the
Sink mobility pattern and data consumption by bringing the sink
Mobile sink [105] movement coordination; may burden on edge nodes (greatly reduces the
collection frequency. closer to nodes; prolongs
introduce delays. number of multi-hop communications).
network lifetime.
Sustainable long-term operation Harvested energy may be Viable for LWSNs, but effectiveness depends
Energy neutral Harvesting efficiency and
without battery replacement or inconsistent; requires on the availability of energy-harvesting
operation [106,107] energy availability.
external power. energy-harvesting hardware. resources along the linear path.
Energy transfer efficiency, charging Requires specialized infrastructure, Effective in LWSNs if charging stations are
Extends network lifespan
Wireless energy frequency, energy replenishment limited by charging range and well-placed along the linear path, but
indefinitely; reduces
transfer [108,109] rate, and positioning of efficiency, susceptible challenges in coverage over long
operational costs.
charging stations. to interference. distances remain.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 27 of 43

Cluster-based routing organizes sensor nodes into clusters, typically with a designated
cluster head (CH). The CH performs specialized functions such as data fusion and aggrega-
tion and communicates the aggregated data directly to the base station or to other CHs. The
CH can be selected randomly or based on one or more criteria, and this also largely affects
the WSN’s lifetime. An ideal CH is the sensor node with the highest residual energy, the
maximum number of neighbor nodes, and the smallest distance from the base station [110].
The goal of clustering schemes is to reduce the number of redundant communications in
the WSN by reducing the number of nodes that communicate with the base station. By
performing aggregation on data within the cluster, the energy consumed in the network is
far less than when all the raw data are sent to the base station [111]. The rationale behind
this approach is rooted in the desire to reduce overall communication distances, minimize
energy consumption, and distribute energy-intensive tasks among the nodes effectively.
Energy-aware routing is another popular energy-balancing technique that has the
ability to achieve uniform energy consumption. Energy-aware routing involves making
routing decisions based on the current energy levels of sensor nodes. Nodes with higher
residual energy are favored in routing decisions to evenly distribute the energy consump-
tion across the network. The rationale is grounded in the necessity of preventing certain
nodes from depleting their energy quickly, thus avoiding premature network failure.
As shown in Table 6, the energy-efficient routing techniques (cluster-based, multi-path,
and energy-aware routing) primarily designed for traditional WSNs are less effective in
LWSNs due to the lack of multiple routing paths imposed by the linear topology.

5.2. Mobility-Based Techniques

In a typical large-scale WSN, the base station (sink) is static. As such, the data from
the sensor nodes are transmitted to the base station through multi-hop communications.
Hence, some sensor nodes in the WSN would not only sense and send their data but also act
as wireless relays that forward the data of their neighbors toward the sink. Consequently,
nodes near the sink experience battery depletion faster, leading to nonuniform energy
consumption, which eventually causes the development of an energy hole in the WSN. The
energy hole disables the WSN and thus reduces its lifetime regardless of the fact that there
are still a number of sensor nodes in the WSN whose batteries are not yet depleted.
In recent years, contrary to static sink, the mobile sink approach has attracted much
research interest because of the increase in its potential WSN applications and its potential
to improve network performance, such as energy efficiency and throughput [112]. Mobile
sink schemes involve the deployment of a mobile sink or data collection point that moves
through the network to gather data from sensor nodes. The rationale behind this approach
is to redistribute the energy burden by moving the sink closer to the nodes with lower
residual energy, allowing the sensor nodes to transmit data opportunistically when the sink
is in proximity. This reduces the need for long-distance transmissions and provides relief
to the nodes with higher energy consumption. Thus, the movement of the sink within the
network helps to uniformly spread the energy consumption [36]. However, this solution is
not very common since the sink in most WSN applications is static.
Mobile relay schemes involve the use of mobile nodes as relays to assist in data for-
warding. These mobile relays move strategically to areas with higher energy consumption
or congestion, providing temporary support and alleviating the burden on stationary sen-
sor nodes. The rationale is to dynamically adjust the network topology, enabling efficient
data relay and reducing the energy strain on specific nodes.
As shown in Table 6, mobility-based techniques are highly effective in LWSNs, as they
significantly reduce the need for multi-hop communication, which is prevalent due to the
constraints imposed by the linear topology.

