Life on this planet earth depends upon a variety of goods and services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural resources, Water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are all examples of natural resources. Any stock or reserve that can be drawn from nature is a natural resource. Natural resources are of two kinds: Renewable resources which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time e.g. forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc. Solar energy is also a renewable form of energy as it is an inexhaustible source of energy. Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated e.g. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration. For example, if a species is exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level then it is not able to sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct. It is very important to protect and conserve our natural re: and use them in a judicious manner so that we do not exhaust them. It does not mean that we should stop using most of the natural resources. Rather, we should use the resources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future generations. In this unit we shall discuss the major natural resources: (A) Forest resources (B) Water resources (C) Mineral resources . me 16 ge sOUICeS(D) Food resources (E) Energy resources (F) Land resources. Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the earth like a green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. Fig. 2.1 Forests give us a variety of valuable gifts as materials and services. About 1/3rd of the world’s land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about a 5th of the world’s forests, Brazil for about a 7th and Canada and USA each for 6-7%. But it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of the natural forests has declined Over the years. The greatest losses have occurred in tropical Asia where one third of the forest resources have been destroyed. However, latest reports reveal that maximum loss of forest cover is currently taking place in Brazil. 2.2.1 USES OF FORESTS Forests have enormous potential for human welfare, wildlife and the environment. Forests are of immense value to us. They are not only useful for industry but also for rural economic growth. They offer huge potential for reducing poverty while also conserving their valuable key resources. Figure 2.2 compares the value of a tree in terms of economic products and environmental services.Environmental uses (Approx. annual value 710 lacs) Commercial uses (Approx. annual value %30,000) b Regulates water cycle Pi rm ao Produces oxygen ulpwoo' Fruits, condiments Absorbs pollutants spices, beverages Act aa sink of Fodder dioxide(reduces globa warming) Rubber, gum Fibres <—— Habitat for wildlife Drugs and Medicines crvaenenesesia Minerals Fig. 2.2 Economic vs. Environmental value of a tree. (a) Commercial uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items. Half of the timber cut each cooking. One third of the wood as lumber, plywood and hardwo: year is used as fuel for heating and harvest is used for building materials od, particle board and chipboard. One sixth of the wood harvest is converted into pulp and used for paper industry. Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of dams. (6) Ecological Uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about & 30,000 it Provides environmental services worth nearly & 10,000. The ecological services Provided by our forests may be summed up as follows: e Production of oxygen: The trees Produce oxygen by Photosynthesis which is so Vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called as earth’s lungs. e Reducing global warming: The main edu ; : greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO,) is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for Photosynthesis. Thus thereby reducing the greenhouse gas Co,. eee oe Forests are the homes of millions of wild and plants. About a1: ‘ 7 the tropical forests alone. 7 million species are found in thee rtd 780 % of the moisture in the air above tropical forests mes vom their transpiration which helps in bringing rains. Us, they influence local and regional climatic conditions. ° ee “Quservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in ir roots and prevent soil erosion. Th i 4 ey also act as wind- e Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They have also been reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise pollution. e Driving energy flow and nutrient cycling: Their huge biomass and enormous biological and biochemical diversity support energy flow and nutrient cycling. 2.2.2 OVER-EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS Forests have been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forests has taken place to meet human demands in the following ways: e Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc. e Deforestation due to road construction. e Clearing of forests to create more agricultural lands to meet the food demands of growing population. e Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 1.36 million hectares of forests (2002). About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing. Mining activities lead to clearing of forests. Big hydropower projects result in large scale destruction of forests. As a result of exploitation, the tropical forest cover in India (89,500 km?) is now only reduced to the Coastal Western Ghats and Northeast India and is suffering degradation. Very little of Indian forests are pristine. The potential of forests must be tapped and nurtured, but we must stop over-exploitation. A recent World Bank study (2004) shows that if we unlock the opportunities for the people of India from its forests, there will be a boost in economy from the current 222 million US. dollars to 2 billion US dollars in the next 15 years. However, the exploitation needs to be balanced with conservation efforts. . In India, Joint Forest Management has come up as an innovative approach involving community participation, so that the ruralpermet y is strengthened as well as forest resources are Conserved econom ic