GROUND ENGINEERING

(CVL421)
Lecture 8 (Mechanical Modification of Soils)

Dr. Prashanth Vangla

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Summary of subsurface exploration

(Lunne et al., 1997)

 Mechanical Modification of soil
Overview of soil densification/compaction
Shallow vs. Deep densification
Processes and Equipment
Engineering Improvement objectives
Shallow Compaction
 Methods of shallow compaction
 Principles of Soil Densification
 Properties of compacted soils
 Cohesive soil
 Cohesionless soil

 Laboratory tests
 Overview of soil densification/compaction

 Compaction means densification of an unsaturated soil by a reduction in

the volume of voids filled with air, while the volume of solids and the

water content remain essentially the same

Before compaction After compaction

 Shallow vs. Deep densification
Shallow compaction typically refers to processes where soil is worked at
the ground surface or where material is placed and compacted in layers
 Engineered fill (where soil is placed in controlled lifts typically 20-30 cm)

 Applications
 Soil foundations

 Engineered slopes

 Embankments (earth dams and Levees)

 Retaining walls

 Transportation projects
 Deep densification
Deep densification usually refers to in situ processes where existing
subsurface soils are densified
 Various Methods
 Blasting

 Vibrocompaction

 Deep dynamic compaction

 Compaction grouting

 Forced consolidation
 Processes and Equipment
 Basic processes of compaction techniques

 Rearrangement of soil grains during the compaction

 How the compaction energy is delivered

Largely function of the soil type being densified and the equipment being used

For example:
Cohesionless soils: Vibratory table for the maximum density test of cohesionless

soils (ASTM D4253)

 Shallow Compaction
Properties of compacted soils
 Soil structure
 Cohesionless
 Cohesive soil
 Engineering Improvement objectives
 15-point method
Principles of compaction/compaction theory
 Laboratory tests
 Presentation of laboratory compaction test results
 Compaction of different soil types
 Presentation of laboratory compaction test results
Methods of shallow compaction and field compaction equipment
Field compaction and specifications
Compaction control/field inspection
 Compaction of cohesionless soils
Simple Cubic Body Centered Cubic

Coordination number = 8
Coordination number = 6
Volume of the particles = 68%
Volume of the particles = 52%

Coordination number = 12
Face Centered Cubic Volume of the particles = 74%
 Changes in fabric in a binary particle mixture (Vallejo, 2001)
“Packing pattern of uniform particles and void ratio”
Jie Han 2015 (modified from Mitchell and Soga, 2005).
Particle size ratios of 6.1 (mixing of 100/140 and 20/25)
2.8 (50/60 and 20/25)
2.1 (100/140 and 50/60)
 1.4

1.3

1.2

Void ratio
1.1

1.0

0.9
SPD9PD0N0
0.8
SPD9PD0.9N104
0.7 SPD9PD0.9N214
SPD9PD0.45N214
0.6
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relative denisty, %
 Cohesive soils

Dispersion Flocculation

After Jie Han 2015

  Engineering Improvement objectives
• The major aims of compacting soil are:
Increase shear strength

Reduce compressibility

Reduce permeability

Reduce liquefaction potential

Control swelling and shrinking

 Bearing capacity, strength, and stiffness
• “Bearing capacity: the ability of soil to stand up to lateral forces imposed by
retaining walls, excavations and so forth. (lateral earth pressures), and the
stability of sloping ground or sloped earth structures (slope stability), all rely on
the shear strength of soil”
-Nicholson 2015

• Strength
• Stiffness (or stress-strain behavior)
• Soil fabric or “structure” (arrangement of soil grains) affect the soil stiffness
• Especially for cohesive soils whose structure plays a critical role in response characteristics
• For granular soils with more rounded or “bulky” grains, the soil “structure” is essentially just a matter of
grain packing
 Contd.
• Soil structure exhibit lower compressibility,
• Cohesive soils higher peak strength, and higher
stiffness