5.3. Topology Control

Efficient topology control is instrumental in balancing energy consumption among
the sensor nodes in WSNs, thereby extending the overall network lifetime. In this section,
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 28 of 43

we discuss topology control techniques with a focus on balancing the residual energies
of sensor nodes in the WSN. They are different from the topology control techniques
presented in Section 4.1.2 (topology control techniques, which are focused on achieving
energy savings at the network level) as their focus is to balance the residual energy of
sensor nodes in the WSN [36].
The primary aim of this type of topology control technique is to improve the overall
performance of the WSN by balancing energy consumption, reducing interference, en-
hancing network connectivity, and ultimately prolonging the lifetime of the sensor nodes.
This type of topology control primarily makes use of radio optimization techniques at the
node level to achieve its goal [100]. This involves controlling the transmission power and
connectivity of individual sensor nodes to create an efficient and energy-aware network
structure [113]. The rationale for this type of topology control includes energy efficiency,
network connectivity, interference mitigation, and load balancing. By adjusting the trans-
mission power levels, nodes can avoid unnecessary interference, collisions, and packet loss,
leading to more reliable communication and reduced energy wastage.
Topology control can be implemented through strategies such as transmission power
control and optimal node placement in order to achieve network-wide energy savings.
Through transmission power control, nodes adjust their transmission power to limit the
communication range based on the proximity of neighboring nodes and the communication
requirements. This results in energy savings for the nodes with higher energy consumption,
which in turn leads to energy balancing among sensor nodes and an extended WSN lifetime.
Also, topology control may involve dynamically adjusting the positions of sensor nodes
based on environmental changes or specific application requirements. Optimizing node
placement can lead to more energy-efficient communication by adapting the node density
based on the message density to achieve uniform energy dissipation [99].
As presented in Table 6, the linear topology of LWSNs makes transmission power
control and optimal node placement particularly effective. Strategically placing nodes
while considering message density and node distribution helps reduce the communication
burden on critical nodes (those closest to the sink) and ensures uniform energy dissipation.
Transmission power control is especially useful in LWSNs when a node along the linear
path fails, as it allows the system to dynamically increase transmission power to bypass the
failed sensor node.

5.4. Energy Transfer

Wireless energy transfer/charging schemes involve the transmission of energy from a
source to a destination without the need for physical connections. In the context of WSNs,
these schemes are designed to address energy imbalances among sensor nodes, thereby
extending the overall WSN lifetime [114]. Wireless energy transfer techniques targeting
energy balancing can be categorized into schemes that transfer via inductive coupling,
magnetic resonant coupling, and electromagnetic radiations [37]. Inductive coupling relies
on electromagnetic fields to transfer energy wirelessly between the coils embedded in
sensor nodes [115]. When coils in close proximity resonate at the same frequency, energy
is transferred from a source node to a destination node. Nodes with excess energy can
transfer it to the nodes with lower energy levels, promoting a more balanced distribution
of energy resources. Magnetic resonant coupling involves tuning coils to resonate at
specific frequencies. This tuning enhances the range over which energy can be effectively
transmitted. Magnetic resonant coupling allows for energy transfer over slightly longer
distances compared to non-resonant methods [116]. Electromagnetic radiation, or EM
radiation, emits energy from the transmitting antenna of a source to the receiving antenna
through EM waves. This involves the transmission of energy through electromagnetic
waves [117], typically in the form of RF or microwave signals. In the context of WSNs, these
schemes harness electromagnetic radiation to wirelessly transfer energy between sensor
nodes. The objective is to address energy imbalances, promote a more uniform distribution
of energy resources, and extend the overall WSN’s lifetime.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 29 of 43

Energy-neutral operations in the context of WSNs refer to the concept of achieving a

balance between energy consumption and energy replenishment, ultimately maintaining
a sustainable and continuous operation without depleting the energy reserves of sensor
nodes [106]. The goal is to design WSNs in a way that the energy consumed during
regular operations is offset by the energy harvested or received, resulting in a net-zero
energy consumption over time [107]. Energy-neutral operations achieve energy balancing
to extend the WSN’s lifetime by making use of strategies such as energy harvesting, dy-
namic power management, energy-aware communication protocols, and adaptive sensing
strategies [118,119].
As presented in Table 6, energy transfer techniques can be as effective in LWSNs as
they are in traditional WSNs.