involvement. through publi 2.2.3 DEFORESTATION anus te is relatively less in temperate countries, but it is Defntarning in tropical countries. About 30% of the world’s land area has forest cover. The forests area is disappearing at an alarming rate. According to the World Bank 1.3 million km? forests has been lost from 1990 to 2016. We have already cut half of these forests and at the present rate it is estimated that in the next 60 years, we would lose more than 60% of our tropical forests. Tropical forests are disappearing very fast due to cutting or burning of trees to increase crop production, cattle or wood products. Loss of tropical tree cover has been doubled inthe past 15 years. In 2017, 15.8 million hectare forests disappeared as compared to 2016 when the highest forest cover loss of 16.9 million hectare was recorded. The forested area in India seems to have stabilized since 1982 with about 0.04% decline annually between 1982-90. FAO (1983) estimated that about 1.44 m ha of land was brought under afforestation during this period leading to stabilization. Forest cover has increased from 19.49% in1987 to 21.67% in 2019. As per FAO estimates, the deforestation rate per unit population in India is the lowest amongst the major tropical countries, despite the fact that we have a huge population size and very low per capita forest area (0.075 ha per capita). However, we are still far behind the target of achieving 33% forest area, as per our National Forest Policy. Some important forest figures for India are given in tabular form here. INDIAN FOREST STATISTICS (2019) Total Geographic area 32,87,469 km? Total Forest area 7,12,249 km? (21.67% of total area) Forest classes: S.No. Category Area (km?) Percentage le Very dense 99,278 2. Moderately dense 308/472 eS ibe! Open forests 304,459 9.26 4, Scrub lands 46,297 141 5. Non-Forest 25,28,923 76.92 Source : India State of Forest Report, 2019 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Gol.NatiraT Res omrceT TAT Despite increasing awareness about importance of forest, defor- estation rates continue to increase. e Each day about 32,300 ha of forest disappear from the Earth and an equal area of forest suffers degradation. e During 2000-2005, the tropical deforestation rate increased by 8.5% as compared to 1990’s deforestation rates, e Loss of primary forests have increased by an alarming 25%. e Further, primary forests are being replaced by plantations with much less biodiversity. Major causes of deforestation (9 Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supposed to clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice in North-east and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually. (ii) Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone shot up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests. (iii) Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J&K. (iv) Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occur for various development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc. (v) Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests. (vi) Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads to further degradation of these lands. (vit) Forest fires: These may be natural or man made, and cause huge forest loss.Consequences of deforestation Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be outlined as follows: (i) It threatens the existence of many wildlife species due to destruction of their natural habitat. (ii) Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity jg eroded. (iit) Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfajy, (iv) Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase, (v) In hilly areas it often leads to landslides. (vi) More carbon is added to the atmosphere and global warming is enhanced. CASE STUDIES e Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas Deforestation in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural forests and plantation of monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Eucalyptus camadulensis etc. have upset the ecosystem by changing various soil (edaphic) and biological properties. Nutrient cycling has become poor, original rich germplasm is lost and the area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are not able to recover and are losing their fertility. The entire west Khasi hill district of Meghalaya in North-east Himalayas, Ladakh and parts of Kumaon and Garhwal are now facing the serious problem of desertification. e Disappearing tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur This hilly region used to be a good forested area towards the turn of the century and used to receive fairly frequent afternoon showers favouring tea plantations. Following the destruction of forests, rainfall declined in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea-gardens also disappeared from the region. e Waning rainfall in Udhagamandalam (Ooty) The sub normal rainfall during 1965-84 at Ooty in Nilgiri mountains was found to be closely associated with declining forest cover in this region in the past 20 years. The rainfall pattern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the hills. When the Nilgiri mountains had luxuriant forest covet annual rainfall used to be much higher.2.2.4 MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc. Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests. Wood removal in 2005 is estimated to be 1.3 m3 in India. Fig. 2.3 Logging is a major activity in forests. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80,000 ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminate mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 km. The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides. Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas have caused extensive deforestation in Jharkhand.: i Pe Mining of magnesite and soap-stones have destroyed 14 ha of fo in the hill slopes at Khirakot, Kosi valley in Almora, Minin, radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka is pee of similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghat are also facing the same threat due to mining projects for excavation of copper, chromite, bauxite and magnetite. n Dams: Big dams and river valley projects have multi-purpo, uses and have been referred to as “Temples of modern India”. How, iS these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests. India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri day, on river Bhagirathi in Uttarakhand and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh. Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmenta| groups all over the world which is mainly because of several ecological problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems related to tribal or native people associated with them. The Silent Valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people. The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by Sh. Sunder Lal Bahuguna, the leader of Chipko movement. Likewise, the cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues has been taken up by the environmental activists Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Roy and Baba Amte. Fig. 2.4 Big dams provide clean energy—but have environmental impacts.For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying these (particularly, the tropical rain forests) we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could be having marvelous economic or medicinal value. This storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years get lost due to deforestation in a single stroke. Sardar Sarovar Dam (Uprooted forests and tribals): A case study The dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Although the project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and electricity to the three states, the environmental impacts of the project have raised some challenging questions. A total of 1,44,731 ha of land is submerged by the dam, out of which 56,547 ha is forest land. A total of 573 villages are submerged by the Narmada Dam. Submergence of about 40,000 ha of forest under Narmada Sagar, 13,800 ha under Sardar Sarovar and 2,500 ha under Omkareshwar would further create pressure on remaining forest areas in adjoining areas. Submergence area is very rich in wildlife e.g. tigers, panthers, bears, wolves, pangolins, hyenas, jackals, flying squirrels, antelopes, black bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles, turtles etc. Many of these species are listed in schedule I & II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Thus massive loss of these wildlife species is apprehended due to the devastation of the forest under the project. As per the estimates of the Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, the Narmada valley project will lead to eventual displacement of more than one million people, which is probably the largest rehabilitation issue ever encountered as per the World Bank. Uprooting of the tribals and their forced shifting in far- flung areas may not be easily adjusted to. Besides serious economic deprivation, the displacement will affect the tribal peoples’ culture, their beliefs, myths and rituals, festivals, songs and dances, all closely associated with the hills, forest and streams. Most of these tribals belong to poor, (Contd.)~~ es unprivileged schedule castes and tribes who are being up from a place where they have lived for generations. The displaced persons have to undergo hardship and distress for the sake of development and prosperity of a larger Section of the society. It is therefore the duty of the Project proponents and government to pay maximum attention for Proper rehabilitation of the displaced tribals. TOOted Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97% of the earth’s surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65% water in their body, 2.3.1 WATER IS A UNIQUE RESOURCE Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvellous resource: (i It exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature ie, from 0°C to 100°C. (i) It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly without causing shocks of temperature jerks to the aquatic life. (iii) It has a high latent heat of vaporization. Hence, it takes a huge amount of energy for getting vaporized. That’s why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates. (iv) It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can Serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which are essential for life. But, 5 it can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms. (v) Due to high surface tension and cohesion it can easily rise through great heights through the trunk even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia. (v#) It has an anamolous ex, floating, whereas the bottom temperature and therefore, in extreme cold, waters remain at a higher can sustain aquatic organisms even re ae2.3.2. THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE CONTINUOUSLY PURIFIES, RECYCLES AND DISTRIBUTES FRESH WATER The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment, which we call as Hydrological Cycle. We have enormous resources of water on the earth amounting to about 1404 million km?. The water from various moist and wet surfaces evaporates and falls again on the earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the oceans. Every year about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates from the oceans, more than 90% of which returns to the oceans through the hydrological cycle. Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating it from various water bodies, which subsequently return through rainfall or snow. Plants too play a very important role by absorbing the groundwater from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. Global distribution of water resources is quite uneven depending upon several geographic factors. Tropical rain forest areas receive maximum rainfall while the major world deserts occur in zones of dry, descending air (20-40° N and S) and receive very little rainfall. 