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 Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials:
Number 54

Nitride semiconductor
light-emitting diodes
(LEDs)
Materials, technologies and applications

Edited by
JianJang Huang, Hao-Chung Kuo and
Shyh-Chiang Shen

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

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 Contents

Contributor contact details xiii

Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and
Optical Materials xvii
Preface xxiii

Part I Materials and fabrication 1

1 Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) growth of nitride

semiconductors 3
Q.-D. ZHUANG, Lancaster University, UK

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Molecular beam epitaxial (MBE) growth techniques 4
1.3 Plasma-assisted MBE (PAMBE) growth of nitride
epilayers and quantum structures 5
1.4 Nitride nanocolumn (NC) materials 12
1.5 Nitride nanostructures based on NCs 17
1.6 Conclusion 21
1.7 References 21

2 Modern metal-organic chemical vapor deposition

(MOCVD) reactors and growing nitride-based
materials 27
F. H. YANG, AIXTRON Taiwan Co Ltd, Taiwan

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 MOCVD systems 28
2.3 Planetary reactors 35
2.4 Close-coupled showerhead (CCS) reactors 45
2.5 In situ monitoring systems and growing nitride-based materials 54
2.6 Acknowledgements 65
2.7 References 65

v
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
vi Contents

3 Gallium nitride (GaN) on sapphire substrates for

visible LEDs 66
J.-H. RYOU, University of Houston, USA
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Sapphire substrates 69
3.3 Strained heteroepitaxial growth on sapphire substrates 77
3.4 Epitaxial overgrowth of GaN on sapphire substrates 81
3.5 GaN growth on non-polar and semi-polar surfaces 86
3.6 Future trends 88
3.7 References 89

4 Gallium nitride (GaN) on silicon substrates for LEDs 99

M. H. KANE, Texas A & M University at Galveston, USA and
N. AREFIN, University of Oklahoma, USA

4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 An overview of gallium nitride (GaN) on silicon substrates 100
4.3 Silicon overview 101
4.4 Challenges for the growth of GaN on silicon substrates 104
4.5 Buffer-layer strategies 105
4.6 Device technologies 113
4.7 Conclusion 139
4.8 References 139

5 Phosphors for white LEDs 144

H. YAMAMOTO, formerly of Tokyo University of Technology, Japan
and T. YAMAMOTO, Ajinomoto Pharmaceuticals Co, Ltd, Japan

5.1 Introduction 144

5.2 Optical transitions of Ce3+ and Eu2+ 146
5.3 Chemical composition of representative nitride and
oxynitride phosphors 149
5.4 Compounds activated by Eu2+ 150
5.5 Compounds activated by Ce3+ 165
5.6 Features of the crystal structure of nitride and
oxynitride phosphors 168
5.7 Features of optical transitions of nitride and
oxynitride phosphors 171
5.8 Conclusion and future trends 175
5.9 Acknowledgements 176
5.10 References 176

6 Fabrication of nitride LEDs 181

R.-H. HORNG, D.-S. WUU and C.-F. LIN, National Chung Hsing
University, Taiwan and C.-F. LAI, Feng-Chia University, Taiwan
6.1 Introduction 181

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

 Contents vii

6.2 GaN-based flip-chip LEDs and flip-chip technology 183

6.3 GaN FCLEDs with textured micro-pillar arrays 185
6.4 GaN FCLEDs with a geometric sapphire shaping structure 191
6.5 GaN thin-film photonic crystal (PC) LEDs 198
6.6 PC nano-structures and PC LEDs 200
6.7 Light emission characteristics of GaN PC TFLEDs 205
6.8 Conclusion 211
6.9 References 212

7 Nanostructured LEDs 216

C.-C. LIN, D. W. LIN, C.-H. CHIU, Z. Y. LI and Y. P. LAN, National
Chiao Tung University, Taiwan, J. J. HUANG, National Taiwan
University, Taiwan and H.-C. KUO, National Chiao Tung University,
Taiwan

7.1 Introduction 216

7.2 General mechanisms for growth of gallium nitride
(GaN) related materials 218
7.3 General characterization method 223
7.4 Top-down technique for nanostructured LEDs 225
7.5 Bottom-up technique for GaN nanopillar substrates
prepared by molecular beam epitaxy 240
7.6 Conclusion 245
7.7 References 245

8 Nonpolar and semipolar LEDs 250

Y.-R. WU, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, C.-Y. HUANG,
TSMC Solid State Lighting, Ltd, Taiwan, and Y. ZHAO and
J. S. SPECK, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA

8.1 Motivation: limitations of conventional c-plane LEDs 250

8.2 Introduction to selected nonpolar and semipolar planes 255
8.3 Challenges in nonpolar and semipolar epitaxial growth 263
8.4 Light extraction for nonpolar and semipolar LEDs 267
8.5 References 270

Part II Performance of nitride LEDs 277

9 Efficiency droop in gallium indium nitride

(GaInN)/gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs 279
D. S. MEYAARD, G.-B. LIN, J. CHO and E. F. SCHUBERT,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA
9.1 Introduction 279
9.2 Recombination models in LEDs 281
9.3 Thermal roll-over in gallium indium nitride (GaInN) LEDs 282
9.4 Auger recombination 284

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

viii Contents

9.5 High-level injection and the asymmetry of carrier

concentration and mobility 286
9.6 Non-capture of carriers 290
9.7 Polarization fields 291
9.8 Carrier delocalization 291
9.9 Discussion and comparison of droop mechanisms 293
9.10 Methods for overcoming droop 294
9.11 References 298

10 Photonic crystal nitride LEDs 301

M. D. B. CHARLTON, University of Southampton, UK

10.1 Introduction 301

10.2 Photonic crystal (PC) technology 310
10.3 Improving LED extraction efficiency through PC
surface patterning 318
10.4 PC-enhanced light extraction in P-side up LEDs 322
10.5 Modelling PC-LEDs 326
10.6 P-side up PC-LED performance 335
10.7 PC-enhanced light extraction in N-side up LEDs 342
10.8 Summary 350
10.9 Conclusions 352
10.10 References 353

11 Surface plasmon enhanced LEDs 355

Q. HAO and T. QIU, Southeast University, China and P. K. CHU,
City University of Hong Kong, China

11.1 Introduction 355

11.2 Mechanism for plasmon-coupled emission 356
11.3 Fabrication of plasmon-coupled nanostructures 358
11.4 Performance and outlook 363
11.5 Acknowledgements 365
11.6 References 365

12 Nitride LEDs based on quantum wells and

quantum dots 368
J. VERMA, A. VERMA, V. PROTASENKO, S. M. ISLAM and
D. JENA, University of Notre Dame, USA
12.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 368
12.2 Polarization effects in III-nitride LEDs 379
12.3 Current status of III-nitride LEDs 390
12.4 Modern LED designs and enhancements 399
12.5 References 400

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

 Contents ix

13 Color tunable LEDs 409

Y. F. CHEUNG, Z. MA and H. W. CHOI, The University of
Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
13.1 Introduction 409
13.2 Initial idea for stacked LEDs 410
13.3 Second-generation LED stack with inclined sidewalls 412
13.4 Third-generation tightly-integrated chip-stacking approach 417
13.5 Group-addressable pixelated micro-LED arrays 423
13.6 Conclusions 426
13.7 References 427