6. Energy-Harvesting Techniques
This section presents the energy-harvesting techniques aimed at prolonging the lifes-
pan of WSNs and evaluates their effectiveness in LWSNs.
While energy-saving techniques offer the potential to prolong the lifespan of WSNs, it
is crucial to acknowledge that sensor nodes relying on batteries cannot ensure uninterrupted
monitoring over extended durations. This constraint stems from the finite capacity of
batteries, which inevitably deplete over time. This challenge is especially pronounced in
WSN applications where nodes may be situated in physically inaccessible locations. In such
cases, the logistical and cost-related obstacles associated with battery replacement become
substantial. Despite the available techniques to mitigate power consumption, the reliance on
battery power imposes constraints on the operational lifespan of the system, necessitating
periodic battery replacements or recharging [120]. Additionally, the monitoring process
is interrupted during battery replacement, resulting in downtime [121]. To address these
limitations, energy-harvesting techniques emerge as a viable solution [48]. By harnessing
ambient and/or external energy sources from the environment, these techniques offer a
means to replenish the energy consumed by sensor node batteries [122]. Implementation of
energy harvesting not only mitigates the constraints posed by a finite battery life but also
enhances the sustainability and longevity of WSNs [49], especially in remote or difficult-to-
access deployment scenarios like border surveillance and highway, railway, powerline, and
pipeline monitoring.
Energy-harvesting (EH) techniques convert energy from external sources, which
are non-renewable, or from ambient environment sources, which are renewable, into
electrical energy that can be used to power autonomous devices such as wireless sensor
nodes [37,122]. While numerous existing EH systems produce only a restricted amount of
power, in the order of µWcm−2 to mWcm−2 , the increasing popularity of EH is attributed
to advancements in very low-power sensors and wireless communication systems [123].
The energy harvested from external and ambient sources is used to replenish the energy
depleted by the sensor node. This ensures that the battery energy of the sensor nodes is not
depleted and thus prevents the development of an energy hole in the WSN. This increases
the lifetime of the nodes and that of the WSN as a whole, thus preventing frequent battery
replacement in most applications. Thus, the goal of EH techniques is to convert energy
from one form to another that can be used to power sensor nodes and thus extend the
lifetime of the WSN [124].
The source from which energy is harvested in a WSN is a valuable resource since it
determines the amount of energy available to the network and the rate of conversion from
the source to electrical energy [37]. This makes the ambient sources which are accessible
within an environment and which do not need any external energy supply very attractive
to WSN applications. Table 7 presents a comparison of the different energy-harvesting
techniques based on energy sources, conversion materials, conversion mechanisms, typical
power densities, and conversion efficiency. A taxonomy for classifying energy harvesters is
presented in Figure 8. The ambient (renewable) sources consist of flow (wind and hydro),
solar (outdoor), thermal (geothermal), and ambient RFs. These sources are also referred
 techniques based on energy sources, conversion materials, conversion mechanisms, typi-
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024
cal power densities, and conversion efficiency. A taxonomy for classifying energy harvest-
30 of 43
ers is presented in Figure 8. The ambient (renewable) sources consist of flow (wind and
hydro), solar (outdoor), thermal (geothermal), and ambient RFs. These sources are also
referred to as primary or renewable sources because they can be replenished over time
to as primary or renewable sources because they can be replenished over time through
through natural processes [48]. Energy harvesting from ambient sources plays a crucial
natural processes [48]. Energy harvesting from ambient sources plays a crucial role in
role in prolonging the lifespan of WSNs for two primary reasons. Firstly, energy harvested
prolonging the lifespan of WSNs for two primary reasons. Firstly, energy harvested from
from the environment is pollution-free, contributing to environmentally sustainable op-
the environment is pollution-free, contributing to environmentally sustainable operations.
erations. Secondly, as a renewable resource, it offers the potential for devices to operate
Secondly, as a renewable resource, it offers the potential for devices to operate unattended
unattended for virtually unlimited periods, enhancing the autonomy and longevity of
for virtually unlimited periods, enhancing the autonomy and longevity of WSNs. The
WSNs. The
external external (non-renewable)
(non-renewable) sources
sources consist consist
of solar of solardirected
(indoors), (indoors),
RF,directed
thermalRF, ther-
(waste
mal (waste
heat), heat),
magnetic magnetic
field, human field, human
(motion (motion and temperature),
and temperature), and mechanical and mechanical
(vibrations, (vi-
stress,
brations, stress, and
and pressure) sources. pressure) sources.

Figure8.8.Taxonomy
Figure Taxonomyfor
forclassifying
classifyingenergy-harvesting
energy-harvestingtechniques
techniquesininWSN.
WSN.

