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Traditional Chinese Leisure Culture
and Economic Development

A Conflict of Forces

Huidi Ma and Er Liu

Traditional Chinese Leisure Culture and Economic
Development
 Huidi Ma • Er Liu

Traditional Chinese
Leisure Culture
and Economic
Development
A Conflict of Forces
Huidi Ma Er Liu
Institute of Chinese Culture Harbin Institute of Technology
Beijing, China Weihai, China

ISBN 978-1-137-59660-4 ISBN 978-1-137-59253-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59253-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017930495

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher
remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.

Cover image © Karel Tupý / Alamy Stock Photo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Nature America Inc.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our gratitude to Karl Spracklen (Professor at Leeds

Beckett University, UK), who has recommended and supported the project to
write this book from the beginning and the colleagues of the Research Com-
mittee on Sociology of Leisure of the International Sociological Association. We
also wish to give thanks to the anonymous peer reviewers for their suggestions,
which brought us much fresh inspiration for writing. To Liu Mengxi (Director
and Professor of the Institute of Chinese Culture), Feng Changgen (Chairman
of Chinese Leisure Philosophy Professional Organization), Ren Xiaomei (Senior
Editor of Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press), and Wang Xiaohui
(Ma Huidi’s daughter), who all gave us detailed comments, critiques, and
suggestions. To Li Chunbo (a friend from Canada) who helped out with
translating the second and third sections in the fifth chapter when we were on
a tight schedule.
To Marjorie Miller (Former Dean and Professor, Department of Philos-
ophy, Purchase College, State University of New York), and Stan Murai
(Ma Huidi’s English teacher), who critiqued some of the viewpoints in the
draft, reviewed the full manuscript, and did part of the literature search for
us. To all members of both our families for their support and assistance in
the writing of the draft over the last two years. And to many other friends
and colleagues, who have generously shared with us their information and
views.

v
 CONTENTS

1 Introduction 1

2 Leisure and Traditional Chinese Society 9

Unity of Man and Nature 10
Spiritual Pursuits 19
Elegance and Taste in Leisure Life 30
Institutional Arrangements for Vacations 48
Conclusion 52

3 Leisure in the Modern Cultural Movements of China 55

The Heyday of Chinese Civilization 56
The Old China 60
Early New China 70
The Reform and Opening-Up of China 89
Conclusion 95

4 The Rise of China’s Economy and Trends in Leisure

Development 97
The Rise of China’s Economy 98
System Design 118
Public Service 129

vii
viii CONTENTS

Human Rights in China: History and the Current State 136

The State of China’s Economy 145
Conclusion 151

5 Aspects of Leisure Life in Contemporary China 153

Three Important Changes in the Social Organism of China 154
The Imbalance Between Work and Leisure 159
Conclusion 200

6 Forces in Conflict 203

Chinese Versus Western Learning 204
Tradition and Modernity 219
Material and Spiritual 236
Conclusion 244

7 Conclusion and Further Thinking 247

Index 255
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Huidi Ma is a Distinguished Researcher at the Institute of Chinese Culture

of the Chinese Academy of Art and was an editorial director and senior
editor for the journal Studies in Dialectics of Nature until 2006. Since 1995,
she has been studying the leisure phenomenon from interdisciplinary per-
spectives, as well as acting as editor-in-chief and managing editor of the
series Chinese Leisure Studies, at the same time publishing various books and
translated works. She is a founder of the Center of China Leisure Studies
and elected fellow of the American Leisure Academy (2006) and the World
Leisure Academy (2010). She is also a board member of the Research
Committee on Leisure of the International Sociological Association (2012).
Her representative works are: Freedom and Aesthetics: The Two Wings of
Leisure (2014); Yu Guangyuan and Ma Huidi’s Dialogue Over a Decade: Basic
Issues of Leisure Studies (2008); Toward a Leisure Economy with Humanistic
Concerns (2004); Survey Studies of the State of Leisure Life among the Chinese
Public (2004); Leisure: The Making of a Beautiful Home for the Human Spirit
(2004).

