Department of Mathematics

22MA11C
LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

UNIT-II

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Topic Learning Objectives:

Upon Completion of this unit, student will be able to:

➢ Understand the fundamentals of the differential calculus of

functions of one variable.
➢ Transform the coordinates from rectangular to polar and vice
versa.
➢ Apply concepts of calculus to find angle between polar
curves and consequences.
➢ Visualize Curvature for curves defined in different forms and
find circle of curvature.
➢ Expand the function in power series using Taylor’s and
Maclaurin’s series.
➢ Simulation using MATLAB.

Recapitulation: Functions of single variable:

The concept of functions is important in calculus because they

play a key role in describing the real-world problems in
mathematical terms. The temperature at which water boils depends
on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point drops as the
height increases). The interest paid on a cash investment depends on
the length of time the investment is held. The area of a circle
depends on the radius of the circle. The distance an object travels
from an initial location along a straight-line path depends on its
speed. In each case, the value of one variable quantity, which might
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be called as y, depends on the value of another variable quantity,

which might be called x. Since the value of y is completely
determined by the value of x, it’s said that y is a function of x. Often
the value of y is given by a rule or formula that says how to
calculate it from the variable x. For instance, 𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 , the equation
is a rule that calculates the area A of a circle from its radius r.

A symbolic way to say ‘y is a function of x’ is by writing 𝑦 =

𝑓(𝑥). In this notation, the symbol ƒ represents the function. The
letter x, called the independent variable, represents the input value of
ƒ, and y, the dependent variable, represents the corresponding output
value of ƒ at x.

Requirement of new coordinate systems:

There is already a familiarity with Cartesian coordinate system for

specifying a point in the XY – plane in two-dimensional geometry
and XYZ- space in three- dimensional geometry. The requirement to
define any new coordinate system is two-fold. One is based on
geometry of the problem of practical situation wherein a more
suitable coordinate system has to be chosen. For ex., the study of
dispersion of a medicine injected in blood flow requires cylindrical
coordinate system as the veins are cylindrical in nature. Use of
Cartesian system may not be very suitable as it represents a
rectangular channel and the corner effects have to be taken care.
The second requirement is more of theoretical in nature. A
mathematical expression which cannot be simplified in one
coordinate system may be solved in simple way by transforming to
other coordinate systems. For ex., log(x+y) cannot be further

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simplified in Cartesian system whereas it’s easier to solve in Polar

coordinates.

Basics of polar coordinates and polar curves:

A new coordinate system is introduced to understand the

concept of polar curves and their properties.

Any point P can be located on a plane with co-ordinates (r , )

called polar coordinates of P where r = radius vector OP, (with
pole/origin ‘O’),  = projection of OP on the initial line OA.
The equation r = f ( ) or 𝜃 = 𝑓(𝑟) or 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑐 are known as a
polar curve.

P(r, ө)

r
Ө
O A
r = f(ө)
Polar curve

Relation between Cartesian and polar coordinates:

Consider a point 𝑃 in the 𝑥𝑦-plane. Join the points 𝑂 (origin) and 𝑃.

Let 𝑟 be the length of 𝑂𝑃 and 𝜃 be the angle which 𝑂𝑃 makes with
the (positive) 𝑥-axis. The (𝑟, 𝜃) are called the polar coordinates of
the point 𝑃, and we write 𝑃 = (𝑟, 𝜃), or 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃). In particular, 𝑟 is
called the radial distance and 𝜃 is called the polar angle. Also, 𝑂 is

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called the pole, the 𝑥-axis is called the inital line and 𝑂𝑃 is called
the radius vector.

Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be the Cartesian coordinates of the point 𝑃. Then we find

that

𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) … (1)
𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ,
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 … (2)

Relations (1) enables us to find the polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) when the
Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) are known. Conversely, relations (2)
enable us to find the Cartesian coordinates when the polar
coordinates are known. Thus, relations (1) define the transformation
from the Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates and relations (2)
defines the inverse transformation.

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Angle between the radius vector and the tangent:

d
With usual notation we can prove that tan  = r
dr

Let “  ” be the angle between the radius vector OPL and the
Tangent 𝑇𝑃𝑈 at the point ‘P’ on the polar curve r = f ( ).

Y T

∅
P (r, ө)
∅

r
ψ
𝜽 A
O U
r = f(ө) 1’’

Thus, the angle between the radius vector and tangent is given by
d
the expression: tan  = r
dr
 1 dr 
Note: (i) cot  =  
 r d 

(ii) If 1 and 2 are the angles between the radius vector and the
tangents at the point of intersection of two curves r = f1 ( ) and
r = f 2 ( ) then the angle of intersection of the curves is given by
1 − 2
.