14 Reliability of nitride LEDs 428

T.-T. CHEN, C.-F. DAI, C.-P. WANG, H.-K. FU, P.-T. CHOU and
W. Y. YEH, Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), Taiwan

14.1 Introduction 428

14.2 Reliability testing of nitride LEDs 428
14.3 Evaluation of LED degradation 431
14.4 Degradation mechanisms 434
14.5 Conclusion 439
14.6 References 440

15 Chip packaging: encapsulation of nitride LEDs 441

X. LUO and R. HU, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
People’s Republic of China
15.1 Functions of LED chip packaging 441
15.2 Basic structure of LED packaging modules 446
15.3 Processes used in LED packaging 449
15.4 Optical effects of gold wire bonding 453
15.5 Optical effects of phosphor coating 456
15.6 Optical effects of freeform lenses 463
15.7 Thermal design and processing of LED packaging 468
15.8 Conclusion 476
15.9 References 476

Part III Applications of nitride LEDs 483

16 White LEDs for lighting applications: the role of

standards 485
R. KOTSCHENREUTHER, OSRAM GmbH, Germany

16.1 General lighting applications 485

16.2 LED terminology 487
16.3 Copying traditional lamps? 490

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x Contents

16.4 Freedom of choice 491

16.5 Current and future trends 494
16.6 References 495

17 Ultraviolet LEDs 497

H. HIRAYAMA, RIKEN, Japan

17.1 Research background of deep ultraviolet (DUV) LEDs 497

17.2 Growth of low threading dislocation density (TDD)
AlN layers on sapphire 502
17.3 Marked increases in internal quantum efficiency (IQE) 507
17.4 Aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN)-based DUV-LEDs
fabricated on high-quality aluminum nitride (AlN) 513
17.5 Increase in electron injection efficiency (EIE) and
light extraction efficiency (LEE) 521
17.6 Conclusions and future trends 528
17.7 References 530

18 Infrared emitters made from III-nitride semiconductors 533

Y. KOTSAR and E. MONROY, CEA-Grenoble, INAC/SP2M/NPSC,
France
18.1 Introduction 533
18.2 High indium (In) content alloys for infrared emitters 534
18.3 Rare-earth (RE) doped gallium nitride (GaN) emitters 536
18.4 III-nitride materials for intersubband (ISB) optoelectronics 538
18.5 ISB devices 549
18.6 Conclusions 556
18.7 Acknowledgements 557
18.8 References 557

19 LEDs for liquid crystal display (LCD) backlighting 566

C.-F. CHEN, National Central University, Taiwan

19.1 Introduction 566

19.2 Types of LED LCD backlighting units (BLUs) 567
19.3 Technical considerations for optical films and plates 571
19.4 Requirements for LCD BLUs 572
19.5 Advantages and history of LED BLUs 574
19.6 Market trends and technological developments 577
19.7 Optical design 583
19.8 References 593

20 LEDs in automotive lighting 595

J. D. BULLOUGH, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

20.1 Introduction 595

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

 Contents xi

20.2 Forward lighting 595

20.3 Signal lighting 599
20.4 Human factor issues with LEDs 599
20.5 Energy and environmental issues 603
20.6 Future trends 603
20.7 Sources of further information and advice 604
20.8 Acknowledgments 604
20.9 References 604

Index 607

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

 Contributor contact details

(* = main contact)

Editors Chapter 2
J. J. Huang F. H. Yang
Graduate Institute of Photonics and AIXTRON Taiwan Co Ltd, 2F,
Optoelectronics No 5 Lane 91, DongMei Road
National Taiwan University Hsinchu City, Taiwan
1 Roosevelt Road, Sec. 4
Taipei 106, Taiwan E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: [email protected]
Chapter 3
H.-C. Kuo J.-H. Ryou
Department of Photonics & Institute Department of Mechanical
of Electro-Optical Engineering Engineering
National Chiao-Tung University Cullen College of Engineering
1001 University Road University of Houston
Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan N207 Engineering Building 1,
MC-H4006
E-mail: [email protected] University of Houston
Houston, TX 77204-4006, USA
S.-C. Shen E-mail: [email protected]
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
Chapter 4
E-mail: [email protected]
M. H. Kane*
Engineering Department
Chapter 1 Massachusetts Maritime Academy
Q.-D. Zhuang 101 Academy Drive
Physics Department Buzzards Bay, MA 02532, USA
Lancaster University E-mail: [email protected]
Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
E-mail: [email protected]

xiii
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
xiv Contributor contact details

N. Arefin Chapter 7
University of Oklahoma
Norman, OK 73019, USA C.-C. Lin*
Institute of Photonic System
College of Photonics
Chapter 5 National Chiao Tung University
T. Yamamoto Tainan 711, Taiwan
3-23-3 Eifuku E-mail: [email protected].
Suginami-ku edu.tw
Tokyo, Japan, 168-0064
E-mail: [email protected] D. W. Lin, C.-H. Chiu, Z. Y. Li and
Y. P. Lan
Department of Photonics & Institute
Chapter 6
of Electro-Optical Engineering
R.-H. Horng National Chiao Tung University
Institute of Precision Engineering Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
National Chung Hsing University J. J. Huang
250 Kuo Kuang Road Graduate Institute of Photonics and
Taichung 402, Taiwan Optoelectronics
National Taiwan University
E-mail: [email protected] 1 Roosevelt Road, Sec 4
Taipei 106, Taiwan
D.-S. Wuu and C.-F. Lin
Department of Materials Science E-mail: [email protected]
and Engineering
National Chung Hsing University H.-C. Kuo
250 Kuo Kuang Road Department of Photonics & Institute
Taichung 402, Taiwan of Electro-Optical Engineering
National Chiao-Tung University
E-mail: [email protected]; 1001 University Road
[email protected] Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan

C.-F. Lai* Chapter 8

Department of Photonics
Feng-Chia University Y.-R. Wu*
100 Wenhwa Road Seatwen National Taiwan University
Taichung 40724, Taiwan 1 Roosevelt Road, Sec 4
Taipei 106, Taiwan
E-mail: [email protected]; lai.
[email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

 Contributor contact details xv

C.-Y. Huang P. K. Chu

TSMC Solid State Lighting, Ltd Department of Physics and Materials
Epitaxy Technology Development Science
Department City University of Hong Kong
9 Li-Hsin 4th Road Hong Kong, China
Hsinchu Science Park
Hsinchu City, Taiwan 300-78, ROC
Chapter 12
Y. Zhao and J. S. Speck J. Verma,* A. Verma, V. Protasenko,
University of California, Santa S. M. Islam and D. Jena
Barbara University of Notre Dame
Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Chapter 9
D. S. Meyaard, G.-B. Lin, J. Cho Chapter 13
and E. F. Schubert* Y. F. Cheung, Z. Ma and
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute H. W. Choi*
Troy, NY 12180, USA Department of Electrical and
E-mail: [email protected] Electronic Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, People’s Republic of
Chapter 10 China
M. D. B. Charlton E-mail: [email protected]
Electronics and Computer Science
(ECS)
Faculty of Physical and Applied Chapter 14
Sciences T.-T. Chen,* C.-F. Dai, C.-P. Wang,
University of Southampton H.-K. Fu, P.-T. Chou and
Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK W. Y. Yeh
E-mail: [email protected] Electronics and Optoelectronics
Research Laboratories
Industrial Technology Research
Chapter 11 Institute (ITRI)
Q. Hao and T. Qiu* Hsinchu 310, Taiwan
Department of Physics E-mail: [email protected]; CF_Dai@
Southeast University itri.org.tw; [email protected];
Nanjing 211189, China [email protected]; [email protected].
E-mail: [email protected] tw; [email protected]