Er Liu has an MA in sociology from Princeton University and a PhD in

classical Chinese literature from Harbin Teachers’ University. He has been
doing research in a variety of fields, including lifestyle and leisure studies.
He is currently Professor in Chinese Language and Literature at Harbin
Institute of Technology at Weihai.

ix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Over time, leisure has imperceptibly nurtured the mind, the intellectual
capacity, and the moral sense of human beings, like “an invisible drizzle that
wets clothes, or flowers idly falling to the ground without a sound”.1 The
history of the development of human civilization is also a history of leisure.
Without leisure, it would be difficult to have real creativity, and human
society would be no more than a machine that runs in cycles.
We can find grounds for leisure in both Eastern and Western cultures. For
philosophers in ancient Greece, “leisure was not simply the freedom from the
necessity of being occupied, nor was it time during which we could choose
what to do. Leisure was an essential element in the realization of the ideals of
the culture: knowledge leading to virtuous choices and conducts which, in
turn, leads to true pleasure and happiness.”2 Likewise, for the ancient
sages of China, “Having a day of carnival after a hundred days of hard
work is a blessing. Working hard continuously without relaxation is some-
thing even the sages would not be capable of, whereas being always relaxed
is something in which they would not indulge. Hard work interspersed

1
From the poem “Bie Yan Shiyuan” (Farewell to Yan Shiyuan) by the Tang poet Liu
Changqing.
2
Thomas Goodale and Geoffrey Godbey, The Evolution of Leisure: historical and philosoph-
ical perspectives. State College, PA: Venture Publishing Inc., 1995, pp. 23–24.

© The Author(s) 2017 1

Huidi Ma, Er Liu, Traditional Chinese Leisure Culture and Economic
Development, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59253-8_1
2 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

with relaxation is the way of those great kings.”3 This is the common ground
for culture, for human nature, and for human existence.
The intellectual breakthroughs in the “Axial Age” (according to Karl
Jaspers) were related mainly to issues centered on human nature. In the
period from about the eighth century BC to the fifth century AD, the
Buddha Shakyamuni in India, Confucius and Laozi in China, and Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, all expressed similar ideas on these issues.
In the Chinese word for leisure, xiuxian (休閒), the pictographic char-
acters xiu (休) and xian (閒) have a kind of ingenuity, offering a clear
interpretation of the profound meaning and great significance of leisure.
The pictograph xiu has a person leaning against a tree to rest, which
expressively describes the harmonious relationship between humans and
nature. And the pictograph xian portrays a scene as if from an essay by
Lin Yutang: “On my estate there is a garden; in the garden there is a housing
compound, in the center of which there is a courtyard; in the courtyard
there is a tree; over the tree there is the sky; and in the sky there is the
moon.” With this we can almost see wise old Chinese men sitting in the
courtyard, gazing at the moon through the gate and letting their imagina-
tion fly, out of which was born their philosophical ideas, their artistic
achievements, and the technology of traditional China. But from xian are
also derived many other meanings, including morality and law, as well as
limit and constraint. Furthermore, xian is a phonetic loan for another
character that means purity of thought and a peaceful mind that is the
basis for a quality life.
The essence of xiuxian is the following: xiu means quietude, which
facilitates one’s self-cultivation and allows one to see far beyond the neces-
sities of daily life; while xian means correctness of speech and action, and
not breaking rules. The profound meanings of these characters had great
influence on the basic philosophical ideas and attitudes in traditional Chi-
nese culture for handling humans’ relationship with nature, life, and society.
These ideas and attitudes are well expressed in both Confucian and Taoist
thinking.
The Confucians emphasized the role of rites in governing society and the
importance of benevolent rule. They advocated a political philosophy of
“starting from poetry, laying a sound foundation for society through rites,

3
Sun Xidan. Liji Jijie (Collected Annotations on the Book of Rites). Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 1989, p. 1115.
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 INTRODUCTION 3