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(iii) Suppose we are not able to obtain 1 and 2 explicitly then

tan 1 − tan 2
tan(1 − 2 ) =
1 + tan 1 tan 2

𝜋
(iv) If tan 1 . tan 2 = −1 then tan(1 − 2 ) = ∞ => 1 -  2 = 2
(condition for the orthogonally of two polar curves)

Examples:

1. Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent to the
following polar curves:

[Cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃) is a curve that is the locus of a point on

the circumference of circle rolling round the circumference of a
circle of equal radius. Ofcourse the name means 'heart-shaped'.
Curve is symmetrical about the initial line.]

Solution: Consider r = a(1+ cos  ) ,

Differentiating with respect to 
dr
= −a sin 
d
d a (1 + cos  )
r =
dr − a sin 
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𝜃
2 cos2 (2) 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = − = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( )
𝜃 𝜃 2
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2)

𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( + ) ⇒ 𝜙 = ( + )
2 2 2 2

(ii) Cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑏(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)n other orientation]

Solution:
Consider 𝑟 = 𝑏(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)Differentiating with respect to 
dr
= b sin 
d
d b(1 − cos  )
r =
dr b sin 
𝜃
2 sin2 (2) 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝜃 𝜃 2
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2)
𝜃 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ⇒ 𝜙 = ( )
2 2

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(iii) Circle: 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 1 1
[This is a circle centered at ( , ) with a radius of√ ]
2 2 2

Solution: Consider r = sin  + cos  ,

Differentiating with respect to 
dr
= cos  − sin 
d
d sin  + cos 
r =
dr cos  − sin 
tan  + 1 (Divide numerator and denominator by cos )
tan  =
1 − tan 
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃) + 1 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( + 𝜃)
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃) 4
𝜋
𝜙 = + 𝜃.
4
 
(iv) r = 16 sec 2  
2
Solution:
 
Consider r = 16 sec 2  
2
Differentiating with respect to 

dr      1     
= 32 sec 2   tan  .  = 16 sec 2   tan  
d  2  2  2 2 2
 
16 sec 2  
d 2
r =
dr    
16 sec 2   tan  
2 2

𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( − ) ⇒ 𝜙 = ( − )
2 2 2 2 2
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2. Find the angle between two curves for the following:

𝑎
(i) r = a log  and 𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
[ r = a log  some kind of 'logarithmic spiral'. The graph comes from
negative x-infinity, goes through the origin at θ = 1, and then spirals
outwards. It looks like it is heading to a definite limit of the radius
but this is an illusion

dr a
Solution: Consider =
d 
d  
r = a log   
dr a
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙1 = 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝑎
Consider 𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − log(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃) = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃.𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

1
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙2 = −
𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙2 = −𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
2𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
Now consider tan(𝜙1 − 𝜙2 ) = 1−(𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃)2

We have to eliminate θ between the given curves,

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𝑎
r = a log  and 𝑟 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃

1
(log  ) 2 = 1 , log  =  1 ,  = e or
e
2𝑒
⟹ tan(𝜙1 − 𝜙2 ) = 1−𝑒 2.

(ii) 𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

[𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 is Lemniscate. Curve is symmetrical about both the
axis]

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + log (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
−2 sin (2) cos (2)
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙1 =
𝜃
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2)
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙1 = − tan ( ) = cot ( + )
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜃
𝜙1 = 2 + 2.

Consider 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

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𝑑𝑟 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
=−
𝑑𝜃 𝑟
𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙2 = − tan ( + 2𝜃)
2

 2 = + 2 .
2
We have to eliminate θ between the given curves,

𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

Solving for 𝜃, we get

 =1+ 3
3(1 + 3)
1 −  2 =
2
a 𝑎
(iii) r = and 𝑟 = 1+𝜃2
1+
a
Solution: Consider r =
1+
1 1+ 1  1 
= =  + 1
r a a  
a dr
2 = −
r 2 d
1 dr r
=
r d a 2
d a 2
r =
dr r
𝑎𝜃 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 =
𝑎𝜃
(1 + 𝜃)
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 tan  =  (1 +  )
𝑎
Consider 𝑟 = 1+𝜃2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − log(1 + 𝜃 2 )
1 𝑑𝑟 −2𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + 𝜃 2
−2𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 =
1 + 𝜃2
1+𝜃2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = −2𝜃 .
We have to eliminate θ between the given curves,
a 𝑎
r= and 𝑟 = 1+𝜃2
1+
 = 1,  = 1
3

2−(−1)
⟹ tan(𝜙1 − 𝜙2 ) = 1+(−2).
𝜙1 − 𝜙2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−3)

Exercise:

1. Find the angle between radius vector and tangent to the following
polar curves:
𝜃 𝜃
i. 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin3 (3) Ans: 2
𝜋
ii. 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (cos 𝑚𝜃 + sin 𝑚𝜃) Ans: 4 + 𝑚𝜃
iii. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃 Ans: 𝑛𝜃
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
iv. 𝑟= 2𝑎 cos2 ( 2) Ans: 2 + 2
2𝑎 𝜃
v. = 1 − cos 𝜃 Ans: 𝜋 − 2
𝑟