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

xvi Contributor contact details

Chapter 15 Chapter 18
X. Luo* and R. Hu Y. Kotsar and E. Monroy*
Thermal Packaging Laboratory CEA-Grenoble, INAC/SP2M/NPSC
School of Energy and Power 17 rue des Martyrs
Engineering 38054 Grenoble, France
Huazhong University of Science and
Technology E-mail: [email protected]
Wuhan 430074, People’s Republic
of China Chapter 19
E-mail: [email protected] C.-F. Chen
Mechanical Engineering and
Chapter 16 Institute of Opto-Mechatronics
Engineering
R. Kotschenreuther National Central University
OSRAM GmbH No. 300, Jhongda Road
D-80807 Munich, Germany Jhongli City, Taoyuan County
32001, Taiwan
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Chapter 17
Chapter 20
H. Hirayama
RIKEN J. D. Bullough
2-1 Hirosawa Lighting Research Center
Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
21 Union Street
E-mail: [email protected] Troy, NY 12180, USA
E-mail: [email protected]

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34 Handbook of terahertz technology for imaging, sensing and communications
Edited by D. Saeedkia
35 Handbook of solid-state lasers: Materials, systems and applications
Edited by B. Denker and E. Shklovsky

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 Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials xix

36 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs): Materials, devices and applications

Edited by A. Buckley
37 Lasers for medical applications: Diagnostics, therapy and surgery
Edited by H. Jelínková
38 Semiconductor gas sensors
Edited by R. Jaaniso and O. K. Tan
39 Handbook of organic materials for optical and (opto)electronic devices:
Properties and applications
Edited by O. Ostroverkhova
40 Metallic films for electronic, optical and magnetic applications: Structure,
processing and properties
Edited by K. Barmak and K. Coffey
41 Handbook of laser welding technologies
Edited by S. Katayama
42 Nanolithography: The art of fabricating nanoelectronic and nanophotonic
devices and systems
Edited by M. Feldman
43 Laser spectroscopy for sensing: Fundamentals, techniques and applications
Edited by M. Baudelet
44 Chalcogenide glasses: Preparation, properties and applications
Edited by J.-L. Adam and X. Zhang
45 Handbook of MEMS for wireless and mobile applications
Edited by D. Uttamchandani
46 Subsea optics and imaging
Edited by J. Watson and O. Zielinski
47 Carbon nanotubes and graphene for photonic applications
Edited by S. Yamashita, Y. Saito and J. H. Choi
48 Optical biomimetics: Materials and applications
Edited by M. Large
49 Optical thin films and coatings
Edited by A. Piegari and F. Flory
50 Computer design of diffractive optics
Edited by V. A. Soifer
51 Smart sensors and MEMS: Intelligent devices and microsystems for industrial
applications
Edited by S. Nihtianov and A. Luque
52 Fundamentals of femtosecond optics
S. A. Kozlov and V. V. Samartsev
53 Nanostructured semiconductor oxides for the next generation of
electronics and functional devices: Production, properties and
applications
S. Zhuiykov
54 Nitride semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs): Materials,
technologies and applications
Edited by J. J. Huang, H. C. Kuo and S. C. Shen
55 Sensor technologies for civil infrastructures
Volume 1: Sensing hardware and data collection methods for
performance assessment
Edited by M. Wang, J. Lynch and H. Sohn

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56 Sensor technologies for civil infrastructures

Volume 2: Applications in structural health monitoring
Edited by M. Wang, J. Lynch and H. Sohn
57 Graphene: Properties, preparation, characterisation and devices
Edited by V. Skákalová and A. B. Kaiser
58 Handbook of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology
Edited by O. Kononchuk and B.-Y. Nguyen
59 Biological identification: DNA amplification and sequencing, optical sensing,
lab-on-chip and portable systems
Edited by P. Schaudies
60 High performance silicon imaging: Fundamentals and applications of CMOS
and CCD sensors
Edited by D. Durini
61 Nanosensors for chemical and biological applications: Sensing with nanotubes,
nanowires and nanoparticles
Edited by K. C. Honeychurch
62 Composite magnetoelectrics: Materials, structures, and applications
G. Srinivasan, S. Priya, and N. Sun
63 Quantum information processing with diamond: Principles and applications
Edited by S. Prawer and I. Aharonovich
64 Advances in nonvolatile memory and storage technology
Edited by Y. Nishi
65 Laser surface engineering: Processes and applications
Edited by J. Lawrence, C. Dowding, D. Waugh, J. Griffiths
66 Power ultrasonics: A handbook of materials, design and applications of high
power ultrasound transducers
Edited by J. A. Gallego-Juárez
67 Advances in delay-tolerant networks (DTNs): Architectures, routing and
challenges
Edited by J. Rodrigues
68 Handbook of flexible organic electronics: Materials, manufacturing and
applications
Edited by S. Logothetidis
69 Machine-to-machine (M2M) communications: Architecture, performance
and applications
Edited by C. Anton-Haro and M. Dohler
70 Ecological design of smart home networks: Technologies, social impact and
sustainability
Edited by N. Saito and D. Menga
71 Industrial tomography: Systems and applications
Edited by M. Wang
72 Vehicular communications and networks: Architectures, protocols, operation
and deployment
Edited by W. Chen
73 Modeling, characterization, and production of nanomaterials: Electronics,
photonics and energy applications
Edited by V. Tewary and Y. Zhang
74 Reliability characterisation of electrical and electronic systems
Edited by J. Swingler

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75 Handbook of industrial wireless sensor networks: Monitoring, control and

automation
Edited by R. Budampati S. Kolavennu
76 Epitaxial growth of complex metal oxides: Techniques, properties and
applications
Edited by G. Koster and G. Rijnders
77 Semiconductor nanowires: Materials, synthesis, characterization and
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Edited by J. Arbiol and Q. Xiong

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Professor Hajime Yamamoto, a contributing co-author of this book, sadly passed
away on 19 June 2013 before publication. The editors and the book’s co-authors
(many of them acquainted with him) offer their sympathies to his family.
 Preface