and reaching the ideal society through music” (“Tai Bo” chapter of Analects
of Confucius). This idea was embodied in the “six arts” of rites, music,
archery, chariotry, writing, and arithmetic, which also constituted the
highest level of aesthetic activity.
Laozi emphasizes “speculating in quietude to comprehend the dark
mystery,” that is, to attain to the Tao, thus highlighting the individual’s
ability to awaken to the Tao through introspection. This is aimed to achieve
a harmony between the inner world of humans and the environment
outside, which would allow us to gain insight and to cultivate the beauty
of human nature.
Zhuangzi taught us to calm our inner tensions, to move in accord with
time, and to identify with the world through xinzhai (spiritual fasting) and
zuowang (sitting still to let all thoughts and desires diminish to the extent
where one forgets the world and even oneself), so as to adapt to all kinds of
circumstances. The xiaoyao you (free and easy wandering of the mind)
advocated by Zhuangzi, where one “wanders beyond the four seas” and
“appreciates the great beauty of heavens and earth” became the ultimate
wisdom of the Chinese on leisure.
What is unique about the Chinese concept of leisure is that it suggests
that leisure can exert an invisible and formative influence on people’s
lifestyles and their values. “The unity of humans and nature” lays the
foundation for the concept of being and its values; “moral cultivation and
propriety of conduct” provide the basis of the norms for the individual’s
social behavior; and “elegance and taste” enrich the world we live in and life
itself.
Through the traditional leisure culture of China, we can still feel inti-
mately the graceful leisureliness of the ancients in their natural philosophy,
cultivation of character, aesthetic tastes, art and literature, and even good
health and longevity. For them, leisure was Zen mingled with a tremendous
creativity.
The ancient Chinese did not have material plenty in their lives, but they
had a rich and colorful spiritual life. The large and ever-increasing body of
Confucian classics, history, philosophy of different non-Confucian schools,
and collections of work by individual authors were highly valued by gener-
ation after generation, and was gradually internalized by the Chinese. Thus
it became an important factor influencing their individual temperaments,
and also an important part of their cultural tradition.
In this rich tradition, two kinds of cultural elements stand out as the most
splendid and long-lasting heritage of the nation. One is the “family
4 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

instructions” (家訓), and the other is “womanly work” (女紅), both of

which have provided much spiritual nourishment for people and profoundly
influenced generation after generation of the Chinese people.
The family instructions were an important part of education in traditional
China. They were easy to read, understand, memorize, recite, and put into
practice. Closely related to the moral practice of ordinary people, they had a
profound influence on popular ethical beliefs, norms for conduct, and
rituals, and were model texts used to correct family moral standards and
improve family reputations that have been passed on through generations.
China’s cultural tradition stresses that the family, or the household, is
closely associated with the state. The Confucians believed that self-
cultivation of the individual serves as the basis for putting the household
in order, which in turn is the basis for governing the state and pacifying the
world, which implies that the self, the household, and the state are closely
interrelated. The household is the foundation for the individual to attain
harmony with society. Thus, family instructions have a special role in its
education.
In the long history of China as an agrarian society, “womanly work,”
which usually meant needlework done by women, such as embroidery and
sewing, contributed in a special way to the life and values of the Chinese.
For thousands of years, “womanly work” had profound influence on “wom-
anly virtues”: first, “womanly work” could directly or indirectly foster
“womanly virtues”; secondly, it helped to foster kindness and goodness in
women; thirdly, it has played an important role in forming the role model of
the mother for women, especially in their role of giving birth to the next
generation, bringing up their children, and inheriting and passing on the
feminine virtues through their own earnest practice; fourth, it was a good
guide for the leisure life of the family. These are the reasons why “womanly
work” has continued as a prominent part of Chinese culture for thousands
of years.
Indeed, aesthetic taste and grace in leisure life was also nurtured by
poetry, music, calligraphy, painting, and board games such as go, and such
aesthetic taste and graceful leisure life were the foundations of China as “a
land of courtesy and propriety” and promoted a tradition of “respecting
teachers and valuing education.”
The ancient Chinese had some standards for “affluence.” In terms of
material life, the standard was “two mu of land and an ox, together with a
wife, several children, and a heatable brick bed to sleep on”; while the
standard for a rich spiritual life is to have “learning and honesty to
 INTRODUCTION 5