AAdetailed
detailedreview
reviewofofenergy-harvesting
energy-harvestingtechniques
techniquesforforthe
theWSN
WSNand andIoT
IoTcan
canbe
befound
found
in [4,48,49,120,122,125,126]. The works of Singh et al. [122] and Williams et al. [49] presented
in [4,48,49,120,122,125,126]. The works of Singh et al. [122] and Williams et al. [49] pre-
asented
comprehensive taxonomictaxonomic
a comprehensive survey on survey
recent energy-harvesting techniques intechniques
on recent energy-harvesting WSNs and ina
concise summary and comparative analysis of various promising techniques
WSNs and a concise summary and comparative analysis of various promising techniques for energy
harvesting. Sanislav et al. [4] and Elahi et al. [125] presented a review of recent advances
for energy harvesting. Sanislav et al. [4] and Elahi et al. [125] presented a review of recent
in energy-harvesting techniques for IoT. From the literature, the most popular energy-
advances in energy-harvesting techniques for IoT. From the literature, the most popular
harvesting techniques used in the WSN and IoT include solar-based, thermal-based, wind-
energy-harvesting techniques used in the WSN and IoT include solar-based, thermal-
based, vibration-based, and RF-based sources [37,124,127]. Prauzek et al. [124] reviewed
based, wind-based, vibration-based, and RF-based sources [37,124,127]. Prauzek et al.
and presented a comprehensive account of energy-harvesting sources, energy storage
[124] reviewed and presented a comprehensive account of energy-harvesting sources, en-
devices, and corresponding topologies of energy-harvesting systems, published from 2008
ergy storage devices, and corresponding topologies of energy-harvesting systems, pub-
to 2018. In another study, Peruzzi and Pozzebon [127], in their review paper, provided a
lished from 2008 to 2018. In another study, Peruzzi and Pozzebon [127], in their review
detailed overview of the existing low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) systems relying
paper, provided a detailed overview of the existing low-power wide-area network
on energy harvesting for their powering. In [127], the different LPWAN technologies
(LPWAN) systems relying on energy harvesting for their powering. In [127], the different
and protocols are discussed alongside the applicable energy-harvesting techniques and
presentations of the architecture of the power management units.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 31 of 43

Table 7. Classification of energy harvesters based on energy source, conversion materials, and
conversion mechanism.

Energy Source Transducer Conversion Mechanism Typical Power Density Conversion Efficiency
Solar (Outdoor) Solar panels Photovoltaic effect 15 mW/cm2 [128] 15–25%
Electromagnetic
Flow (Wind) Wind turbine 7.6 mW/cm2 @5 m/s [129] 30–50%
induction
Electromagnetic
Flow (Hydro) Turbine N.A. 70–90% [130]
induction
Thermoelectric
Thermal Seebeck effect 15 µW/cm3 [125] 5–17%
generator
Magnetostrictive
Magnetostriction 145 µW/cm3 [131] 10–50%
materials
Mechanical
Piezoelectric materials Piezoelectric effect 4.57 mW/cm3 [132] 10–50%
Electrostatic materials Capacitance modulation 50 µW/cm3 [128] 10–50%
Electromagnetic
Directed RF Antenna 50 mW/cm2 [131] 5–30%
induction
Electromagnetic
Ambient RF Antenna 2 µW/cm2 [133] 5–30%
induction
Electric Field Capacitive transducers Electrostatic induction 0.04 µW/cm3 [134] 5–30%
Electromagnetic
Magnetic Field Current transformers 100 mW/cm3 [135] 5–30%
induction
Bioelectrochemical
Biomass Microbial fuel cell 300 µW/cm2 [136] <1% [137,138]
conversion

Although EH techniques provide a viable solution to extending the lifespan of WSNs,

they face some challenges, such as the stochastic nature of the energy sources [139–141].
If the source of the EH technique is abundant, then a sensor node can be powered contin-
uously [48], thereby enabling perpetual operation. However, since most energy sources
are discontinuous and provide varied levels of energy at different times, sensor nodes
powered by EH must be designed to store the scavenged energy when the natural source is
present for later use [120]. Table 8 presents the strengths and drawbacks of the different EH
techniques presented in this subsection. It is important to note that these EH techniques
are expected to have a similar impact in LWSNs as in traditional WSNs, as they are not
affected by the linear topology of LWSNs.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 32 of 43

Table 8. Evaluation of energy-harvesting techniques for extending WSN lifetime.