(a) (b)
Clay particle structure: (a) flocculated and (b) dispersed ductile (less brittle), have a
lower permeability, and may
have a higher residual strength

Variation of strength and stiffness for a silty clay compacted at different moisture levels.
The difference in structure along with compacted density (dry unit weight) will result in
different soil properties and behaviors, including
• strength
• compressibility
• permeability (hydraulic conductivity)
• stiffness/ductility, and swell
Effect of compaction on soil structure [Adapted from Lambe (1958)]
 Contd.
• “Cohesionless (granular) soils
• The interaction between cohesionless soil grains is essentially all frictional, and because
the grains are more “bulky” or rounded than clay particles, there is not much significant
difference between “structures” other than the density of packing.

• The low moisture may provide enough “apparent cohesion” between grains due to
water surface tension to form a very loose honeycombed structure (unstable structure)

• In general, the higher the density of a cohesionless soil, the stiffer and stronger (higher
shear strength) the compacted material will be.

• Density (reported as dry unit weight) is usually the only requirement”

 Compressibility and Settlement
 Reduction of the compressibility of the ground depends on the degree of densification.

 The fundamental goal of reduced compressibility is to reduce future settlement of the

ground under the load of built structures or of a prepared engineered site.

 Soil compressibility (elastic and inelastic components) depends on soil type, depth,
structure, and stress-deformation characteristics.

 Cohesionless soils compressibility is directly related to soil density.

 Settlement of granular soils is essentially “immediate” and for practical purposes is often considered
elastic.
 Settlement of structures founded on granular soils can be estimated using relatively simple equations
(Hookes law) employing such soil parameters as the elastic (Youngs) modulus (Es), and Poissons ratio
(s).
 Denser sands will have higher Es and s values and thus exhibit less settlement.
 Contd.
• Compressibility and settlement of cohesive materials, particularly
saturated clays, is often a controlling design parameter for many
structures.
• The dominant portion of settlement in saturated clays is due to
consolidation process.
• The densification of these types of soils typically done by preloading (loading the
ground prior to the construction), vertical drains etc.
"Collapse" settlement and total settlement of compacted soil under load. [Huder (1964)]
 Permeability and seepage
• The permeability of the soil will decrease as the void space decrease (intuitively correct for most of the granular soils)

• The soils consisting of appreciable amounts of clay, the permeability and seepage rate will also be heavily dependent on soil
structure.

• Fortunately, the structure of clayey soils can be controlled to a great degree by the compaction conditions and method (and
equipment) of compaction used

(a) (b)
Clay particle structure:
(a) flocculated and (b) dispersed

Effect of compaction on soil structure [Adapted from Lambe (1958)]

Volume Stability (Shrinking and Swelling)
• Volume stability is an important parameter, as it has been noted that excessive shrinking, and
particularly swelling, has been known to cause millions of dollars of damage each year to
roadways, airfields, and foundations.

• Repeated shrinking and swelling of expansive clayey soils in alternating wetting and drying cycles
of certain soils has also been attributed to downward slope movement.

• Volume stability is not easily achieved by merely densifying soil

Percent swell related to placement conditions. [Holtz and
Gibbs (1956).]
 Liquefaction Phenomenon and Mitigation
• Several of the available soil and ground improvement applications are
intended to mitigate liquefaction that may result from seismic (earthquake)
events

• Three fundamental conditions must be present for initiation of liquefaction

• The soil must be essentially cohesionless, such that all of its shear strength results
from inter granular friction and shear strength is a direct function of effective stress.
• The soil must be in a “loose” condition in that applied shear stress will cause a
tendency for compression or contraction of the soil mass.
• The soil must be saturated and effectively undrained so that any increase in loads will
tend to generate positive water pressures, thereby decreasing effective stress
Mitigation of liquefaction can possible:
 if
(1) density is increased, or
(2) water saturation is eliminated, or
(3) the material is made to be “cohesive” by means of additional inter
granular strength, the soil deposit would be rendered less likely to liquefy
under dynamic (earthquake) loads
 15-Point Method
• In order to relate the differences in engineering properties to compaction
conditions The procedure is used for determining the variation in test
values for an individual property of interest for a soil:

• Approximately five specimens of a representative soil are

prepared by compacting with a uniform effort over a range
of water contents that span the optimum, much as would be
done for a compaction test.
• Two more sets of approximately five specimens are prepared
in the same manner, but at two additional and different
compactive efforts.
• Each of the approximately 15 specimens is tested for some
property of interest (e.g., strength, compressibility,
permeability).
• The resulting test values are plotted on a graph of density
(dry unit weight) versus “as compacted” water content at the
compaction conditions for each specimen.
• The plotted values are then contoured to show the
numerical variations of the tested soil property as a function
of compaction conditions
Example of a 15-point method plot generated from test data
 a) These soils will tend to have a more flocculated structure.
The trend shown is representative of improved stiffness, “as
compacted” strength, and reduced compressibility

b) These soils will tend to have a more dispersed structure.

The soil compacted under these conditions will exhibit
Improvement with increased density and Improvement with increased density lower permeabilities (important for hydraulic structures)
decreased water content and increased water content.
typically higher residual strength and higher strength after
soaking (CBR test).

c) Seeks to minimize swell (a major problem for roadway

and structural foundations) and improve ductility
(important for earth structures susceptible to damage due
to brittle failure). These properties are optimized when the
soil is compacted at lower densities and at higher moisture
Improvement with decreased density and levels.
increased water content

Common trends of engineering property/behavior improvements

(After Nicholson, 2015)
(After Lay 2010)
 Principles of compaction/compaction theory
• The main variables that will affect the degree of compaction of a soil
are
Type of soil being compacted
Method of compaction
 Static Pressure, Kneading, vibration, and impact
Compactive effort
 Applied energy, compactor size, lift thickness, and
number of passes
Moisture content of the soil being compacted
Relative layer stiffness

Generalized compaction curve

 “For a fixed moisture content and fixed amount of
compactive effort, one particular dry-density will
be achieved for each soil type”- Lay (2010)

Voids are replaced by water Soil grains replaced by water

this is a soil where the majority of particles are below 60 m (After Lay 2010)
 Methods of Shallow compaction
• Static compaction
• Refers to applications that apply a load without dynamic, vibratory, or impact components.
• Heavy rollers, stacking large weights, filling tanks with water, or simply piling up soil.
• Applicable to the soils having low frictional resistance

• Kneading Compaction
• Compaction is a process by which the soil is “worked, formed, and manipulated. . . as if with
the hands” (www.thefreedictionary.com).
• Sheepsfoot compactors

• Vibration compaction
• Applicable to the soils have low to high frictional resistance

• Dynamic or Impact methods

• Loads are applied dynamically by mechanical tampers
 Laboratory tests
 Rammer (free-falling)/impact

Standard and modified laboratory Automated laboratory Family of compaction curves on a soil compacted
compaction hammers and molds. compactor at different levels of compaction effort (Effort A<
Effort B< Effort C).
• 101.6 mm (4 in) or 152.4 mm (6 in) diameter molds
Standard • Layer wise compaction, total three layers and each layer is compacted with a 24.5 N
(5.5 lb) rammer dropped from a height of 305 mm (12 in). “compaction curves generated for a single
• A total compactive effort of 600 kN m/m3 soil should have roughly the same
• increased fall height of 457.2 mm (18 in), a larger hammer weight of 44.48 N
“shape” at different compactive
modified (10.0 lbf), and five layers Efforts” – Nicholson 2015
• Compactive effort of 2700 kNm/m3
 Kneading Compaction

• California Kneading Compactor

• For preparing soil samples (102 mm, Dia X 127 mm length )
for stabilometer (kind of Triaxial Testing apparatus)
• Harvard miniature compaction test
• 25.3 mm (1 in) diameter suitable for fine-grained soils
• Smaller size thus more number samples can be prepared
for strength, permeability, stiffness, and so forth
• Kneading action lead to formation of different soil
structures/fabric compared to Procter method of compaction.
Resulting in different maximum dry unit weight for same water
content.