perpetuate the family.” Knowing that “the tailorbird may build her nest
deep in a huge forest, but the nest occupies but one branch; the mole may
drink from the Yellow River, but he can take at most a bellyful,” and that
money was something external to the human self which one can neither
bring at one’s birth or take away with one when one dies, they tried to live a
life that was moderate in terms of material wealth but spiritually rich.
In the Western world, the relationship between leisure and culture was
also fully recognized. Starting with the Greeks, leisure was considered an
important basis for a good life. Aristotle’s statement that leisure is the pivot
around which all things revolve had great impact on European culture and
the Renaissance.
In his book Leisure: the Basis of Culture, the modern Swedish philosopher
Josef Pieper points out that leisure is the basis for human culture; that, as an
attitude in life, it means the state of peace and quietude in a human being;
that it is the opportunity and ability for the human individual to immerse
himself in “the whole process of creativity”; and that it is given to humans by
God. While at leisure, human beings are not in possession of power to
dominate the world, but are able to feel the joy of life because of the
peace of mind attained in it.
The value of leisure is self-evident. Without leisure, even the natural
growth of humans becomes problematic. The ancient Chinese believed
that “with too much knowledge, one is likely to get entangled in a host of
different opinions and be faced with many dilemmas; it would be better to
be moderate even with acquiring knowledge” (Laozi), which means one
needs to maintain peace and quietude of mind rather than trying to learn
and do too many things, for then one would be highly stressed and likely to
lose one’s wits and go to extremes. The reason is that when one becomes
very busy, one is likely to lose composure and become irritable and shallow,
unable to keep calm and think carefully. When one becomes too busy, one is
also likely to be short-sighted, unable to think far into the future while just
enduring the hectic life.
Unfortunately, with the natural disasters, poverty, war, and rampant
corruption on the part of the ruling elite that China has experienced in
the last century, traditional leisure values have been mutilated and
discarded. This is especially true of the decade of the Cultural Revolution.
Today, China is in a period of great social transformation. While people
have focused solely on economic growth, the tradition of leisure culture has
continued to become greatly diminished.
6 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

What does leisure mean today? Government policy has turned leisure
into the “golden weeks” for tourism and a ready source of revenues; society
has taken leisure to be a house of pleasure where one can live in luxury and
dissipation; common people have taken it to be “TV þ cellphone þ chatting
on the Internet.” The mundane life of hustle and bustle, the earnest pursuits
of material gains, greed, anxiety, and haste have become major themes in
people’s lives, and the whole scene has become one in which “humans are
slaves to material goods” and “the mind is slave to the body.”
Put into historical perspective, it is true that the Chinese now enjoy a
great abundance of material goods. Nowadays not only people have a great
range of goods to consume, but they have set for themselves the new goals
of obtaining fancy food and clothes. But when the objects of aesthetic
appreciation and philosophical reflection have become remote to people’s
lives, the nurturing role of leisure is bound to be looked down upon and
become alienated.
Marx noticed long ago that the way humans make their living affects their
body, their thinking, and their daily lives. Not only did he raise the issue of
the “alienation of labor,” but pointed out that we have sold our birthright
for a mess of pottage. As Goodale and Godbey go on to say after quoting
this sentence from Marx, “we seem to lack a sufficiently compelling idea, or
a sufficiently refined taste, for anything else. In short, we lack a philosophy
of leisure. Without one, we may never be satisfied.”4
After Marx, Marcuse further discussed the problem of alienation. He
believed Marx saw how “alienation” had enslaved the human body, but it
bothered Marcuse that it now enslaved the mind and soul as well.
According to theories in the sociology of leisure, leisure has important
influence on all stages of human life, especially on the individual’s “becom-
ing human” and his/her socialization, allowing him/her to obtain more
freedom, aesthetic experiences, creativity, and opportunities to develop
his/her interests, so that he/she can liberate him/herself, create his/her
own life, incorporate his/her interests in life, and mold him/herself into a
useful person in society.
One may ask: has China not experienced three splendid decades of
economic growth without a need for the traditional leisure culture? This is
a good question.

4
Thomas Goodale and Geoffrey Godbey, The Evolution of Leisure: historical and philosoph-
ical perspectives. State College, PA: Venture Publishing Inc., 1995, pp. 87–88.
 INTRODUCTION 7