2. Find the slope of the following curves:

𝜋
i. 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑎2 at 𝜃 = 12 Ans: 2 + √3
𝜋
ii. 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 2𝜃 at 𝜃 = Ans: -1
4

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𝜋
iii. 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + sin 𝜃) at 𝜃 = Ans: 0
2

3. Prove that the following pairs of polar curves intersect

orthogonally
𝜃 𝜃
i. 𝑟 = 𝑎 sec 2 (2 ) and 𝑟 = 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (2)

ii. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃 and 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃

iii. 𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 𝑎 and 𝑟 = 𝑏𝑒 𝜃

4. Find the angle of intersection for each of the following pairs of

curves:
𝜋
i. 𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 and 2𝑟 = 𝑎 Ans: 3
1
𝜋 cos−1 ( )
3
ii. 𝑟 = 𝑎 (1 − cos 𝜃) and 𝑟 = 2𝑎 cos 𝜃 Ans: 2 + 2
𝜋
iii. 𝑟 = 2(1 + cos 𝜃) and 𝑟 = 6 cos 𝜃 Ans: 2

Curvature and Radius of Curvature:

Curvature is the amount by which a geometric object deviates
from being flat, or straight in the case of a line, but this is defined in
different ways depending on the context. In geometry, the radius of
curvature, R, of a curve at a point is a measure of the radius of the
circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point. It is the
reciprocal of the curvature. The distance from the center of a circle
or sphere to its surface is its radius. For other curved lines or
surfaces, the radius of curvature at a given point is the radius of a
circle that mathematically best fits the curve at that point. In the case
of a surface, the radius of curvature is the radius of a circle that best
fits a normal section.
Imagine driving a car on a curvy road on a completely flat
plain (so that the geographic plain is a geometric plane). At any one
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point along the way, lock the steering wheel in its position, so that
the car thereafter follows a perfect circle. The car will, of course,
deviate from the road, unless the road is also a perfect circle. The
circle that the car makes is the circle of curvature, radius and the
centre of the circle are radius of curvature and centre of curvature of
the curvy road at the point at which the steering wheel was locked.
The more sharply curved the road is at the point you locked the
steering wheel, the smaller the radius of curvature.

Some of the Applications:

• Radius of curvature is applied to measurements of the stress in

the semiconductor structures.
• When engineers design trains track, they need to ensure the
curvature of the track to be safe and provide a comfortable ride for
the given speed of the trains.

Let P be a point on the curve y = f (x) at the length ‘s’ from a

fixed-point A on it. Let the tangent at ‘P’ makes are angle ψ with
positive direction of x – axis. As the point ‘P’ moves along curve,
both s and ψ vary.
Y Tangent

y = f (x)
A P (x, y)



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d
The rate of change ψ w.r.t s, is called the Curvature of the
ds
curve at ‘P’.
The reciprocal of the Curvature at P is called the radius of curvature
at P and is denoted by ρ.
𝑑𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑑𝜓

Radius of curvature for Cartesian curve y = f(x):

If the curve is given in Cartesian coordinates as y(x), then the radius

of curvature is:
3
(1+𝑦 ′2 )2
𝜌=| |,
𝑦 ′′

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
where 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑑𝑥 2

Radius of curvature for parametric equations x = f (t), y = ϕ (t):

If the curve is given parametrically by functions x(t) and y(t), then

the radius of curvature is
3
𝑑𝑠 (𝑥̇ 2 +𝑦̇ 2 )2
𝜌 = 𝑑𝜓 = | |,
𝑥̇ 𝑦̈−𝑦̇ 𝑥̈

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
where 𝑥̇ = , 𝑥̈ = and
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦̇ = , 𝑦̈ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

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Radius of curvature for Polar curve r = f (𝜽):

The radius of curvature of a polar curve r = f (𝜽) is given by:

3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟1 2 )2
𝜌=
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟1 2 − 𝑟𝑟2

Examples:

1. Find the curvature at any point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .

Solution:
y2
curvature k = 3

(
1 + y12 2 )
here y = x3  y1 = 3 x 2 and y2 = 6 x
6x
 k= 3

(1 + 9 x )
4 2

2. Find the curvature at any point on the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2

y2
Solution: curvature k = 3

(1 + y )
2 2
1

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c2 2c 2
 y1 = − and y2 =
x2 x3

c2
here xy = c 2  y =
x
2c 2
x3 2c 2  x 6
k= 3
= 3
  c 2  2  2 
x3 x 4 + c 4  2

1 +  − 2  
  x  
2c 2 x 3
= 3
xy = c 2
(x 4
+ x2 y )
2 2

2
2c
= 3

(x 2
+y )
2 2

3. Find the radius of curvature at the origin on y = x ( x − a ) .

2

Solution:
3

Radius of curvature  =
(1 + y12 ) 2
it is required to find  ( 0,0 )
2
y
Here y = x ( x − a )
2

(
x x 2 − 2ax + a 2 ) = x3 − 2ax 2 + a 2 x
 y1 = 3 x 2 − 4ax + a 2
y2 = 6 x − 4a
Now y1 ( 0, 0) = a2
y2 ( 0, 0 ) = −4a

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3 3

  ( 0, 0 ) =
( 1 + a4 ) 2
=−
(
1 + a4 ) 2

−4a 4a
3

Taking the magnitude of  ( 0, 0 ) =

(1 + a )
4 2

4a

 3a 3a 
4. Find the radius of curvature at  ,  on x3 + y 3 = 3axy
 2 2 
[Name of the curve is Folium Descartes; it is symmetrical about the
line y = x.