 Static Compaction
• Steady motorized or hydraulic load that compacts
• When accurate moisture levels and unit weights are
required Harvard miniature compactor equipment
(Nicholson 2015)
  Compaction of Different Soil Types
• Different soil types will exhibit a wide array of properties and characteristics
that will play a major role in many of the improvement methodologies and
approaches

Soil 1, SW-SM (Well graded sand containing silt)

Soil 2, SM (Silty Sand)
Soil 3, SC (Clayey sand)
Soil 4, CL (Clay of Low plastic)
Soil 5, SP (Poorly graded sand)
Soil 6, MH (volcanic ash, Silt of higher plastic)

Typical compaction curves for various soil types

Write down the typical/general observations the you noticed
in the figure given below?

Typical results for a range of soil types subjected to standard compaction

  Field compaction equipment
Pneumatic (rubber tire)
Smooth drum rollers rollers
• are designed to apply very
• compaction of soils and high static loads that are
asphalt pavements effective at compacting a
• uniform static load over wide range of soil types
the width uniform static load over
• a modest static pressure the width
(typically about 300-380 • Seven or nine wheels can
kPa) apply pressure up to 1000
• Adequate to compact thin kPa
layers • Kneading action is possible
• useful for proof rolling
Sheepsfoot, padfoot/tamping
Combination rollers foot, and wedgefoot rollers
/Vibratory rollers(VR)
• Are essentially drum rollers with
• hybrid compaction rollers with protrusions
both pneumatic tires and a • Can apply very high static load
smooth drum. (up to 2000-7000 kPa)
• VR: similar in appearance to • most effective for compaction of
static roller compactors, with clayey cohesive soils, as the
the addition of oscillating kneading action helps to break
• frequencies of 1000-3500 cycles bonds
per minute (approximately 17- • kneading effect will provide the
60 Hz) are possible. most uniform and highes degree
of compaction for clays and
other cohesive soils
(After Nichoslon, 2015)
 Grid roller

• Grid rollers (a.k.a. mesh rollers) are another

version of roller that applies a high contact
pressure through concentrated contact
• These rollers have approximately 50% coverage
and can apply pressures in the range of 1500-
6500 kPa.
• These rollers are ideally suited for breaking up
and compacting rocky soils, gravels, and sands

(After Nichoslon, 2015)

 Trailer combination roller

• towed equipment rather than self-propelled driven

equipment.

• the concepts and mechanics of compaction are the

Smooth drum mode
same,

• faster speeds thus faster compaction lighter and apply

lower effort than self-propelled compactors

pneumatic mode
(After Nichoslon, 2015)
Impact rollers/rolling dynamic compaction
• Significantly different than conventional rollers that use smooth
drums, tamper feet, or pneumatic tires.
• As the corners roll over, the weight of the roller (up to 15 tons)
provides impact compaction with up to 100 kJ of kinetic energy
at rates of 90-130 blows per minute.
• dynamic compaction loads produce by this method would be of
order of 2 to 5 times that of conventional shallow compaction
equipment
• effective to moderate depths of 2-3
Portable Impact and Vibratory compactors
Typical characteristics of impact and vibratory equipment for shallow compaction
Field compaction and specifications (quality control)
The variables that could effect:
• Controlled water (moisture) content during compaction
• Operational aspects of shallow compaction
• Operating frequency
• Size or weight and the number of passes with the equipment
• Lift (layer) thickness/Depth of layers
• Type of the compactor and compaction method
• Uniformity of the source (borrow) material
 Operating frequency Size or weight and the
number of passes with the equipment

Number of passes of roller and density obtained

Typical characteristics of impact and vibratory equipment for shallow

compaction (Hausmann 1990)
 Depth of Layers

Dynamic pressures at various depths during compaction (Forssblad (1977, 1981).]