It is indeed true that China, as the second largest economy in the

world now, is the country with the largest number of tourists visiting
other countries, the greatest purchasing power in the area of luxury items,
the largest number of entertainment projects, the greatest numbers of
people going abroad for education, medical care, and recreation, and the
largest number of middle-class people. It can even directly affect the direc-
tion taken by the world economy.
But China, a country with 1.3 billion people, still faces many challenges,
for a population of 1.3 billion people is very large, and any tiny problem
would become a huge one when multiplied by 1.3 billion, while any
resource, when divided by 1.3 billion, would become very small. By the
standards of the World Bank, there are still close to 200 million people living
in poverty in China and it is the 83rd among 157 countries in the happiness
rankings for 2013–2015.5 Furthermore, the population of China is aging
rapidly, with 212 million elderly people in 2015. There are more than
60 million children who stay in rural areas while their parent/parents are
working in cities as migrant workers and 30 million adults who are bache-
lors; and one third of the population have health problems in need of
treatment. Measures taken to tackle any one of these problems are likely
to have repercussions for the whole society.
The most worrying problem is the weakness of the cultural capital of the
whole nation. With people generally living in a great imbalance of work and
leisure and in disorderly physical and mental states, the tradition of valuing
education and culture has become very weak, and it is difficult to see grace
and refinement in people’s conduct. With a strong mentality for quick
wealth, people are always hurrying, without stopping to make sound deci-
sions, not knowing what the goals are for development. Both the “starry sky
above” and the “moral law within” (Kant) are increasingly distant from
people’s lives.
Every day we talk about the “China dream” and the revival of Chinese
culture, but both the natural and the humanistic ecology have greatly
deteriorated in China. Both the development of society as a whole and
the development of individual Chinese are in a distorted and unbalanced
state, and the power for sustainable development is unfortunately insuffi-
cient. Is this not the price we have paid for losing our tradition of leisure

5
John Helliwell, Richard Layard and Jeffrey Sachs, eds., World Happiness Report 2016, vol.
1, New York, Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2016, p. 21.
8 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

culture? Leisure, it seems, does not increase GDP, but GDP growth without
a leisurely temperament may well be transient or greatly distorted in nature.
Today, China is undergoing a great social transformation, with conflicts
developing everywhere all the time. Proper handling of these conflicts
would provide a new kind of power to propel the continuous progress of
Chinese society. But in order to be able to handle them properly, national
decision-makers would need to have not only superior wisdom, but also the
courage of a warrior who cuts off his arm in order to preserve his human
dignity.
 CHAPTER 2

Leisure and Traditional Chinese Society

Leisure is a state of life and a form of existence for human beings. The
meaning of leisure is part of the common cultural foundation for human
existence. The basis for this point can be found in the sources of both
Eastern and Western civilizations. The ancient Greeks believed that “leisure
was not simply the freedom from the necessity of being occupied, nor was it
time during which we could choose what to do. Leisure was an essential
element in the realization of the ideals of the culture: knowledge leading to
virtuous choices and conducts which, in turn, leads to true pleasure and
happiness.”1 And “for leisure in Greek is skole, and in Latin’s scalo, the
English ‘school’. The word used to designate the place where we educate
and teach is derived from a word which means ‘leisure’. School does not,
properly speaking, mean school, but leisure”.2
Likewise, Confucius once said, “Having a day of carnival after a hundred
days of hard work is a blessing. Working hard continuously without relax-
ation is something even the sagacious Kings Wen and Wu would not be
capable of, whereas being always relaxed is something they would not
indulge in. Hard work interspersed with relaxation is the way of those

1
Thomas Goodale and Geoffrey Godbey, The Evolution of Leisure, Venture Publishing Inc.,
State College, PA 1995, second printing, 1995, pp. 23–24.
2
Ibid., p.19

© The Author(s) 2017 9

Huidi Ma, Er Liu, Traditional Chinese Leisure Culture and Economic
Development, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59253-8_2
10 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

great kings.”3 This is a common basis for culture and for human nature
throughout history.
The two characters in the Chinese word for xiuxian (休閒), “leisure,”
have profound connotations in traditional Chinese culture. These characters
express the basic philosophical ideas and attitudes in traditional Chinese
culture for handling humans’ relationship with nature, life, and society.
Confucians and Taoists both affirm the positive values of leisure and their
views in this respect often conflate and appear identical. The Confucian idea
of the “golden mean,” Laozi’s “letting things take their own course,”
Zhuangzi’s “carefree wandering,” the Buddhist “state of self-oblivion,”
and folk sayings such as “the soul becomes clear after being purified just
as things become clean after being washed” all succinctly reflect the essence
of leisure activities.
What is unique about the Chinese concept of leisure is that it suggests
that leisure can exert an invisible and formative influence on people’s
lifestyles and value systems. “The unity of Man and Nature” lays the
foundation for the concept of being and its values; “moral cultivation and
propriety of conduct” provide the basis for the norms of the individual’s
social behavior so that “elegance and taste” enrich both the world we live in
and life itself.