It is not symmetric about any other line, nor it is symmetric about

the origin.]

Solution:
 3a 3a 
It is required to find   ,  on x3 + y 3 = 3axy
 2 2
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
3x2 + 3 y 2 y1 = 3a ( xy1 + y )

( )
 3 y 2 − ax y1 = 3 ay − x 2 ( )

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ay − x 2
 y1 = 2 (1)
y − ax
Differentiating with respect to x, we get

y2 =
(y 2
) (
− ax ( ay1 − 2 x ) − ay − x 2 ( 2 yy1 − a ) ) (2)
(y )
2
2
− ax

(
 x 2 − ay
= − 2
)  = −1
Now, from (1) y1 3a 3a  
 , 
 2 2  (
 y − ax )  3a 3a 
 , 
 2 2 
(observe that x = y at the point)

 9a 2 3a 2   3a 2 9a 2 
 −  ( − a − 3a ) −  −  ( −3a − a )
and, from (2) y2 3a 3a  =  4 2   2 4 
(y )
2
 , 
 2 2 
2
− ax

3 3a 2
− a 2  4a −  4a
6a 3 32
y2  3 a 3 a  = 4 4 = − =−
 , 
 2 2 
2 2
 3a   9a 
4
3a
   
 4   16 

1+ ( -1) 
3
2 2
2 2  3a 3a
Using these,  3a 3a  = =− =−
 32 
 ,  32 8 2
−  2 2 
 3a 
 3a 3a  3a
 Radius of curvature at  ,  is
 2 2  8 2

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 Department of Mathematics
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

5. Find the radius of curvature at b2 x2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2b2 at its point of intersection with y − axis
Solution:
3

It is required to find  =
( 1 + y12 ) 2
at x = 0 on b 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2b 2
2
y

when x = 0, b2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2b2 , reduces to a 2 y 2 = a 2b2  y =  b

That is, the point is ( 0, b ) or ( 0, -b )
The curve is b2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2b2
Differentiating with respect to x,
2b 2 x + 2a 2 yy1 = 0
b2 x
y1 = − 2
a y
Differentiating with respect to x,
b 2  y − xy1 
y2 = −  
a2  y2 
b2 0
Now, at ( 0, b ) , y1 = − 2  = 0
a b
b b−0
2
b
y2 = − 2  2  = − 2
a  b  a
3

 ( 0,b ) =
(1 + 0 ) 2 = −
a2
 b  b
− 2 
 a 
a2
i.e., Radius of curvature at ( 0, b ) is
b
2
b 0
Next consider at ( 0, −b ) , y1 = − 2  = 0
a −b
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

b2  −b − 0  b
y2 = − 2  2  = 2
a  b  a
3

( 0,− b ) =
(1 + 0 ) 2 =
a2
 b  b
 2
a 
a2
i.e., Radius of curvature at ( 0, −b ) is
b
2 2 2 1 1 1
6. Show that the radius of curvature at any point ( x, y) on x + y = a is 3a x y .
3 3 3 3 3 3

Solution: We have  =
(1 + y )
2 2
1

y2
2 2 2
The equation of the curve is x 3 + y 3 = a 3
Differentiating with respect to x,

2 − 13 2 − 13
x + y y1 = 0
3 3
1 1
−
3 3
x y
 y1 = − 1
=− 1
−
3 3
y x
Differentiating again,
 1 2 13 2  1

1  3 −3 y − 
1
− − x y −y x   1 y 3

 1 + 2
3 3
1
3 2
 1  y3 x3  x3 + y3
2 2

  = 
3
x = a3
𝑦2 = 2 2 4 1
= 4 1
3
x3 x3 3x 3 y 3 3x 3 y 3

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

2 2 2 2
y3 x3 + y3 a3
Now, 1 + y12 = 1 + 2
= 2
= 2
3 3 3
x x x

3
 23  2
a 
3
 2
(1 + y )
4 1
2 2  x3   1 1 1
= −  2 =
3 3
a 3 x y
 = =
1
3 3 3
3a x y
y2   2

 a 3
 xa 3

 4 1
 3x 3 y 3 
 
x2 y 2 a 2b 2
7. Show that for ellipse 2
+ 2 = 1,  = 3 where p is the length of the perpendicular from the
a b p
center upon the tangent at ( x, y) to the ellipse.
x2 y 2
Solution: The ellipse is + = 1.
a 2 b2
2 x 2 y y1 b2 x
 + 2 =0  y1 = −
a2 b a2 y
Differentiating again,
 b2 x 
+
b 2  a 2 y 
y x
b 2  y 1 − x  y1 
y2 = − 2   = −  
a  y2  a2  y2 
 
b2  y 2 x2  b2 x2 y 2
=−  2 + 2=− 2 3 + = 1.
a2 y3 b a  a y a 2 b2

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Now,
3
 b4 x2  2
1 + 4 2 
3 3 3