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have extended their presence from being dim
indicators on instrument panels and children’s toys to highly efficient solid-state
lighting (SSL) of daily life. This beautifully engineered technology, pioneered by
Professor Holonyak in 1962 and enabled by numerous bright scientists and
engineers with fifty-plus years of active research and development, is transforming
the way electric energy is utilized in the creation of artificial lighting in the future.
As LEDs in SSL have reached a peak efficiency of greater than 250 lm/W with a
lifetime of greater than 60 000 hours (approximately three to five times longer
lifetime than today’s fluorescent lamps!), we can see the realization of ‘the
ultimate lamp’ in these innovative devices that are currently produced using III-
nitride (III-N) semiconductors.
Undoubtedly, constant improvements in SSL device technology along with a
wider acceptance of SSL around the world will lead to eventual economies of
scale for III-N LED technologies. SSL sales reached $US 19.5 billion in 2012
and will reach a projected market size of $US 31.4 billion in 2017 with a
compound annual growth rate of 9.9% between 2012 and 2017 (http://www.
electronics.ca/presscenter/articles/1855/1/Global-Market-for-Light-Emitting-
Diodes-to-Reach-314-in-2017/Page1.html). According to the Department of
Energy of the United States, the switch from incandescent light bulbs to SSL
sources over the next 20 years could save $US 250 billion of energy costs over
that period of time with a reduction in electricity consumption for lighting of
nearly one-half (http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/sslbasics_market.
html). Better energy utilization in these ultimate lamps also promises a
significant reduction in the carbon footprint. It is highly likely that LEDs are
poised to replace the incandescent light bulbs that were brilliantly invented
more than a century ago.
The ubiquitous presence of LED technology is evident in all aspects of today’s
consumer electronics and infrastructure, which require efficient and
environmentally friendly photon emission to safeguard and enrich human life:
traffic signal lights, pedestrian signage and backlight sources for displays, just to
name a few. For example, the replacement of compact cathode fluorescent lamps

xxiii
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
xxiv Preface

with eco-friendly mercury-free LEDs has enabled new generations of liquid

crystal displays with lower power consumption, richer color reproduction and
improved response times in a highly compact form. Engineering the bandgap
energy of III-N materials to emit ultraviolet (UV) photons has helped the
development of compact UV light sources for efficient water sanitation and in the
detection of bacteria. These novel UV LED technologies will also play a pivotal
role in enhancing quality of life in the future.
There are, however, several technological roadblocks and market challenges
to be overcome before LED technology can substantially impact the future
world. Today, an LED lamp is much more expensive than a fluorescent lamp
per lumen. The cost is associated with the economies of scale as well as the
supply-and-demand dynamics of the market, which could dominate the
prognosis of this new technology’s success. Although government subsidies could
boost the initial adoption of SSL LED technology, a sustainable SSL industry also
depends on the successful development of low-cost manufacturing and device
innovation.
SSL technology is, in essence, a subset of III-N device technology. In the
context of III-N LED technology development, the indispensable elements for
a full-fledged SSL industry infrastructure of high-quality material growth
technology, robust device fabrication methodologies, low-cost package techniques
and efficient thermal management. III-N material technology is a relatively
new field with just a tad over twenty years of research and development. The
quality of epitaxial materials still leaves much room for improvement. The lack of
native substrates for III-N materials may become a fundamental impediment to
improving LED efficiency and ultimately affects manufacturing costs. The design
and optimization of the quantum mechanical structures needed for the manipulation
and control of electron-photon interactions significantly affect the performance of
III-N LEDs. These designs also need to work around the pronounced polarization
charges in these polar semiconductors. In addition, the inevitable thermal effect
and ‘mysterious’ efficiency droop phenomena have to be dealt with theoretically
and experimentally before highly efficient solid-state light sources can be realized.
Packaging and thermal management issues for III-N LEDs are also important.
The human factor is also an intricate but interesting topic in SSL LED. The
requirements for color rendering and the need to retrofit conventional lighting
standards have led to many important LED developments that utilize
phosphor-based wavelength conversion techniques and voltage regulation
circuits.
These intertwined scientific and technological issues in III-N LED
development have sparked tremendous research, development and
commercialization efforts around the world over the past decade. This book
aims to capture the essence of key development topics in contemporary III-N
LED technology and to provide its readers with an overview of the state of
current technology.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014