UNITY OF MAN AND NATURE

The idea that humans and nature are in a unity represents a basic approach
of the Chinese in their philosophy of life. The ancients never placed them-
selves above nature. Zhuangzi, for example, claimed “Heaven and earth are
parents to all things in the world.”4 The legend explains that the earth
receives the seeds of the five grains and cares for the six domestic animals,
enabling people to live in abundance, while the heavens bestow sunlight and
rain, as well as the cyclic four seasons. The beauty of nature nourishes and
edifies humanity. Harmony with nature is the foundation of humanity, and
thus heaven, earth, and humans should be one in unity. The way of heaven
is to “initiate all things”; that of earth, to “let all things grow”; and that of

3
Sun Xidan. Collected Annotations on the Book of Rites. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,
1989, p. 1115.
4
Cao Chuji. A Simple Annotation of Zhuangzi (revised ed.). Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 2000, p. 265.
 LEISURE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE SOCIETY 11

humans, to “perfect all things.” Each of the three has its own way, but, as
Laozi points out, each way is an unspeakably mysterious way, for the way
gives birth to all things, the way is indispensable for everything. The way of
heaven and earth is particular about being generative and making offerings,
while the way of humans is more inclined to being realistic and gainful. They
are complementary to each other, and thus should treat each other with
courtesy. In the cultural tradition of China, the doctrines of Taoism, Con-
fucianism, and Buddhism all have the “unity of Man and Nature” as their
foundation. Most of the popular festivals in China are joyous celebrations of
nature while also working to build an ethical order of relationships among
humans.

The Pictographs of Xiu and Xian

The two characters xiu 休and xian 閒, which together make up the Chinese
word for “leisure,” show the ingenuity of the ancients and have great
significance for our understanding of the values of leisure. According to
the Kangxi Zidian, an authoritative dictionary of classical Chinese compiled
under the auspices of Emperor Kangxi in the early eighteenth century, the
pictograph xiu portrays a person (人) leaning against a tree (木) to rest,
which figuratively depicts the harmonious relationship between humans and
nature and in a way embodies Zhuangzi’s idea that “all things in the world
are unified with me since heaven and earth were born together with me.”5
Xiu can also mean auspiciousness, joy, and blessing. Confucius felt this
harmony of nature when he said, “Heaven never says anything, but all
things grow naturally as the four seasons go in cycles in an orderly fashion.”6
Thus, when Zeng Xi, who was styled “Dian,” said what he most wanted to
do was “in late spring, when spring clothes are ready, together with a few
friends and several disciples, I would like to take a bath in the Yi River
(in Shandong), have my body dried at the dance altar, and then return
home, singing songs along the way,” Confucius could not help exclaiming:
“I quite agree with Dian’s idea!”7 Harmony is brought about when humans

5
Ibid., p. 29.
6
Liu Baonan. A Rectified Interpretation of Confucius’ Analects. Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 1990, p. 698.
7
Zhu Xi. Collected Annotations on Four Great Books of Confucianism. Shanghai: Shanghai
Bookstore, 1987, pp. 81–82.
12 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

follow heaven’s natural course and blend with nature. This is the attitude of
the ancients toward life, an attitude that shows their reverence for nature.
In the traditional script, the pictograph xian intuitively expresses this
idea: one sits in the courtyard watching the moon (月) through the gate
(門) and lets his imagination fly, being in a leisurely mood while enjoying
life, just as Lin Yutang once wrote, “On my estate there is a garden; in the
garden there is a mansion; in the center of the mansion there is a courtyard;
in the courtyard there is a tree; over the tree there is the sky; and in the sky
there is the moon—how happy I am for having such a place!”8 But from
xian are also derived other meanings, including having a broad view,
morality, and law, as well as limits and constraint. Furthermore, xian is a
phonetic loan for another character that means “gentle and refined, with
purity in thought and a peaceful mind.” Thus, our understanding of xian
should not be limited to the temporal dimension of personal enjoyment of
leisure time and recreation.
Thus, semantically speaking, the essence of xiuxian is the following: xiu
means quietude, which facilitates one’s self-cultivation and allows one to see
far beyond the necessities for everyday life; while xian means correctness of
speech and action, of living without breaking rules, and the cultivation of a
life of high quality.

