2/17/2023

Predicate Logic

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

Discrete Mathematics

Predicate
• A predicate is a statement which involves variables such as “x>3”, “x+y>z”.

• We denote the statement like “x is greater than 3” by P(x) where P denotes the
predicate “greater than 3”.

• For a statement like “John is intelligent”, we identify the subject and predicate of the
statement and write in the form predicate(subject) e.g. intelligent(John).
Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

Statement John is intelligent

Propositional Representation p
Predicate Representation intelligent(John)

1
 2/17/2023

Quantifiers
• Quantifiers are exclusively used with predicates.

• Quantification expresses the extent to which a predicate is true over a

range of elements e.g. all, some, none.

There are 2 quantifiers: universal (~ for all) and existential (~ there exists).

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

•

• Universal quantifier is represented by ∀.

• Existential quantifier is represented by ∃.

• A quantifier is always associated with a variable e.g. ∀x, and such variables are
said to be “bound” e.g. in ∃x(x+y=1), the variable x is bound while y is free.

Example-1
Write the truth value of ∃xP(x) and give reasons for the following:

i. P(x): x>3, x∈R ii. P(x): x+3=10, x∈{1,2,3,4,5}

What will be the truth values for ∀xP(x)?

Answer
Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

i. True, as there exist real numbers which are greater than 3.

ii. False, as x+3≠10 for any value in the set {1,2,3,4,5}.

For ∀xP(x), both cases will be False as all real numbers are not >3 and x+3≠10 for all
numbers in the set {1,2,3,4,5}.

2
 2/17/2023

Example-2
Let A={1,2,…,9,10}. Determine truth value or truth set for the following:

i. (∀x∈A)(∃y∈A)(x+y<14)

ii. (∀x∈A)(∀y∈A)(x+y<14)

iii. (∀x∈A)(x+y<14, y∈A)

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

iv. (∃y∈A)(x+y<14, y∈A)

Answer

i. True; as for every x, there exists a y such that x+y<14 e.g. if x=10 then y=1 gives x+y<14

ii. False; as for every x, all values of y don’t give x+y<14 e.g. if x=10, y=10 then x+y<14 is False

iii. {1,2,3} i.e. values of y∈A for which ∀x∈A give x+y<14

iv. {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} i.e. values of x∈A for which ∃y∈A give x+y<14 e.g. for x=10, y=1 gives x+y<14

Example-3
Show that: i. ∃x[P(x)∧Q(x)] → [∃xP(x)]∧[∃xQ(x)] ii. ∃y∀xP(x,y) → ∀x∃yP(x,y)

Answer

i. Let P(x) stand for x is positive and Q(x) stands for x is even. So, ∃x[P(x)∧Q(x)] represents x which
is both positive and even e.g. 4. So, if ∃x[P(x)∧Q(x)] is true, we can conclude there exists an x which
is positive and there exists an x which is even.
Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

However [∃xP(x)]∧[∃xQ(x)] → ∃x[P(x)∧Q(x)] is not true e.g. if P(x) represents even integer and Q(x)
represents an odd integer then [∃xP(x)]∧[∃xQ(x)] is true but ∃x[P(x)∧Q(x)] is not true.

ii. Let P(x,y): x+y=0 for set of integers. ∀x∃yP(x,y) is T as for each value of x, there exists an integer
which gives 0. But ∃y∀xP(x,y) is F as there is no value of y which gives 0 with all integers. Hence,
∀x∃yP(x,y)→∃y∀xP(x,y) is not true.

However, ∃y∀xP(x,y) → ∀x∃yP(x,y) is true as in ∃y∀xP(x,y) the value of y is independent of x and in

∀x∃yP(x,y) the value of y can depend on x e.g. let P(x,y) denote x*y=0 then ∃y∀xP(x,y) is true for
y=0 and ∀x∃yP(x,y) is also true for all integers.

3
 2/17/2023

DeMorgan’s law on quantifiers

Write the negations of:
(a) For all real numbers if x>5 then x2 >25”
(b) The sum of two positive real numbers is always positive.
Answer

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

(a) Given, ∀x: (x>5)→(x2 >25)
First we have to remove the implication, ∀x: ¬(x>5)∨(x2 >25) ≡ ∀x: (x≤5)∨(x2 >25)
Applying negation, ∃x: (x>5) ∧ (x2 ≤25)
(b) Given, ∀x∀y: (x>0)∧(y>0)→(x+y>0)
Removing the implication, we get ∀x∀y: (x≤0)∨(y≤0)∨(x+y>0)
Applying negation, ∃x∃y: (x>0)∧(y>0)∧(x+y≤0)

Predicate Form
• All men are mortal. ∀x: man(x)→mortal(x)

• Some men are intelligent. ∃x: man(x) ∧ mortal(x)

Imp: → is not used with ∃x as P(x)→Q(x) represents Q is true whenever P is true but existential quantifier
represents Q(x) is not true for all P(x).
Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

• Not everyone has visited Dubai. ¬∀x: visited_dubai(x)

• No large bird lives on honey. ¬∃x: large_bird(x) ∧ lives_on_honey(x)

Note: ¬∀x represents “not all x”, ¬∃x represents “there exists no x”,

4
 2/17/2023

Examples
Sentence Symbolic Form
All friends are good. ∀x:friend(x)→good(x)
At least one friend is good. ∃x:friend(x)⋀good(x)
Not everyone is perfect. ￢[∀x: perfect(x)]
∃x: ￢perfect(x)

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

No one is perfect. ￢[∃x:perfect(x)]
∀x: ￢perfect(x)
Not everybody is a friend or someone is not good. ￢∀x:friend(x) ⋁ ∃y:￢good(y)
Nothing is in the correct place or in good ￢∃x:correct_place(x)⋁good_condition(x)
condition. ∀x:￢[correct_place(x)⋁good_condition(x)]

There exists a criminal who has done every crime. ∃x∀y: criminal(x) ⋀ crime(y)
∃x: criminal(x) ⋀ ∀y: crime(y)

Rules of Inference in Predicate Logic

• Universal Modus Ponens: [∀xP(x)→Q(x) ∧ P(c)] → Q(c)

• Universal Modus Tollens: [∀xP(x)→Q(x) ∧ ¬Q(c)] → ¬P(c)

• Fallacies: [∀xP(x)→Q(x) ∧ Q(c)] → P(c) , [∀xP(x)→Q(x) ∧ ¬P(c)] → ¬Q(c)

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

5
 2/17/2023

Question
Determine whether the following arguments are valid or valid.

Premises:

• The metro cities of India have huge traffic.

• Delhi has huge traffic.

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT

Conclusion: Delhi is an Indian metro city.

Answer.

[∀x: metro(x)→huge_traffic(x)] ⋀ huge_traffic(Delhi) → metro(Delhi)

This is fallacy of Affirming the Conclusion.

Hence, the conclusion is incorrect.

Prepared by: Dr. Adeel Hashmi, MSIT