=
(1+ y 2 2
1 ) =  a y 
=−
(
a 4 y 2 + b4 x2 ) 2

2
a y
=−
3
( a 4 y 2 + b4 x2 ) 2

y2  b4  a6 y3 b4 4
a b 4
−
 2 3
 a y 

Taking the magnitude

3

=
(a y 4 2
+b x 4 2 2
)
4 4
a b
x2 y 2
The tangent at ( x0 , y0 ) to the ellipse + = 1 is
a 2 b2
xx0 y y0
+ 2 =1
a2 b
1 a 2b 2
Length of perpendicular from (0, 0) upon this tangent = =
2
 x0   y0 
2
a 4 y02 + b 4 x02
 a 2  +  b2 
   

So, the length of perpendicular from the origin upon the tangent at
(x,y) is

a 2b 2
p= (by replacing x0 by x & y0 by y)
a 4 y 2 + b4 x 2
3 3


1
=
( a 4 y 2 + b4 x 2 ) =(
2 a 4 y 2 + b4 x 2 ) 2

1
p3 6 6
ab 4 4
ab ab 2 2


= 2 2
ab
2 2
ab
 =
p3
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

8. Find the radius of curvature at the point 𝜃 on the curve

𝑥 = 𝑎 log sec𝜃
𝑦 = a(tan 𝜃 − 𝜃)
Solution:
dx 1
x = a log sec   = a  sec  tan  = a tan 
d sec 
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑎(tan𝜃 − 𝜃) ⇒ = 𝑎(sec 2 𝜃 − 1) = 𝑎tan2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
 dy 
dy  d  a tan 2 
 y1 = = = = tan 
dx  dx  a tan 
 
 d 
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑
𝑦2 = 2 = (tan𝜃)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝜃 2
1 sec 2 𝜃
= (tan𝜃) × = sec 𝜃 × = = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 𝑎tan𝜃 𝑎tan𝜃
3
3

(1 + y ) (1 + tan  )
2
2 2 2
sec3 
= = =  a tan 
1
Now,
y2  sec2   sec2 
 
 a tan  

𝝆 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

9. Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the cycloid x = a

(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ) is 4a cos(θ/2).

dx dy
= a (1 + cos  ) , = a sin 
d d
dy dy dx a sin  2sin  / 2 cos /2
= + = = = tan  / 2
dx d d a (1 + cos  ) 2cos2 / 2
Solution: d 2 y d dy d 1
=
  2 1
 dx   dx = 2 sec 2  a 1 + cos 
dx 2 d    ( )
1  1 1 
= sec2  = sec4
2 2 2a cos 2  / 2 4a 2

3/2
 2
1 +  dy  
3/2
 2   
  dx   4a 1 + tan   
 2 
=  = 
2  
d y sec4  
2
dx 2
3/2
 2     
= 4a   sec     cos4  
  2  2
 
= 4a cos  
2
10. Find radius of curvature at a point for the curves
x = 6t 2 − 3t 4 , y = 8t 3 .

dx
Solution: x = = 12t − 12t 3 = 12t (1 − t 2 ); y = 24t 2
dt

dx
x = = 12 − 36t 2 = 12(1 − 3t 2 ); y = 48t
dt

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=
( x 2 + y 2 ) 3 / 2
=
 
2
12t 2 (1 − t 2 ) + (24t 2 ) 2 
3/ 2

xy − yx 12t (1 − t 2 )48t − 24t 2 (12 − 36t 2 )

=
144t(1 − 2t 2 + t 4 ) + 242 t 4
4
 3/ 2

48 12t 2 − 12  48t 3 − 24 12t 2 − 24  36t 4

=
(1 + t ) 
2 2 3/ 2
 6t
=
(1 + t )   6t = 6t (1 + t )
2 3 3
2 2

1+ t 2
1+ t 2

11. Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the

Cardiod 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) varies as √𝒓

Solution: Differentiating w.r.t 𝜽 we get:

𝑟1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 , 𝑟2 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
3 3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟1 2 )2 = [𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]2

𝑟 2 + 2𝑟1 2 − 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 − 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 2𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

= 3𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)

3 3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟1 2 )2 𝑎3 2√2(1 − cos 𝜃)2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝜌= =
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟1 2 − 𝑟𝑟2 3𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)