Random documents with unrelated
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completely to forget the incident of the dogs. Even della Torre,
Facino's mortal but secret enemy, sought to conciliate him.
Bellarion, whose bold, penetrating glance saw everything, whose
rigid features betrayed nothing, steered a careful course by the aid of
philosophy and a sense of humour which grew steadily and
concurrently with the growth of his knowledge of men and women.
If he had a trouble in those days when he was lodged in Facino's
apartments in the ducal palace, it lay in the too assiduous attentions
of the Countess Beatrice. She was embittered with grievances
against Facino, old natural grievances immeasurably increased by a
more recent one; and to his discomfort it was to Bellarion that she
went with her plaints.
'I am twenty years younger than is he,' she said, which was an
exaggeration, the truth being that she was exactly fifteen years her
husband's junior. 'I am as much of an age to be his daughter as are
you, Bellarion, to be his son.'
Bellarion refused to perceive in this the assertion that she and
Bellarion were well matched in years.
'Yet, madonna,' said he gently, 'you have been wed these ten
years. It is a little late to repine. Why did you marry him?'
'Ten years ago he seemed none so old as now.'
'He wasn't. He was ten years younger. So were you.'
'But the difference seemed less. We appeared to be more of an
age until the gout began to trouble him. Ours was a marriage of
ambition. My father compelled me to it. Facino would go far, he said.
And so he would, so he could, if he were not set on cheating me.'
'On cheating you, madonna?'
'He could be Duke of Milan if he would. Not to take what is offered
him is to cheat me, considering why I married him.'
'If this were so, it is the price you pay for having cheated him by
taking him to husband. Did you tell him this before you were wed?'
 'As if such things are ever said! You are dull sometimes,
Bellarion.'
'Perhaps. But if they are not said, how are they to be known?'
'Why else should I have married a man old enough to be my
father? It was no natural union. Could a maid bring love to such a
marriage?'
'Ask some one else, madonna.' His manner became frosty. 'I
know nothing of maids and less of love. These sciences were not
included in my studies.'
And then, finding that hints were wasted against Bellarion's
armour of simplicity—an armour assumed like any other panoply—
she grew outrageously direct.
'I could repair the omission for you, Bellarion,' she said, her voice
little more than a tremulous whisper, her eyes upon the ground.
Bellarion started as if he had been stung. But he made a good
recovery.
'You might; if there were no Facino.'
She flashed him an upward glance of anger, and the colour
flooded her face. Bellarion, however, went calmly on.
'I owe him a debt of loyalty, I think; and so do you, madonna. I
may know little of men, but from what I have seen I cannot think that
there are many like Facino. It is his loyalty and honesty prevents him
from gratifying your ambition.'
It is surprising that she should still have wished to argue with him.
But so she did.
'His loyalty to whom?'
'To the Duke his master.'
'That animal! Does he inspire loyalty, Bellarion?'
'To his own ideals, then.'
 'To anything in fact but me,' she complained. 'It is natural enough,
perhaps. Just as he is too old for me, so am I too young for him. You
should judge me mercifully when you remember that, Bellarion.'
'It is not mine to judge you at all, madonna, and Heaven preserve
me from such presumption. It is only mine to remember that all I
have and all I am, I owe to my Lord Count, and that he is my
adoptive father.'
'You'll not, I hope, on that account desire me to be a mother to
you,' she sneered.
'Why not? It is an amiable relationship.'
She flung away in anger at that. But only to return again on the
morrow to invite his sympathy and his consolation, neither of which
he was prepared to afford her. Her wooing of him grew so flagrant,
so reckless in its assaults upon the defences behind which he
entrenched himself, that one day he boldly sallied forth to rout her in
open conflict.
'What do you seek of me that my Lord Count cannot give you?' he
demanded. 'Your grievance against him is that he will not make you
a duchess. Your desire in life is to become a duchess. Can I make
you that if he cannot?'
But it was he, himself, who was routed by the counterattack.
'How you persist in misunderstanding me! If I desire of him that he
make me a duchess, it is because it is the only thing that he can
make me. Cheated of love, must I be cheated also of ambition?'
'Which do you rate more highly?'
She raised that perfect ivory-coloured face, from which the
habitual insolent languor had now all been swept; her deep blue
eyes held nothing but entreaty and submission.
'That must depend upon the man who brings it.'
'To the best of his ability my Lord Facino has brought you both.'
'Facino! Facino!' she cried out in sudden petulance. 'Must you
always be thinking of Facino?'
 He bowed a little. 'I hope so, madonna,' he answered with a grave
finality.
And meanwhile the profligate court of Gian Maria observed this
assiduity of Facino's lady, and the Duke himself set the fashion of
making it a subject for jests. It is not recorded of him that he made
many jests in his brief day and certainly none that were not lewd.
'Facino's adoptive son should soon be standing in nearer
relationship to him,' he said. 'He will be discovering presently that his
wife has become by Messer Bellarion's wizardry his adoptive
daughter.'
So pleased was his highness with that poor conceit that he
repeated it upon several occasions. It became a theme upon which
his courtiers played innumerable variations. Yet, as commonly
happens, none of these reached the ears of Facino. If any had
reached them, it would have been bad only for him who uttered it.
For Facino's attachment to his quite unworthy lady amounted to
worship. His trust in her was unassailable. Judging the honesty of
others after his own, he took it for granted that Beatrice's attitude
towards his adoptive son was as motherly as became the wife of an
adoptive father.
This, indeed, was his assumption even when the Countess
supplied what any other man must have accounted grounds for
suspicion.
The occasion came on an evening of early April. Bellarion had
received a message by a groom to wait upon Facino. He repaired to
the Count's apartments, to find him not yet returned, whereupon with
a manuscript of Alighieri's Comedy to keep him company he went to
wait in the loggia, overlooking the inner quadrangle of the Broletto,
which was laid out as a garden, very green in those first days of
April.
Thither, a little to his chagrin, for the austere music of Dante's
Tuscan lines was engrossing him, came the Countess, sheathed in a
gown of white samite, with great sapphires glowing against the
glossy black of her hair to match the dark mysterious blue of her
languid eyes.
She came alone, and brought with her a little lute, an instrument
which she played with some expertness. And she was gifted, too, in
the making of little songs, which of late had been excessively
concerned with unrequited love, despair, and death.
The Count, she informed Bellarion, had gone to the Castle, by
which she meant, of course, the great fortress of Porta Giovia built
and commonly inhabited by the late Duke. But he would be returning
soon. And meanwhile, to beguile the tedium of his waiting, she would
sing to him.
Singing to him Facino found her, and he was not to guess with
what reluctance Bellarion had suffered her voice to substitute the
voice of Dante Alighieri. Nor, in any case, was he at all concerned
with that.
He came abruptly into the room from which the loggia opened, his
manner a little pressed and feverish. And the suddenness of his
entrance, acting upon a conscience not altogether at rest, cropped
her song in mid-flight. The eyes she raised to his flushed and
frowning face were startled and uneasy. Bellarion, who sat dreaming,
holding the vellum-bound manuscript which was closed upon his
forefinger, sprang up, with something in his manner of that confusion
usually discernible in one suddenly recalled from dreams to his
surroundings.
Facino strode out to the loggia, and there loosed his news at
once.
'Buonterzo is moving. He left Parma at dawn yesterday, and is
advancing towards Piacenza with an army fully four thousand
strong.'
'Four thousand!' cried Bellarion. 'Then he is in greater strength
than you even now.'
'Thanks to the French contingent and the communal militia, the
odds do not perturb me. Buonterzo is welcome to the advantage.
He'll need a greater when we meet. That will be in two days' time, in
three at latest. For we march at midnight. All is in readiness. The
men are resting between this and then. You had best do the same,
Bellarion.'
Thus, with a complete change from his usual good-tempered,
easy-going manner, already the commander rapping out his orders
without waste of words, Facino delivered himself.
But now his Countess, who had risen when he announced the
imminence of action, expressed her concern.
'Bellarion?' she cried. Her face was white to the lips, her rounded
bosom heaving under its close-fitting sheath; there was dread in her
eyes. 'Bellarion goes with you?'
Facino looked at her, and the lines between his brows grew
deeper. It wounded him sharply that in this hour concern for another
should so completely override concern for himself. Beyond that,
however, his resentment did not go. He could think no evil where his
Bice was concerned, and, indeed, Bellarion's eager interposition
would have supplied the antidote had it been necessary.
'Why, madonna, you would not have me left behind! You would
not have me miss such an occasion!' His cheeks were aglow; his
eyes sparkled.
Facino laughed. 'You hear the lad? Would you be so cruel as to
deny him?'
She recaptured betimes the wits which surprise had scattered,
and prudently dissembled her dismay. On a more temperate note,
from which all passion was excluded, she replied:
'He's such a child to be going to the wars!'
'A child! Pooh! Who would become master should begin early. At
his age I was leader of a troop.'
He laughed again. But he was not to laugh later, when he recalled
this trivial incident.
 CHAPTER VII