Three Relationships in Xiuxian (休閒) in the Cultural Traditions

of China
First, we have the harmony between human beings and nature, with
humans being considered part of nature. Thus, we should not wantonly
offend nature, but should take for granted that humans should revere
nature. In traditional China, people used the term tiandi 天地 (“heavens
and the earth”) to mean nature, and treated these things as divine. The earth
receives the seeds of various grains and nourishes domestic animals,
enabling people to live in abundance, while the heavens bestow sunlight
and rain, as well as the cyclic four seasons. The beauty of nature nourishes
and edifies humanity. Harmony with nature is therefore the very foundation
of human life.

8
Lin Yutang. Selected Essays by Lin Yutang. Tianjin: Baihua Literature and Art Publishing
House, 1987, p. 265.
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 LEISURE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE SOCIETY 13

Secondly, we have harmony among people. In general, people all like to

pursue auspiciousness, joyfulness, goodness, and blessings as their goals in
life. Attainment to these goals is dependent on the sincerity, honesty, and
purity of people’s minds, and on rules and constraints in terms of morality
and discipline. Therefore, xiuxian can help to maintain an order for human
life and instill human virtues, thus creating harmonious relationships among
people.
Thirdly, there is the harmony between the human individual and
him/herself, which entails a balance between body and mind, between
action and repose, and between being active and being at leisure. It also
implies the pursuit of a happy life and a concern for spiritual life beyond
material production. Only when one is in a state of leisure and inaction 無為
(wuwei) is one capable, as an individual, of feeling joy and harmonizing the
myriad things of life. The inner harmony of the human individual is the basis
for harmony among all things in the world.

The Conception of the “Unity of Man and Nature”

With the conception of the unity of humans and nature, the Chinese
invented many festivals related to the natural cycle of things. For example,
the 24 solar terms,9 which originated in the Eastern Zhou Period, is a
supplementary calendar the ancients invented to guide agricultural activities
throughout the year. It is an interpretation of nature’s mysteries, but also
provides guidelines for life in an agrarian society in which people worked
hard but also had joy and repose in accordance with nature’s rhythms. Even
the emperor had to worship the “Heavens” at each of the solar terms of
every year. These rituals not only helped to make life more relaxed and
joyous, but also instilled a reverence for nature in people’s minds. The
24 solar terms represent not only a poeticized lifestyle of the literati who
sang sentimental verses about flowers and the moon, but more importantly
the understanding by common people of the value of leisure. When Con-
fucius took his disciple Zigong to watch a festival of celebration after
harvest, Zigong was worried that if people indulged in such joys they
might forget their work. Confucius explained to him that since people

9
The 24 solar terms are points in traditional Chinese calendar specified according to the
position of the Earth on its orbit around the sun. Starting with the vernal equinox, the points
are spaced 15 apart along the ecliptic. After a full cycle of 360 , the earth returns to the vernal
equinox, ready to start another cycle.
14 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

had to labor in the fields year after year, it was good to let them relax once a
while so that hard labor would be interspersed with periods of relaxation,
which would actually help to promote production as well as allow them to
live a better life. “Having a day of carnival after a hundred days of hard work
is a blessing. Working hard continuously without relaxation is something
even the sagacious Kings Wen and Wu would not be capable of, whereas
being always relaxed is something they would not indulge in. Hard work
interspersed with relaxation is the way of those great kings.”10 The system
of solar terms embodies a symbiotic view of nature and humans in unity,
with humans living in harmony with all things in nature, and for thousands
of years this has been an integral part of the Chinese cultural tradition.
Benevolence 仁 (ren) is considered the core of Confucianism, which
advocates a political philosophy of “starting from poetry, laying a sound
foundation for society through rites, and reaching the ideal society through
music,” with poetry, rites, and music being used to educate people and to
cultivate a healthy character. From the Zhou Dynasty on, the “six arts” of
rites, music, archery, charioting, writing, and arithmetic were incorporated
into the official educational system, making these “arts” required life skills.
In the “Xueji” 學記 chapter of The Book of Rites, one of the five Confucian
classics, it is stated, “The learning of the gentleman consists of taking rest
from time to time and dabbling in various arts at ease (you) as well as actively
absorbing knowledge and cultivating oneself.”11 In the “Shu’er” 述而
chapter of the Analects, Confucius says one can “playfully dabble in the
(six) arts” in addition to the more serious task of “perfecting oneself
through moral cultivation in order to attain to the Tao.”12 These comments
reflect Confucius’ idea that one should be cultivated in the Tao, morality,
benevolence, and arts, which together constitute the foundation of
human life.
Taoist philosophy, which was first developed by Laozi, has as its core idea
the concept of wu (無), “nothingness.” In his political thinking, he stressed
“achieving order through wuwei (無為 inaction),” which actually means the
ruler should let things take their natural course (which are in accord with the