1
2√2𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)2
1
2𝑎√2 𝑟 2
= ( ) 𝛼 √𝒓
3 3 𝑎

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 Department of Mathematics
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

12. Find the radius of curvature at any point for the curve

𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝐜𝐨 𝐬 𝒏𝜽

Solution: Taking log on both sides

𝑛 log 𝑟 = 𝑛 log 𝑎 + log cos 𝑛𝜃

Differentiating w.r.t 𝜽 we get:

𝑛 𝑑𝑟 sin 𝑛𝜃
=− .𝑛
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑟
𝑟1 = = −𝑟 tan 𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Differentiating again w.r.t 𝜽 we get:

𝑑2𝑟
𝑟2 = = 𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃 2
3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟1 2 )2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝜌=
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟1 2 − 𝑟𝑟2
3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑛𝜃)2
= 2
𝑟 + 2𝑟 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑟 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑛𝜃
3
(𝑟 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3𝑛𝜃)2 𝑟
= =
(𝑛 + 1)𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑛𝜃 (𝑛 + 1) cos 𝑛𝜃

𝑟. 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑟 1−𝑛
= =
(𝑛 + 1)𝑟 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)

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 Department of Mathematics
22MA11C
LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Exercise:

1. For the curve y = c log sec( x / c) find the radius of curvature at a
point (x, y).
2. Find radius of curvature at a point for the curves
x = acos t + log(tan t / 2) and y = a sin t .
3. For the curve y = 4 sin x − sin 2 x find the radius of curvature at a
𝜋
point 𝑥 = 2 .
4. Find the radius of curvature at the point (𝑎, 0)on 𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑎3 − 𝑥 2 .
𝑥
5. Find the radius of curvature at any point on 𝑦 = acosh (𝑎).
6. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 sin 2𝜃 at any
point (𝑟, 𝜃)
2𝑎
7. For the curve = 1 + cos 𝜃 find the radius of curvature at a
𝑟
point (𝑟, 𝜃).
Answers:
𝑥
1.𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 𝑐 )
2. acot 𝑡
5√5
3. 4
3𝑎
4. 2
𝑦2
5.
𝑎
𝑎2
6. 3𝑟

𝑟3
7. 2√ 𝑎

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 Department of Mathematics
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Centre of curvature:
In geometry, the center of curvature of a curve is found at a point
that is at a distance from the curve equal to the radius of curvature
lying on the normal vector. It is the point at infinity if the curvature
is zero. The osculating circle to the curve is centered at the Centre of
curvature. Cauchy defined the Centre of curvature C as the
intersection point of two infinitely close normal lines to the curve.
Centre of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the curve y = f(x) is given
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
by: 𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 +
𝑦2 𝑦2

Let C(𝑥,̅ 𝑦̅) be the centre of curvature and ρ be the radius of

curvature at P(x, y). Draw PL and CM perpendicular to OX and PN
perpendicular to CM. Let the tangent at P makes an angle ψ with
the x-axis. Then ∠NCP = 90 – ∠NPC = ψ
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = OM = OL –ML = OL-NP = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓 = 𝑥 − 𝑦2
(1+𝑦12 )
Similarly, 𝑦̅= MC = MN + NC = LP +𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓 = 𝑦 + 𝑦2

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Note: Equation of the circle of curvature at P(x, y) is (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 +

(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 𝜌2

Examples:

1. Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point of the

parabola
y2= 4ax.
Solution: Given𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 ,
2𝑎 4𝑎2
We have𝑦1 = and 𝑦2 = −
𝑦 𝑦3
2) (1 + 𝑦12 )
𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 +
𝑦2 𝑦2
3
2𝑥 2
𝑥̅ = 3𝑥 + 2𝑎, 𝑦̅ = −
√𝑎

2. Find circle of curvature at (1,0) on y = x 3 − x 2 .

Solution: At (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) the equation of the circle of curvature is

(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 𝜌2
dy
= 3x 2 − 2 x ; y1(1,0) = 1
dx
d2y
= 6x − 2 ; y2 (1,0) = 4
dx 2
(1 + y1 ) (1,0) = 2 ,
2

1 1 1
x(1, 0 ) = ; y(1, 0) = ;  (1,0) =
2 2 2
2 2
 1  1 1
 x −  +  y −  =  x2 + y 2 − x − y = 0 .
 2  2 2

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Exercise:

1. Find circle of curvature of x + y = ax 2 + by 2 + cx3 at the origin.

3 3
2. Find circle of curvature of x 3 + y 3 = 3xy at (2 , 2).

Answers:

1. (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦).

21 432
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 128 = 0.