MANŒUVRES

Shortly before midnight they rode out from the Palace of the old
Broletto: Facino, attended by Bellarion for his esquire, a page
bestriding a mule that was laden with his armour, and a half-dozen
men-at-arms.
Facino was silent and pensive. His lady's farewells had lacked the
tenderness he craved, and the Duke whose battles he went to fight
had not even been present to speed him. He had left the palace to
go forth upon this campaign, slinking away like a discharged lackey.
The Duke, he had been told, was absent, and for all that he was well
aware of the Duke's detestable pernoctations, he preferred to
believe that this was merely another expression of that ill will which,
despite all that he had done and all that it lay in his power to do, the
Duke never failed to display towards him.
But as the little company rode in the bright moonlight down the
borgo of Porta Giovia, out of a narrow side street emerged a bulky
man, almost dragged along by three great hounds straining at the
leash and yelping eagerly, their noses to the ground. A slender figure
in a cloak followed after him, calling petulantly as he came:
'Not so fast, Squarcia! Body of God! Not so fast, I say. I am out of
breath!'
There was no mistaking that strident voice. It was the Duke,
himself, and close upon his heels came six armed lackeys to make a
bodyguard.
Squarcia and his powerful hounds crossed the main street of the
borgo, almost under the head of Facino's horse, the brawny
huntsman panting and swearing as he went.
'I cannot hold them back, Lord Duke,' he answered. 'They're hot
upon the scent, and strong as mules, devil take them!'
 He vanished down the dark gulf of an alley. From the leader of the
Duke's bodyguard came a challenge:
'Who goes there at this hour?'
Facino loosed a laugh that was full of bitterness.
'Facino Cane, Lord Duke, going to the wars.'
'It makes you laugh, eh?' The Duke approached him. He had
missed the bitterness of the laughter, or else the meaning of that
bitterness.
'Oh yes, it makes me laugh. I go to fight the battles of the Duke of
Milan. It is my business and my pleasure. I leave you, Lord Duke, to
yours.'
'Aye, aye! Bring me back the head of that rogue Buonterzo. Good
fortune to you!'
'Your highness is gracious.'
'God be with you!' He moved on. 'That rogue Squarcia is getting
too far ahead. Ho, there! Squarcia! Damn your vile soul! Not so fast!'
The gloom of the alley absorbed him. His bodyguard followed.
Again Facino laughed. '"God be with me," says the Duke's
magnificence. May the devil be with him. I wonder upon what
foulness he is bent to-night, Bellarion.' He touched his horse with the
spur. 'Forward!'
They came to the Castle of Porta Giovia, the vast fortress of Gian
Galeazzo, built as much for the city's protection from without as for
his own from the city. The drawbridge was lowered to receive them,
and they rode into the great courtyard of San Donato, which was
thronged with men-at-arms and bullock-carts laden with the
necessaries of the campaign. Here, in the inner courtyard and in the
great plain beyond the walls of both castle and city, the army of
Facino was drawn up, marshalled by Carmagnola.
Facino rode through the castle, issuing brief orders here and there
as he went, then, at the far end of the plain beyond, at the very head
of the assembled forces, he took up his station attended by
Bellarion, Beppo the page, and his little personal bodyguard. There
he remained for close upon an hour, and in the moonlight,
supplemented by a dozen flaring barrels of tar, he reviewed the army
as it filed past and took the road south towards Melegnano.
The order of the going had been preconcerted between Facino
and his lieutenant Carmagnola, and it was Carmagnola who led the
vanguard, made up of five hundred mounted men of the civic militia
of Milan and three hundred German infantry, a mixed force
composed of Bavarians, Swabians, and Saxons, trailing the
ponderous German pike which was fifteen feet in length. They were
uniform at least in that all were stalwart, bearded men, and they
sang as they marched, swinging vigorously to the rhythm of their
outlandish song. They were commanded by a Swabian named
Koenigshofen.
Next came de Cadillac with the French horse, of whom eight
hundred rode in armour with lances erect, an imposing array of
mounted steel which flashed ruddily in the flare from the tar barrels;
the remaining two hundred made up a company of mounted
arbalesters.
After the French came an incredibly long train of lumbering
wagons drawn by oxen, and laden, some with the ordinary baggage
of the army—tents, utensils, arms, munitions, and the like—and the
others with mangonels and siege implements including a dozen
cannon.
Finally came the rearguard composed of Facino's own condotta,
increased by recent recruitings to twelve hundred men-at-arms and
supplemented by three hundred Switzers under Werner von Stoffel,
of whom a hundred were arbalesters and the remainder infantry
armed with the short but terribly effective Swiss halbert.
When the last had marched away to be absorbed into the
darkness, and the song of the Germans at the head of the column
had faded out of earshot, muffled by the tramp of the rearguard,
Facino with his little knot of personal attendants set out to follow.
 Towards noon of the following day, with Melegnano well behind
them, they came to a halt in the hamlet of Ospedaletto, having
covered twenty-five miles in that first almost unbroken march. The
pace was not one that could be maintained, nor would it have been
maintained so long but that Facino was in haste to reach the south
bank of the Po before Buonterzo could cross. Therefore, leaving the
main army to rest at Ospedaletto, he pushed on with five hundred
lances as far as Piacenza. With these at need he could hold the
bridgehead, whilst waiting for the main army to join him on the
morrow.
At Piacenza, however, there was still no sign of the enemy, and in
the Scotti who held the city—one of the possessions wrested from
the Duchy of Milan—Facino found an unexpected ally. Buonterzo
had sent to demand passage of the Scotti. And the Scotti, with the
true brigand instinct of their kind, had replied by offering him
passage on terms. But Buonterzo, the greater brigand, had mocked
the proposal, sending word back that, unless he were made free of
the bridge, he would cross by force and clean up the town in
passing. As a consequence, whilst Buonterzo's advance was
retarded by the necessity of reaching Piacenza in full force, Facino
was given free and unhindered passage by the Scotti, so that he
might act as a buckler for them.
Having brought his army on the morrow safely across the Po,
Facino assembled it on the left bank of the little river Nure. He
destroyed the bridge by which the Æmilian Way crosses the stream
at Pontenure, and sat down to await Buonterzo, who was now
reported to be at Firenzuola, ten miles away.
Buonterzo, however, did not come directly on, but, quitting the
Æmilian Way, struck south, and, crossing the shallow hills into the
valley of the Nure, threatened thence to descend upon Facino's
flank.
That was the beginning of a series of movements, of marchings
and counter-marchings, which endured for a full week without ever
bringing the armies in sight of each other. These manœuvres carried
them gradually south, and their operations became a game of hide-
and-seek among the hills.
At first it bewildered Bellarion that two commanders, each of
whom had for aim the destruction of the other, should appear so
sedulously to avoid an engagement. But in the end, he came to
understand the spirit actuating them. Each fought with mercenary
troops, and just as it is not the business of mercenaries to get
themselves killed, neither is it their business to slay if slaughter can
be avoided. They fought for profit, and whilst prisoners were
profitable, since they yielded not only arms and horses, but also
ransoms, dead men yielded nothing beyond their harness. Therefore
they demanded that their commanders should lead them as nearly
as possible into a position of such strategical advantage that the
enemy, perceiving himself at their mercy, should have no choice but
to surrender. To this general rule the only exception was afforded by
the Swiss, who were indifferent to bloodshed. But of Swiss there
were only a few on Facino's side, and none at all on Buonterzo's.
At the end of a week, after endless manœuvres, matters were
very much as they had been at the beginning. Buonterzo had fallen
back again on Firenzuola, hoping to draw Facino into open country,
whilst Facino, refusing to be drawn, lay patiently at San Nicoló.
Three days Facino waited there, to be suddenly startled by the
news that Buonterzo was at Aggazano, eight miles away. Suspecting
here an attempt to slip past him and, by crossing perhaps at
Stradella, to invade the territory of Milan, and also because he
conceived that Buonterzo had placed himself in a disadvantageous
position, leaving an opening for attack, Facino decided upon instant
action.
In the best house of San Nicoló, which he had temporarily
adopted for his quarters, Facino assembled on the morning of the
10th of May his chief officers, Francesco Busone of Carmagnola,
Koenigshofen, the Swiss Werner von Stoffel, and the French
commander de Cadillac.
In a small plain room on the ground floor, darkened by semi-
closed shutters to exclude the too ardent sun, they were gathered,
Bellarion with them, about the plain deal table at which Facino sat.
On the table's white surface the condottiero with a stick of charcoal
had drawn a map which if rough was fairly accurate of scale. In the
past week Bellarion had seen and studied a half-dozen such charts
and had come to read them readily.
Charcoal stick in hand, Facino expounded.
'Buonterzo lies here, and the speed at which he has moved from
Firenzuola will constrain him to rest there, whatever his ultimate
intention.'
Carmagnola interposed. He was a large young man, handsome,
florid, and self-assured.
'He is too favourably placed for an attack from the plain. At
Aggazano he holds the slopes, whence he can roll down like an
avalanche.'
'You are interrupting me, Francesco.' Facino's voice was dry and
cold. 'And you point out the obvious. It is not my intention to make a
frontal attack; but merely to simulate one. Here is my plan: I divide
the army into two battles. One of these, composed of the French
horse, the civic militia, and Koenigshofen's pikes, you shall lead,
Francesco, marching directly upon Aggazano, as if intending to
attack. Thus you engage Buonterzo's attention, and pin him there.
Meanwhile with the remainder of the forces I, myself, march up the
valley of the Trebbia as far as Travo, and then, striking over the hills,
descend thence upon Buonterzo's camp. That will be the moment of
your simulated attack from the plain below to become real, so that
whichever way Buonterzo turns, we are upon his rear.'
There was a murmur of approval from the four officers. Facino
looked from one to another, smiling a little. 'No situation could be
better suited for such a manœuvre.'
And now Bellarion, the chess-player and student of the art of war,
greatly daring, yet entirely unconscious of it, presumed to advance a
criticism.
'The weakness lies in the assumption that this situation will be
maintained until action is joined.'
 Carmagnola gasped, and with Koenigshofen and de Cadillac gave
the young man a stare of haughty, angry amazement. Facino
laughed outright, at so much impudence.
Werner von Stoffel, between whom and Bellarion a certain
friendship had sprung up during the months they had spent together
at Abbiategrasso, was the only one who spared his feelings, whilst
Facino, having vented his scorn in laughter, condescended to
explain.
'We ensure that by the speed of our onset, which will leave him no