Energy-Harvesting Technique Description Pros Cons

Abundant energy source, ambient,
Dependent on sunlight availability and intensity,
environmentally friendly, relatively low
Solar Energy Harvesting Harvests energy from sunlight using discontinuous, uncontrollable, significantly affected
maintenance, high output voltage, predictable,
(outdoor) [142] photovoltaic cells or solar panels. by weather conditions, dust, sand, dirt, ice, or snow,
simple form factor, no moving parts, highly
and high initial installation costs.
scalable, mature technology.
Limited efficiency, requires significant temperature
Converts temperature differences into Utilizes waste heat and can operate in various
differences for effective energy generation,
Thermal Energy Harvesting [143] electrical energy using thermoelectric environments with temperature gradients;
non-ambient, uncontrollable, unpredictable, variable
materials or thermoelectric generators. continuous in appropriate environments.
output power.
Captures ambient RF signals from sources like Ubiquitous RF sources, potential for Limited power output, highly dependent on RF
Radio Frequency (RF) Energy
Wi-Fi, cellular networks, or RFID systems and continuous energy generation, scalable, signal strength and availability,
Harvesting [144]
converts them into electrical energy. predictable, no moving parts. distance-dependent, uncontrollable.
Site-dependent, discontinuous, difficult to apply form
Clean and renewable energy source, factor, hostile application environments,
Harnesses wind energy using small turbines
Wind Energy Harvesting [145] potentially high-power output in windy areas, uncontrollable, unpredictable, limited in urban
or wind turbines to generate electricity.
ambient, mature technology. environments, noise pollution, and high initial
installation and maintenance costs.
Abundant renewable energy source,
Utilizes the flow of water, such as rivers, Site-specific, requires access to flowing water sources,
consistent and predictable energy generation,
streams, or tidal currents, to drive turbines or infrastructure-intensive, and high initial investment
Hydro Energy Harvesting [146] relatively high-power output, suitable for
generators and convert kinetic energy into and maintenance costs, potential ecological
both large-scale and small-scale applications,
electrical energy. disruption to aquatic habitats and ecosystems.
minimal environmental impact, ambient.
Relatively low power output, requires significant
vibrations or movements for effective energy
Harvests energy from various mechanical
Vibrational Energy Harvesting harvesting, variable output, unpredictable, resonant
sources, potential for continuous energy
(piezoelectric) [147] frequency matching requirement, unresponsive at
generation, controllable, passive, simple.
Harvests energy from mechanical motion, low frequencies, use of delicate
such as vibrations or movements, using materials, non-ambient.
piezoelectric, electrostatic materials, or
Vibrational Energy Harvesting High-power density, low cost, high output Need for an external voltage source during operation
electromagnetic induction.
(electrostatic) [148,149] voltage, controllable. (bias voltage required), unpredictable, non-ambient.
Large size, unpredictable, low voltage, resonant
Vibrational Energy Harvesting High output current, low cost, robust,
frequency matching requirement, involves moving
(electromagnetic) [150] controllable, operates at low frequency.
parts, non-ambient.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 33 of 43

Table 8. Cont.

Energy-Harvesting Technique Description Pros Cons

No moving parts, suitable for indoor
Utilizes electric field variations in the
environments, potential for continuous energy Relatively low power output, highly dependent on
environment to generate electrical energy
Electric Field Harvesting [123] generation, induced voltage can almost electric field strength and proximity to
through capacitive coupling or electrostatic
remain unchanged under normal operating electric sources.
induction mechanisms.
conditions, ambient.
Utilizes variations in magnetic fields in the
No moving parts, suitable for both indoor and Relatively low power output, highly dependent on
environment to induce electrical currents in
Magnetic Field Harvesting [151] outdoor environments, potential for magnetic field strength and proximity to magnetic
coils or magnetic materials to generate
continuous energy generation. sources, limited range of applications.
electrical energy.
Relatively low power output, influenced by
Utilizes microbial processes to convert organic
Utilizes organic waste as a renewable energy environmental factors and organic matter availability,
Biomass Energy Harvesting matter into electrical energy through
source, suitable for decentralized applications, requires careful management of microbial
(microbial fuel cells) [152] biochemical reactions within microbial fuel
potential for continuous energy generation. communities and operating conditions,
cells (MFCs).
longer startup time.
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 34 of 43

7. Discussion
This section discusses the reasons why certain energy-saving techniques that work
in traditional WSNs are not suitable for LWSN monitoring applications. It also presents a
comparative analysis of the energy consumption in LWSNs and traditional WSNs and the
integration of user requirements and operational constraints in LWSN energy management.