Mean Value Theorem:

Taylor’s Mean Value Theorem: (English Mathematician Brook

Taylor 1685-1731)
Suppose a function f (x ) satisfies the following two conditions:
(i) f (x ) and it’s first (n-1) derivatives are continuous in a closed
interval a, b
(ii) f ( n −1) ( x) is differentiable in the open interval (a, b)
Then there exists at least one point c in the open interval (a, b) such
that
(b − a)2 (b − a)3
f (b) = f (a) + (b − a) f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + …..
2 3
(b − a)n −1 (n −1) (b − a)n (n)
..... + f (a) + f (c) → (1)
n −1 n
Taking b = a + h and for 0    1 , the above expression (1) can be
rewritten as

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 Department of Mathematics
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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

h2 h3 hn −1 (n −1) h n ( n)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf (a) + f (a) + f (a) + .... + f (a) + f (a +  h) → (2)
2 3 n −1 n
Taking b=x in (1) we may write
( x − a) 2 ( x − a)3 ( x − a)n −1 (n −1)
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + ... + f (a) + Rn → (3)
2 3 n −1

( x − a) n ( n)
Where Rn = f (c) → Re mainder term after n t
n

When n → , we can show that Rn → 0 , thus we can write the

Taylor’s series as

( x − a)2 ( x − a) n −1 ( n −1)
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f (a) + f ( a) + ... + f ( a) + ....
2 n −1

( x − a )n ( n)
= f (a) +  f (a) → (4)
n =1
n

Using (4) we can write a Taylor’s series expansion for the given
function f(x) in powers of (x-a) or about the point ‘a’.

Maclaurin’s series: (Scottish Mathematician Colin Maclaurin

1698-1746)

When a = 0, expression (4) reduces to a Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x n −1 ( n −1)
f ( x) = f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + ... + f (0) + ....
2 n −1
given by:

x n ( n)
= f (0) +  f (0) → (5)
n =1
n

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Advantages of using Taylor’s series and Maclaurin’s series

• Taylor series are studied because polynomial functions are easy

and if one could find a way to represent complicated functions as
series (infinite polynomials) then one can easily study the properties
of difficult functions.

• Evaluating definite Integrals: Some functions have no

antiderivative which can be expressed in terms of familiar functions.
This makes evaluating definite integrals for some functions difficult
because the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus cannot be used. If we
have a polynomial representation of a function, we can oftentimes
use that to evaluate a definite integral.

• Understanding asymptotic behavior: Sometimes, a Taylor series

can tell us useful information about how a function behaves in an
important part of its domain.

• Understanding the growth of functions

• Solving differential equations

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Examples:
1. Obtain a Taylor’s expansion for f ( x ) = sin x in the ascending
 
powers of  x −  up
 4
to the fourth-degree term.

Solution: The Taylor’s expansion for f (x ) about is
4
2 3 4
     
x−  x−  x− 
         4    4    4  (iv )   
f ( x) = f   +  x −  f    + f    + f    + f   .... → (1)
4  4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4

   1
f ( x) = sin x  f   = sin = ;
4 4 2
    1
f ( x) = cos x  f    = cos   =
4 4 2
   1
f ( x) = − sin x  f    = − sin = −
4 4 2
    1
f ( x) = − cos x  f    = −cos   = −
4 4 2
    1
f (iv ) ( x) = sin x  f (iv )   = sin   =
4 4 2
Substituting these in (1) we obtain the required Taylor’s series in the
form
2 3 4
     
x−  x−   1  x−   1 
1     1   4  1   4  4
f ( x) = +  x −  + − + − +
2  4  2  2  2  3  2  4   ....
 2

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

 
2
    
3 4 
 − − − 
       
x x x
1   4  4  4
f ( x) = 1+  x −  − + − + ...
2  4 2 3 4 
 
 
2. Obtain a Taylor’s expansion for f ( x) = loge x up to the term
containing ( x − 1) and hence find loge (1.1).
4

Solution: The Taylor’s series for f (x ) about the point 1 is

( x − 1)2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1) 4 (iv)
f ( x) = f (1) + ( x − 1) f (1) + f (1) + f (1) + f (1) .... → (1)
2 3 4

1
Here, f ( x) = loge x  f (1) = log 1 = 0 ; f ( x) =  f (1) = 1
x
1 2
f ( x) = −  f (1) = −1; f ( x) =  f (1) = 2
2
x x3
6
f (iv) ( x) = −  f (iv) (1) = −6 etc.,
4
x
Using all these values in (1) we get
( x − 1)2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1)4
f ( x) = loge x = 0 + ( x − 1)(1) + (−1) + (2) + (−6) ....
2 3 4

( x − 1)2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1)4

 log e x = ( x − 1) − + − ....
2 3 4

Taking x=1.1 in the above expansion we get

(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1) 4
 log e (1.1) = (0.1) − + − .... = 0.0953
2 3 4

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 Department of Mathematics
22MA11C
LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