time to move. It is the need for rest that has made him take up this
strong position. Its very strength is the trap in which we'll take him.'
He rose, brushing the matter aside. 'Come! The details each of you
can work out for himself. What imports is that we should move at
once, leave camp and baggage so that we may march unhampered.
Here speed is all.'
But Bellarion was so little abashed by their contempt that he
actually returned to the attack.
'If I were in Buonterzo's place,' he said, 'I should have scouts
along the heights from Rivergaro to Travo. Upon discovering your
intentions from your movements, I should first descend upon
Carmagnola's force, and, having routed it, I should come round and
on, to engage your own. Thus the division of forces upon which you
count for success might easily be made the cause of your ruin.'
Again there was a silence of amazement at this babe in warlike
matters who thrust his opinions upon the notice of tried soldiers.
'Let us thank God,' said Carmagnola with stinging sarcasm, 'that
you do not command Buonterzo's troops, or our overthrow would be
assured.' And he led the rather cruel laughter, which at last silenced
Bellarion.
The two battles into which the army was divided moved at dusk,
leaving all baggage and even the cannon, of which Facino judged
that he would have no need in operations of the character intended.
Before midnight Carmagnola had reached his station within a mile of
Aggazano, and Facino was at Travo, ready to breast the slopes at
dawn, and from their summit descend upon Buonterzo's camp.
Meanwhile the forces rested, and Facino himself snatched a few
hours' sleep in a green tent which had hurriedly been pitched for
him.
Bellarion, however, too excited by the prospect of action to think
of sleeping, and rendered uneasy by his apprehensions, paced by
the river which murmured at that point over a broad shallow, its
waters sadly shrunken by the recent drought. Here in his pacings he
was joined by Stoffel.
'I did not laugh at you to-day,' the Swiss reminded him.
'I have to thank you for that courtesy,' said Bellarion gravely.
'Courtesy wasn't in my mind.'
A patriotic Swiss and an able soldier, Stoffel had the appearance
of neither. He was of middle height and a gracefully slim figure which
he dressed with elegance and care. His face was shaven, long and
olive-skinned with a well-bridged nose and dark pensive eyes under
straight black eyebrows. There was about him something mincing
and delicate, but entirely pleasant, for with it all he was virile and
intrepid.
'You voiced,' he said now, 'a possibility which should not have
been left outside their calculations.'
'I have never seen a battle,' said Bellarion. 'But I do not need to
see one to know that all strategy is bad which does not consider and
provide for every likely counter-move that is discernible.'
'And the counter-move you suggested was discernible enough—
at least, when you suggested it.'
Bellarion looked at the Swiss so far as the Swiss was visible in the
faint radiance of that warm summer night.
'Thinking as you do, why did you not support me, Stoffel?'
'Carmagnola and de Cadillac are soldiers of repute, and so is
even Koenigshofen, whilst I am but the captain of a small body of
Swiss infantry whose office it is to carry out the duties imposed upon
him. I do not give advice unasked, which is why even now I dare not
suggest to Facino that he repair his omission to place scouts on the
heights. He takes Buonterzo's vulnerability too much for granted.'
Bellarion smiled. 'Which is why you seek me; hoping that I will
suggest it to him.'
'I think it would be well.'
Bellarion considered. 'We could do better, Stoffel. We could go up
ourselves, and make observations.'
They came an hour or so later to the crest of the hill, and there
remained on watch for some two hours until the light of dawn was
strong enough to disclose to them in detail the slopes towards
Aggazano. And what they saw in that cold grey light was the
realisation, if not of the exact possibility Bellarion had voiced, at least
of something very near akin. The difference lay in that, instead of
moving first against Carmagnola and later against Facino, Buonterzo
was beginning with the latter course. And Bellarion instantly
perceived the advantages of this. Buonterzo could descend upon
Facino from above in a position of enormous tactical advantage,
and, having destroyed him, go round to meet Carmagnola on level
terms of ground.
The order of the movements, however, was a detail of
comparative unimportance. What mattered was that Buonterzo was
actually moving to destroy severally the two battles into which Facino
had divided his army. In the upland valley to the north, a couple of
miles away, already breasting the gentle slopes towards the summit
from which Bellarion and Stoffel observed them, swarmed the whole
army of Ottone Buonterzo.
The watchers waited for no more. Down the hill again to Travo
they raced and came breathless into the tent where Facino slept.
Their news effectively awakened him. He wasted no time in futile
raging, but, summoning his officers, issued orders instantly to
marshal the men and march down the valley so as to go round to
effect a reunion with Carmagnola's battle.
 'It will never be effected that way.' said Bellarion quietly.
Facino scowled at him, dismissed the officers to their tasks, and,
when only Stoffel remained, angrily demanded of Bellarion what the
devil he meant by constantly intruding opinions that were not sought.
'If the last opinion I intruded had been weighed,' said Bellarion,
'you would not now be in this desperate case.'
'Desperate!' Facino almost exploded on the word. 'How is it
desperate?'
'Come outside, my lord.'
To humour his self-sufficiency, to allow it to swell into a monstrous
bubble which when fully swollen he would reduce to nothing by a
single prick, Facino went with him from the tent, Stoffel gravely
following. And in the open, by the river under that long line of shallow
hills, Bellarion expounded the situation in the manner of a pedant
lecturing a scholar.
'Already, by his present position, Buonterzo has driven the wedge
too deeply between yourself and Carmagnola. A reunion of forces is
no longer possible by marching down the valley. In less than an hour
Buonterzo will command the heights, and observe your every
movement. He will be at a centre, whence he can hurl his force
along a radius to strike you at whatever point of the periphery you
chance to occupy. And he will strike you with more than twice your
numbers, falling upon your flank from a position of vantage which
would still render him irresistible if he had half your strength. Your
position, my lord, with the river on your other flank, is much as was
the position of the Austrians at Morgarten when they were utterly
broken by the Swiss.'
Facino's impatience and anger had gradually undergone a
transmutation into wonder and dismay, and he knew not whether to
be more dismayed because he had failed to perceive the situation
for himself, or because it was pointed out to him by one whose
knowledge of the art of war was all derived from books.
Without answering, he stood there brooding, chin in hand, striving
to master his bitter vexation.
 'If you had heeded me yesterday —' Bellarion was beginning,
which was very human, but hardly generous, when Facino roughly
cut him short.
'Peace!' he growled. 'What is done is done. We have to deal with
what we find.' He turned to Stoffel. 'We must retreat across the river
before Buonterzo thrusts us into it. There is a ford here above Travo
at this height of water.'
'That,' ventured Stoffel, 'is but to increase our separation from
Carmagnola.'
'Don't I know it?' roared Facino, now thoroughly in a rage with
himself and all the world. 'Do you suppose I can perceive nothing?
Let a messenger ride at once to Carmagnola, ordering him to fall
back, and cross below Rivergaro. The river should be fordable just
below the islands. Thus it is possible he might be able to rejoin me.'
'It should certainly be possible,' the Swiss agreed, 'if Buonterzo
pursues us across the ford, intent upon delivering battle whilst the
odds are so heavily in his favour.'
'I am counting upon that. We draw him on, refusing battle until
Carmagnola is also across and in his rear. Thus we'll snatch victory
from defeat.'
'But if he doesn't follow?' quoth Bellarion. And again, in spite of
what had happened, Facino frowned his haughty impatience of this
fledgling's presumption. Unintimidated, Bellarion went on: 'If you
were in Buonterzo's place, would you follow, when, by remaining on
this bank and marching down the valley, you might keep the two
enemy battles apart so as to engage each at your convenience?'
'If Buonterzo were to do that, I should recross, and he would then
have me upon his rear. After all, if his position has advantages, it has
also disadvantages. However he turn he will be between two forces.'
'Which is no disadvantage to him unless the two can operate
simultaneously, and this he can prevent once you have crossed the
river by leaving a force to watch you and dispute your passage
should you attempt to return. And for that a small force will suffice.
With a hundred well-posted arbalesters I could hold that ford for a
day against an enemy.'
'You could?' Facino almost laughed.
'I could, and I will if the plan commends itself to you.'
'What plan?'
It was a plan that had occurred to Bellarion even as they argued,
inspired by the very arguments they had used. He had been conning
the ground beyond the water, a line of shallow hills, with a grey
limestone bluff crowned by a dense wood of lofty elms commanding
the ford itself.
'Buonterzo should be drawn to pursue you across the river, which
might easily happen if you cross in full sight of his forces and with all
the appearance of disorder. An army in flight is an almost irresistible
lure to an overwhelming force. It was thus that Duke William of
Normandy ensured his own ultimate victory at Senlac. The slopes
across the water offer no difficulty to a pursuer, and the prospect of
bringing you to an engagement before Carmagnola can rejoin you
should prove too seductive. It should even render Buonterzo
obstinate when he finds his passage disputed. And for this, as I have
said, a hundred arbalesters will suffice. In the end he must either
force a passage, or decide to abandon the attempt and go instead
against Carmagnola first. But before either happens, if you act
promptly, you may have rejoined Carmagnola by crossing to him at
Rivergaro, and then come round the hills upon Buonterzo's rear, thus
turning the tables upon him. Whether he is still here, attempting to
cross, or whether he is marching off down the valley, he will be
equally at your mercy if you are swift. And I will undertake to hold
him until sunset with a hundred crossbowmen.'
Overwhelmed with amazement by that lucid exposition of a
masterly plan, Facino stood and stared at him in silence. Gravely, at
last, he asked him: 'And if you fail?'
'I shall still have held him long enough to enable you to extricate
yourself from the trap in which you are now caught.'
 Facino's bewildered glance sought the dark, comely face of
Stoffel. He smiled grimly. 'Am I a fool, Stoffel, that a boy should
instruct me in the art by which I have lived? And would you trust a
hundred of your Swiss to this same boy?'
'With confidence.'
But still Facino hesitated. 'You realise, Bellarion, that if the
passage is forced before I arrive, it will go very hard with you?'
Bellarion shrugged in silence. Facino thought he was not
understood.
'Such an action as you propose will entail great slaughter,
perhaps. Buonterzo will be impatient of that, and he may terribly
avenge it.'
Bellarion smiled. 'He will have to cross first, and meanwhile I shall
count upon his impatience and vindictiveness to hold him here when
he should be elsewhere.'