Example of density vs. depth for compacting lifts of sandy soil
 Compaction control/field inspection
 One-Point Method
 Proof Rolling
 Intelligent Compaction
 Compaction Control Tests
• Field tests
 Volume tests
 Moisture control tests
 Combined tests
 One-Point Method
• It’s a filed inspection test
• Simple and approximate way to estimate
• Compactive energy, maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content
 Volume tests

Sand cone method (ASTM D1556) Rubber balloon method(ASTMD2167)

 Moisture Control Tests
• Direct heating ASTM D4959
• Speedy/Instant moisture testing (ASTM D4944)
• ASTM D4643 allows for drying in a microwave oven
• Proctor needle method (ASTM D1558)
 Combined Tests
• Nuclear gauges: offer the ability to Direct method Backscatter(indirect)method
quickly determine both density and
moisture content Shallow (4 in) layers

Moisture reading
• Neutrons are emitted into the soil by the device at
the surface
• Fast neutrons are slowed when encounter in
hydrogen atoms present in the soil water.
• A helium3 detector in the gauge detects and counts
the number of slowed (thermalized) neutrons,
which relates directly to the amount of moisture in
the soil
 Performance Tests
• Field California bearing ratio (CBR) tests (ASTM D4429)
• Used as a strength parameter to test various components of pavements
such as subgrades, subbases, and base coarse layers, or for unpaved
roadways
• Essentially a penetration test
• Load required to penetrate a standard probe into the compacted soil
surface
• Several correlations are available to estimate engineering properties Field CBR (after ASTMD4429)
• Water content

• ASTM recommends that direct evaluation or design without consideration

for variation due to change in water content, the test should be conducted
under one of the following conditions:
• The degree of saturation is greater than 80%,
• When the material is coarse-grained and cohesionless (so that water content is not
significant), or when the soil has not been modified by construction activities for 2
years preceding the test.

Correction of stress-penetration curves (after ASTMD4429)

 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
• low-cost tool designed to provide a measure of in
situ strength for a range of granular and fine-grained
natural and modified near-surface soils.

• Widely used for compaction control and road way

work.

• This penetrometer test simply involves counting the

number of blows needed to drive a standard 20-mm
diameter, 60 degree cone into the soil with a
(After Hong et al., 2015)
manually dropped hammer.
ASTM D7380 ASTM D6951
2.3 kg weight 8 kg weight
508 mm falling 575 mm Falling
Number of blows required to drive the Number of blows required to drive the
cone 83 mm cone 150 mm
Source: www.pavementinteractive.org
 Plate load tests
• Provide a direct measure of load bearing capacity (strength), as well as deformation under load

Ultimate bearing capacity of soil can be obtained from which the value of safe
bearing capacity of the soil can be derived

B is the width of footing in mm,

Bp the width of test plate in mm,
Sp the settlement of test plate in mm,
Bearing plates are typically Sf the settlement of footing in mm.
round or square
Source: www.123rf.com Limitations of plate load test:
 The bearing capacity of soil located within a depth of less than twice the width of bearing plate is obtained. Assumed

that the character of the soil does not changes at shallow depths.

 Short duration test, does not account the long-term settlements particularly in case of cohesive soils.

 SBC (from shear consideration) of clayey soils for a large foundation, is almost same as that for the smaller test plate.

On other hand in dense sandy soils the BC increases with the size of the foundation and hence the test results obtained

from with plate load test (smaller size test plate) tends to give unadventurous values in dense sandy soils.

 Thus SBC from this method is appropriate for light or less important structures under normal condition.

www.theconstructioncivil.org
References
• Hong, W. T., Kang, S., Park, K., & Lee, J. S. (2016). Evaluation of Active
Layer Depth using Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. Journal of the Korean
Geoenvironmental Society, 17(1), 49-54.