7.1. Challenges Adapting Energy Management Techniques from Traditional WSN to LWSN
Monitoring Applications
To discuss why these techniques designed for traditional WSNs may not work for
LWSNs, it is important to recap the difference between traditional WSNs and LWSNs. The
main difference between WSNs and LWSNs lies in the deployment of the nodes. In typical
WSNs, nodes are randomly deployed, whereas, in LWSNs, the network topology is pre-
determined. LWSNs necessitate a linear arrangement of sensor nodes, with data relayed
to a central base station through daisy-chaining via neighboring sensor nodes. However,
this approach introduces significant energy inefficiencies and imbalances, resulting in data
transmission delays and complex application and service management [153]. While some
energy-saving techniques have proven effective in traditional WSNs, their applicability in
LWSN monitoring applications poses unique challenges [8]. Several factors contribute to
the incompatibility of certain energy-saving techniques of traditional WSNs in the context of
LWSNs [154]. In this section, we explore the reasons why certain energy-saving techniques
that work in traditional WSNs are not suitable for LWSN monitoring applications.

7.1.1. Node Distribution and Communication Range

In traditional WSNs, sensor nodes are typically deployed in a random or clustered fash-
ion (most likely giving them a mesh-like topology), facilitating short-range communication
and proximity-based data aggregation. However, in thin LWSN monitoring applications,
sensor nodes are spread out along a linear path, leading to longer communication distances
and increased energy consumption for data transmission [155]. Techniques relying on close
proximity for efficient communication, such as node clustering, become less effective in
thin LWSNs due to the dispersed node distribution and extended communication range.
This makes it challenging for existing energy-balancing schemes (e.g., cluster-based, multi-
path, and energy-aware routing) designed for traditional WSNs to be directly applicable
to LWSNs due to the unique characteristics of the nodes in LWSNs [154]. To achieve reli-
able data delivery in large-scale monitoring applications, traditional WSNs make use of
multi-hop routing. However, to effectively utilize the multi-hop approach in LWSNs, it is
advisable to reduce the distance of the network by deploying multiple sink nodes [156–158].
This approach helps to mitigate the energy hole problem [159,160] and can also decrease
the number of hops required for data transmission, thereby reducing the overall energy
consumption. Also, a pure multi-hop approach to route data along the LWSN extending
for hundreds or even thousands of kilometers can incur significant energy costs. As a
result, data collection strategies employing mobile sinks [161], such as unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs), are often more suitable compared to traditional WSN multi-hop routing
approaches [41].
Another major challenge in LWSNs is to ensure end-to-end packet delivery with a
smaller number of relay nodes [27,162]. This is because, unlike in traditional WSNs, nodes
near the sink in LWSNs tend to deplete their energy more rapidly because they handle
heavier traffic compared to other nodes in the network [21]. Over time, this uneven load
distribution, commonly referred to as the “relay burden problem”, leads to a dispropor-
tionate consumption of energy, leaving the nodes in close proximity to the sink node
with significantly less energy [163]. Consequently, the risk of prematurely depleting the
network’s overall energy reserves and shortening its lifetime is greatly amplified. More-
over, these close-in nodes cannot afford extended sleep periods as they need to remain
vigilant in idle listening mode to fulfill their relaying duties. Therefore, it becomes im-
perative to implement more intelligent methods like optimal node placement [99] and
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 35 of 43

mobile sink [41] for distributing the traffic load across the network to ensure and prolong
its operational lifetime.