2.3.3 WATER AVAILABILITY Although water is abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97.4% is salty water (marine) and only 2.5% is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as 68.7% of it is locked up in polar ice caps (1.98%) and just 30.1% of it is readily available to us in the form of groundwater. Only 1.2% is available in the form of surface water (rivers and lakes) and other fresh water sources such as ground water, ice, permafrost water in atmosphere in the living organisms, swamps, marshes and soil moisture. Ground Atmosphere water 3.0% Biota other Fresh) 7~~~_Water 1.2%\ Swamps J, Marshes 2.6% Soil moisture 3.8% Total global water Fresh water Surface water and other fresh water Fig. 2.5 Distribution of global water. Adopted from water in crisis: A guide to the World's fresh water resources (1993) Ed. Peter H Gleick (Numbers are rounded)Oceans: Oceans are ultimate sinks for all types of water. Abou, 97.4% of total water is present in oceans. Salt content of ocean a about 3.5%. Sea water is not fit for human consumption ang Other anthropogenic activities without desalination. Glaciers and Ice: A major part of available approximately 2. 5, of fresh water is locked up into glaciers and ice caps. These occy; a high altitute or high latitude. Antarctic glacier contains approximately 85% of all the world’s ice. About 10% is made by greenland ice-shee and arctic ice. Rest 5% is in the form of snow on mountain peaks, As per the UNICEF and World Health Organization report (2019) at least 2.2 billion people around the world do not even haye access to safely managed drinking water service and 4.2 billions dg not have safely managed sanitation service. Increasing population and expanding development would further increase the demand for water. It is estimated that by 2024, two-thirds of population would be suffering from acute water shortage. Water use and over-exploitation Using and managing our water resources sensibly Due to its unique properties water is of multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity. Water is used for drinking, irrigation, transportation, washing and waste disposal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants. Water shapes the earth’s surface and regulates our climate. Water use by humans is of two types: (i) water withdrawal: taking water from groundwater or surface water resource and (ii) water consumption: the water which is taken up but not returned for reuse. Globally, only about 60 percent of the water withdrawn is consumed. Rest is lost through evaporation. With increasing population pressure and rapid development, the demands for water withdrawal have increased tremendously. e On a global average 70% of water withdrawn is used for agriculture. In India 93% water is used in agriculture. In Kuwait, a water-poor country, only 4% water is used in crop lands. fa i le |e Ona global average, 25% of water is used in industrial sector. In European countries more than 70% of water withdrawn is used in agriculture, while it is only 5% in less developed countries. Per capita use of water varies largely in different countries. An average family of 4 persons in USA uses 1000 m? of water, which is many times higher than that in developing countries. 2.3.4 SOURCES OF FRESH WATER Ground water: Ground water is 1.69% of total water of which 0.76% is fresh water and 0.93% is saline.The fresh water of the total ground water is about 30 times that of surface water supplies. Till some time back ground water was considered to be very pure. However, of late, even ground water aquifers have been found to be contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills etc. A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer. Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not since they have low permeability. Aquifers may be of two types: Unconfined aquifers which are overlaid by permeable earth materials and they are recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt. Confined aquifers which are sandwiched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface. Sometimes the recharged area is hundreds of kilometers away from the location of the well. Figure 2.6 shows the groundwater system. Groundwater is not static, it moves, though at a very slow rate of about a meter or so in a year. Evapo-transpiration * from croplands Evanoreuon Evaporation from stream Se] (Water table) ble impermeable coined al aon rock layer {WHF i i iter table) is Fig. 2.6 The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer (wa' ) fern when water collects over a rock or compact clay. A confined aquifer is formed sandwiched between two layers having very low permeability.Effects of over exploitation (excess usage) Of ground wate, (i) Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer get compacte, i phenomenon known as ground subsidence. Huge economic losses may occur due to this phenomenon because it results in the sinking of overlying land surface. The common problems associated with it include structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the flow of sewers ang canals and tidal flooding. (ii) Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-arid regions for irrigating crop fields. However, it is not advisable to do excessive mining as it would cause a sharp decline in future agricultural production, due to lowering of water table and drying of wells. (iii) Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish water it raises the water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems. (iv) Water pollution: Discharge and dumping of wastes very often seeps down into groundwater causing pollution problems. Surface Water The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down into the ground or does not return to the atmos- phere as evaporation or transpiration loss, assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc. A country’s economy is largely dependent upon its rivers. All our early civilizations are recorded near big rivers. Even now we find that development activities flourish near rivers. Water rich vs. Water poor countries The top ten water rich countries are Iceland, Surinam, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, Gabon, Solomon Islands, Canada, Norway, Panama, and Brazil lying in the far north and have low evaporation losses. The water poor countries include Kuwait, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Malta, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Maldovia, Israel and Oman, lying in the desert belt at about 15° to 25° Latitude and some of them like Malta and Singapore are densely populated areas resulting in low per capita water.2.3.5 FLOODS Relation between human activities and flood In some countries like India and Bangladesh rainfall does not occur throughout the year, rather, 90% of it is concentrated into a few months (June-September). Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods. There are several anthropogenic activities like deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc. that have contributed largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster. Floods have been regular features of some north eastern parts of India and Bangladesh causing huge economic loss as well as loss of life. People of Bangladesh are accustomed to moderate flooding during monsoon and they utilize the flood water for raising paddy. But, severe floods like that in 1970, 1988, 1991, 2008 and 2012, resulting from excessive Himalayan runoff and storms, had very disastrous consequences causing massive deaths and damages. In 1970, about one million people were drowned while 1,40,000 people died in 1991. In 2018 Kerala floods more than 36000 people were displaced across the state and 445 people died. Networking and inter- linking of rivers is being proposed at national level to deal with the problems of floods. 2.3.6 DROUGHTS Human activities increased vulnerability to drought There are about 80 countries in the world, lying in the arid and semi-arid regions that experience frequent spells of droughts, very often extending up to year long duration. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created. Ironically, these drought-hit areas are often having a high population growth which leads to poor land use and makes the situation worse. Anthropogenic causes: Drought is a meteorological pheno- menon, but due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deforestation, mining etc. there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought affected areas. In the last twenty years, India has experienced more and more desertification, thereby increasing the vulnerability of larger parts of the country to droughts.ee a opping pattern and increaseq 1 resources through well or canal irrj eation has converted drought-prone areas int, shtra there has been no Tecovery from o over-exploitation of water i Erroneous and intensive ct exploitation of scarce wate to get high productivity desertified ones. In ett ot rs drought for the last yea sugarcane Crop which has high water demands Remedial measures: | of aronets : ledge in contro drought ang e Indigenous knowlecs ns deating withthe prog desertification can be very user! wit e Carefully selected mixed cropping help optimize production and minimize the risks of crop failures. « Social Forestry and Wasteland development can prove quite effective to fight the problem, but it should be based on proper understanding of ecological requirements and natural process, otherwise it may even boomerang. The Kolar district of Karnataka is one of the leaders in Social Forestry with World Bank Aid, but all its 11 talukas have suffered from drought. It is because the tree used for plantation here was Eucalyptus. It is now known that this tree is responsible for lowering down the water table because of its very high transpiration rate. It is therefore, very important to select the appropriate crop or plantation depending upon the climate, soil type and its water requirements. 2.3.7 CONFLICTS OVER WATER: INTER-STATE AND INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution in different era, has often led to inter-state or international disputes. Issues * o = ae Ph river water have been largely affecting our farmers shaking our governments. Some maj i ea major water conflicts are e The Indus Water Treaty: The Indus, one of the mightiest a is dying a slow death due to dams and barrages that ( ees Gna higher up on the river. The Sukkur barrage as en Mohammad Barrage at Kotri (1958) and have resulted j a Dems on Jhelum, a tributary of Indus cyt ad Severe shrinking of the Indus delta, In 1960, Jhelum and the eats Dw nrhaiee me ohiets Inns, 1 enab with the m ill acre-feet were allocated to Pakistan ips a a # onli and the Satluj, the Raviand the Beas with the mean flow of 33 million acre-feet were allocated to India. Being the riparian state, India has pre- emptive right to construct barrages across all these rivers in Indian territory. However, the treaty requires that the three rivers allocated to Pakistan may be used for limited irrigation and unrestricted use for power generation, domestic, industrial and non-consumptive purposes by India i.e. without changing its flow and quality. With improving political relations between the two countries it is desirable to work out techno- economic details and go for an integrated development of the river basin in a sustainable manner. However, in 2016 India reviews working of Indus water Treaty linking it with cross border terrorism (Uri attack). The Cauvery water dispute: Out of India’s 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states. In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which hardly seem to resolve. The Cauvery river water is a bone of contention between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamil Nadu, occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream. Whereas, the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its primacy over the river as upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states have increasing demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamil Nadu than Karnataka where the catchment area is more rocky. On June 2,1990, the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu’s Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute as there was good stock of water in Mettur, but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee was set up to look into the matter which found that there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing, rational sharing patterns, and pricing