3. Using Taylor’s Theorem, expand log (sin x) in ascending powers

of (x–3).
Solution: f (x) = log (sinx), a = 3 and f (3) = log (sin3)
Now 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cot(𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (3) = cot(3)
′(𝑥) ′(3)
𝑓′ = −cosec 2(𝑥),𝑓 ′ = −cosec 2(3),
′′(𝑥) ′′(3)
𝑓′ = 2cosec 3 (𝑥) cot(𝑥), 𝑓 ′
= 2cosec 3 (3) cot(3),
′
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 ′′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)
2 6
+⋯
log(sin 𝑥) = log(sin(3))
log sin+ (𝑥 − 3) cot(3) −
(𝑥−3)2 (𝑥−3)3
cosec 2 (3)+ { 3 (3) cot(3) + ⋯
(cosec
2 3

4. Obtain a Maclaurin’s series for f ( x) = sin x up to the term

containing x 5 .
Solution: The Maclaurin’s series for f(x) is
x2 x3 x 4 (4) x5 (5)
f ( x) = f (0) + x f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (0) .... → (1)
2 3 4 5

Here, f ( x) = sin x  f (0) = sin 0 = 0

f ( x) = cos x  f (0) = cos 0 = 1
f ( x) = − sin x  f (0) = − sin 0 = 0
f ( x) = − cos x  f (0) = −cos 0 = −1
f (iv) ( x) = sin x  f (iv) (0) = sin 0 = 0
f (v) ( x) = cos x  f (v) (0) = cos 0 = 1
Substituting these values in (1), we get the Maclaurin’s series for
f ( x) = Sin x as

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 Department of Mathematics
22MA11C
LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

x2 x3 x4 x5 x3 x5
f ( x) = sin x = 0 + x (1) + (0) + (−1) + (0) + (1) ....  sin x = x − + ....
2 3 4 5 3 5

 
5. Obtain Taylor’s expansion of the function cos + h  in
4 
4
ascending powers of h up to the terms containing h .

Solution: Taylors’s expansion of f ( x + h) is given by


h n ( n) h h2 h3 h 4 iv
f ( x + h) = f ( x) +  f ( x) = f ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) + ...
n=1 h! 1! 2! 3! 4!


At x =
4
1
f ( x) = cos x  f ( / 4) = cos( / 4) =
2
1
f ( x) = − sin x  f ( / 4) = − sin(  / 4) = −
2
1
f ( x) = − cos x  f ( / 4) = − cos( / 4) = −
2
1
f ( x) = sin x  f ( / 4) = sin(  / 4) =
2
Then we have
1 h 1 h 2 1 h3 1 h 4 1
cos( x +  / 4) = − − + + + ...
2 1! 2 2! 2 3! 2 4! 2
1  2
h h3 h 4 
= 1 − h − + + + ...
2 2! 3! 4! 
x
6. Obtain expansion of f ( x) = upto the term containing x 4
sin x

Solution: Maclaurin’s series expansion of sin x is given by

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 Department of Mathematics
22MA11C
LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

x3 x5
sin x = x − + − ...
3! 5!
−1
x  x3 x5  −1  x2 x4 
 f ( x) = = x  x − + − ... = xx 1 − + − ...
sin x  3! 5!   3! 5! 
−1
  x2 x4 
= 1 −  − − ...
  3! 5! 
2
 x2 x4   x2 x4 
= 1 +  − − ... +  − − ...  + ... By Binomial expansion
 3! 5!   3! 5! 
2
x2 x4  x2 
= 1+ − +   , terms of order  x 4 are neglected
3! 5!  3! 
x2 x4 x4
= 1+ − + + ...
6 120 36

x2 7x4
= 1+ − + ...
6 360

Note: As done in the above example, we can find the Maclaurin’s

series for various functions, for example:

x 2 x 4 x6 2 3 4 5 6
(i) Cosx = 1 − + − ...... (ii) e x = 1 + x + x + x + x + x + x ......
2 4 6 2 3 4 5 6

m(m − 1) 2 m(m − 1)(m − 2) 3 m(m − 1)(m − 2)(m − 3) 4

(iii ) (1 + x)m = 1 + mx + x + x + x ......
2 3 4

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LINEAR ALGEBRA, CALCULUS & STATISTICS

Exercise:
1. Expand 𝑎 𝑥 in ascending powers of x.
2. Expand log(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥) in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in 𝑥 6 and hence deduce the expansion of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥.
 x3 x5 
3. Show that sin −1 (3x − 4 x 3 ) = 3 x + + 3 + ...
 6 40 
Hint: put 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Answers:
𝑥2 𝑥3
1. 1 + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 + (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎)2 + (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎)3 + ⋯
2 6
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
2. + 12+45 + ⋯
2

Video Links:
1. Polar Co-ordinates: https://youtu.be/aSdaT62ndYE
2. Curvature & Radius of curvature:
https://youtu.be/VGcJv8tLPTU
3. Taylor Series: https://youtu.be/3d6DsjIBzJ4

Disclaimer: The content provided is prepared by department of

Mathematics for the specified syllabus by using reference books
mentioned in the syllabus. This material is specifically for the use of
RVCE students and for education purpose only.

First Semester 39