7.1.2. Scalability and Reliability

LWSN monitoring applications often span large geographical areas, necessitating
scalable and reliable communication protocols for robust data transmission. However,
techniques optimized for small-scale WSN deployments may encounter scalability and
reliability challenges when applied to LWSNs [164]. For instance, geographic routing
protocols, which rely on neighbor information and use the shortest distance between nodes
for routing decisions, may struggle to maintain network connectivity and packet delivery
ratios in linear deployments with sparse node distribution [165]. Additionally, the routing
complexity in traditional WSNs contrasts with the straightforward routing paths dictated
by the linear structure of LWSNs [40], where nodes have only two possible routing paths
(left or right) [28]. Furthermore, techniques like topology control (location-driven and
connection-driven) may not be suitable for LWSNs due to a lower spatial correlation in the
data acquired by the nodes. Unlike traditional WSNs with random node deployment, thin
LWSNs deploy nodes deterministically, resulting in fewer node redundancies [8]. As such,
all the nodes, not a subset of the nodes, are needed to maintain coverage and operation.
While certain techniques effective in traditional WSNs may not be directly applicable
to LWSNs, cross-layer approaches, which consider the energy consumption issue on a
system-wide level rather than focusing solely on individual components or protocols,
may be advantageous [166]. Cross-layer solutions can be utilized to effectively reduce
energy expenditure across the entire protocol stack since the parameters and protocols
across various layers of the protocol stack in WSNs are jointly optimized [38,167]. They
achieve energy savings by making use of the information residing at different layers of
the network protocol stack [168]. However, achieving cross-layer optimization, where
parameters and protocols across different layers of the protocol stack are jointly optimized,
is particularly challenging in LWSN monitoring applications. The linear topology and long-
distance communication requirements introduce complexities that traditional cross-layer
optimization techniques may struggle to address [162]. Therefore, innovative cross-layer
approaches that account for the specific challenges and operational requirements of linear
deployments can pave the way for efficient and sustainable energy management in LWSN
monitoring applications.

7.1.3. Energy Consumption and Efficiency

Energy-saving techniques in traditional WSNs are tailored to minimize energy con-
sumption at both the node and network levels, optimizing resource utilization and extend-
ing the battery life. However, in LWSN monitoring applications, energy consumption is
inherently higher due to the demands of long-distance communication and data forward-
ing. This is because, in a typical LWSN, a limited number of sensors are often deployed to
collect data and forward it to the sink node. For such sensor nodes, energy is expended
not only for long-range communications but also for multi-hop communication, where
the nodes not only transmit their own data but also serve as relays for transmitting data
from neighboring nodes [169]. Consequently, these sensors may experience higher energy
depletion, impacting the overall network’s performance.
Techniques in traditional WSNs, which solely focus on node-level energy reduction,
may overlook the energy-intensive nature of long-range communication in LWSNs. These
techniques may not work well in linear deployments (which require tailored approaches to
effectively balance energy consumption and network performance), resulting in suboptimal
performance and a shortened network lifespan. Therefore, energy-balancing techniques
that focus on overall network energy consumption and strive to balance the residual energy
of sensor nodes are crucial in LWSN monitoring applications for extending the network’s
lifetime [170]. In addition, optimal node placement is also crucial for achieving energy
efficiency in LWSNs [162,171]. By strategically positioning sensor nodes along the linear
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 36 of 43

deployment path, factors such as the communication range, node density, and energy
consumption can be optimized to minimize energy expenditure and enhance the network’s
performance [172].

7.1.4. Environmental Constraints and Fault Tolerance

Linear WSN monitoring applications often operate in harsh and environmentally
challenging conditions, where factors such as terrain, weather, and interference can impact
a network’s performance and energy efficiency. Energy-saving techniques that rely on
idealized assumptions about network topology and environmental conditions may fail to
account for the real-world constraints encountered in LWSNs [30].
The linear topology inherent in LWSNs makes them more vulnerable to data delivery
failures compared to traditional WSNs [27]. In LWSNs, a single node failure has the poten-
tial to disrupt the entire communication process, representing a significant weakness. Node
failures can occur due to various factors, such as battery depletion, hardware malfunctions,
or external damage. Additionally, the occurrence of consecutive faulty nodes can create
gaps in the network, leading to the fragmentation of the LWSN into multiple disjointed
segments [28]. Moreover, the failure of nodes located closer to the sink node, especially if
they are overloaded, can expedite the depletion of the network’s energy resources, thereby
shortening its operational lifespan. Such failures can have severe repercussions, empha-
sizing the critical importance of robust MAC and network layer protocols in LWSNs [26].
These protocols must be equipped to handle node failures effectively, as there are limited
alternative routing options available, particularly towards the sink node.