CHAPTER VIII

THE BATTLE OF TRAVO

The morning sunlight falling across the valley flashed on the arms
of Buonterzo's vanguard, on the heights, even as Facino's rearguard
went splashing through the ford, which at its deepest did not come
above the bellies of the horses or the breasts of Bellarion's hundred
Swiss, who, with arbalests above their heads, to keep the cords dry,
were the last to cross.
From his eyrie Buonterzo saw the main body of Facino's army
straggling in disorder over the shallow hill beyond the water, and,
persuaded that he had to deal with a rabble disorganized by fear, he
gave the order to pursue.
 A squadron of horse came zigzagging down the hillside at speed,
whilst a considerable body of infantry dropped more directly.
The last stragglers of the fugitive army had vanished from view
when that cavalry gained the ford and entered the water. But before
the head of the column had reached midstream there was a loud
hum of arbalest cords, and fifty bolts came to empty nearly as many
saddles. The column checked, and, whilst it hesitated, another fifty
bolts from the enemy invisible in the woods that crowned the bluff
dealt fresh destruction.
There was a deal of confusion after that, a deal of raging and
splashing, some seeking to turn and retreat, others, behind, who had
not been exposed to that murderous hail, clamouring to go on. So
that by the time Bellarion's men had drawn their cords anew and set
fresh bolts, the horsemen in the water had gone neither forward nor
back. And now Bellarion let them have a full hundred in a single
volley, and thereby threw them into such panic that there was an end
to all hesitation. They turned about, those that were still able to do
so, and, driving riderless horses before them and assisting wounded
comrades to regain the shore, they floundered their way back.
The effect of this upon Buonterzo was precisely that upon which
Bellarion in his almost uncanny knowledge of men had counted. He
was filled with fury, which he expressed to those about him
denouncing the action as insensate.
From the eminence on which he sat his horse he could see that
over the shallow hills across the river the disorderly flight of Facino's
troops continued, and, raging at the delay in the pursuit, Buonterzo
rode down the hill with the remainder of his forces.
Excited officers met him below to deafen him with facts which he
had already perceived. The ford was held against them by a party of
crossbowmen, rendering impossible the pursuit his potency had
commanded.
'I'll show you,' Buonterzo savagely promised them, and he
ordered a hundred men into the village of Travo to bring thence
every door and shutter the place contained.