7.2. Comparative Analysis of Energy Consumption in LWSNs and Traditional WSNs

Energy consumption in LWSNs follows unique patterns due to the linear topology,
which often involves fewer transmission paths and restricted routing options compared
to traditional WSNs. In traditional WSNs, sensor nodes are often arranged in a multi-
dimensional array, allowing for multiple routing paths, which can distribute the energy
load more evenly among nodes. This also permits them to efficiently utilize cluster-based
aggregation to reduce redundant data transmission and conserve energy. However, in
LWSNs, nodes are deployed linearly, with each node having only two immediate neighbors
along the linear path, leading to specific energy demands and challenges, especially near
the sink node, where the energy depletion rates are typically higher. Furthermore, data
aggregation is less effective due to fewer opportunities for clustering along the linear path.
This study identifies that LWSNs consume more energy for multi-hop communication
along linear paths, as data are relayed through the intermediate nodes with limited alter-
native routes. To mitigate these challenges, energy-efficient routing protocols specifically
designed for linear topologies are recommended. These protocols should emphasize bal-
ancing energy consumption among nodes and managing transmission power to extend
the lifespan of the nodes closest to the sink. Insights drawn from this comparison indicate
that adopting directional antenna configurations, using mobile sinks (e.g., UAVs for data
collection), and optimizing relay node placement can improve energy efficiency and reduce
communication overheads, ensuring a more stable operational lifespan for LWSNs.

7.3. Integration of User Requirements and Operational Constraints in LWSN Energy Management
In designing energy management strategies for LWSNs, it is essential to align with
the user’s requirements and operational constraints, such as network lifetime expectations,
coverage demands, and cost limitations. Real-world applications of LWSNs, such as
infrastructure monitoring and border surveillance, often require continuous, uninterrupted
operation in remote and sometimes inaccessible locations. This necessitates strategies that
are both energy-efficient and sustainable under practical conditions.
Integrating user requirements involves defining specific performance metrics, includ-
ing desired monitoring frequency, data accuracy, and acceptable latency. Operational
constraints, such as environmental factors (temperature and terrain) and maintenance
Sensors 2024, 24, 7024 37 of 43

accessibility, should influence the selection of energy-saving techniques. For instance, the
adoption of adaptive strategies, such as duty cycling, hierarchical sensing, dynamic power
adjustment, etc., can enhance energy efficiency without compromising data quality or
network coverage. Furthermore, adopting energy-harvesting methods, where feasible, can
ensure a consistent energy supply while employing dynamic power adjustment mecha-
nisms to help meet the diverse energy demands posed by varying environmental conditions.
These tailored energy management strategies will ensure that LWSNs remain functional
and reliable, meeting the efficiency and practicality required for real-world deployments.

8. Conclusions
This paper explored various energy management strategies aimed at extending the
lifespan of linear wireless sensor networks (LWSNs). By examining the challenges posed
by linear deployments of WSNs, such as those encountered in border surveillance and
road, bridge, railway, and pipeline monitoring, this study emphasizes the critical need
for effective energy management solutions. It broadly classified energy management
strategies for extending the lifespan of WSNs into three categories: energy conservation,
energy-balancing technique, and energy-harvesting technique. Furthermore, it evaluates
the suitability and impact of these techniques when applied to LWSNs, highlighting that not
all approaches suitable for traditional WSNs are equally effective for linear configurations.
Techniques such as clustering, topology control, energy-aware routing, geographic routing,
etc., which rely on proximity-based communication and node redundancy, are found to
be less suitable for LWSNs due to the linear arrangement of the nodes, large distances,
and limited routing options. The adoption of effective green strategies is thus crucial for
LWSN applications where energy efficiency and sustainability are paramount. By utilizing
energy-saving and energy-harvesting techniques, LWSN monitoring systems can minimize
operational costs, reduce the environmental impact, and extend a network’s lifetime.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.N.; methodology, V.N. and F.M.; investigation, V.N.;
resources, V.N., F.M., G.S.K., P.C. and K.T.; writing—original draft preparation, V.N.; writing—review
and editing, V.N., F.M., G.S.K., P.C., K.T., W.B.N., E.M.D.D., M.L.K. and P.T.; visualization, V.N. and
P.C.; supervision, F.M. and B.Z.; funding acquisition, P.C. and K.T. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper was partially supported by the Reactive Too project that has received funding
from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research, Innovation, and Staff Exchange Programme
under the Marie Skodowska-Curie Action (Grant Agreement No871163); the Department of Graph-
ics, Computer Vision and Digital Systems, under statute research project (Rau6, 2024), Silesian
University of Technology (Gliwice, Poland); and the international project co-financed by the pro-
gram of the Minister of Science and Higher Education, entitled “PMW”, in the years 2021–2025;
contract no. 5169/H2020/2020/2.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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