10
Sun Xidan. Collected Annotations on the Book of Rites. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,
1989, p. 1115.
11
Chen Hao. Collected Commentary on the Book of Rites. Shanghai Classic Publishing House,
1987, p. 200.
12
Zhu Xi. Collected Annotations on Four Great Books of Confucianism. Shanghai: Shanghai
Bookstore, 1987, p. 46.
 LEISURE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE SOCIETY 15

Tao), rather than take an activist approach 有為 (youwei) and forcibly

interfere with them. Laozi’s philosophy emphasizes “speculating in qui-
etude to comprehend the dark mystery,” in other words to attain to the
Tao, thus highlighting the individual’s ability to awaken to the Tao through
introspection. “Things are generated from the Tao, maintained by virtues,
shaped into physical objects, and perfected by right circumstances. This is
why the Tao and virtues are most revered among myriad things. Such
reverence is not commanded by anyone, but comes naturally,”13 so that a
harmony can be achieved between the inner world of humans and the
environment outside. Laozi also teaches us, “Quietude can subdue rash-
ness, and cold can overcome heat. Serenity is the right way for the world.”14
It is in serenity that one can obtain insight into human nature and attain to
the beauty available to human beings.
The chapter “Xiaoyao you” 逍遙遊 (“Free and Easy Wandering”) of
Zhuangzi advocates the unity between humans and nature when humans
are able to transcend all things and soar high in the realms of freedom. Many
passages in that chapter have subtle meanings apart from their literal mean-
ings, concluding with “the Perfect Man has no self; the Holy Man has no
merit; the Sage has no fame,”15 a remark full of a romanticism that com-
bines reason, sensibility, and imagination.
Through xinzhai 心齋 (spiritual fasting) and zuowang 坐忘 (sitting still
to let all thoughts and desires diminish to the extent where one forgets the
world and even one’s self), Zhuangzi also aims at the calming down of inner
tensions, movement in accord with time, identification with the world, and
thus adaptation to all kinds of circumstances. Thus, xiaoyao you as advocated
by Zhuangzi, where one “wanders beyond the four seas” and “appreciates
the great beauty of heavens and earth” became the ultimate wisdom of the
Chinese with regard to leisure. The earliest concept of freedom in Chinese
thinking can also be attributed to Zhuangzi.
The Book of Poetry, compiled two and half a millennia ago, is the oldest
anthology of Chinese poems. It contains poems written in a period span-
ning about five centuries (from early Western Zhou to the middle of Spring
and Autumn period, or c. eleventh–sixth century BC) that began a rich

13
Huang Ruiyun. The Original Meaning of Laozi. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing
House, 1995, p. 73.
14
Huang Ruiyun. The Original Meaning of Laozi. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing
House, 1995, p. 67.
15
Watson, Burton, trans.. Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings. New York and London: Columbia
University Press, 1964, p. 26.
16 HUIDI MA AND ER LIU

tradition of poetry. Besides songs composed by musicians of the Zhou court

and those presented as a tribute by the courtiers of various ranks, there are
also many ballads that had been sung among common people.16 Many of
the poems in The Book of Poetry vividly depict scenarios of leisure activities of
ancient China.
The Chinese conception of the unity between man and nature is also
reflected in the traditional wedding ceremony, where the couple do obei-
sance first to heaven and earth, and then to their parents, before they do
obeisance to each other, which shows the importance of nature in people’s
minds.
Confucianism and Taoism came to be the mainstream of Chinese culture
from two millennia ago. A very important reason for this is that they passed
on the ancients’ conceptions of nature by making them into important
philosophical ideas that have exerted great influence on the Chinese outlook
on life for many generations.
In modern times, the famous writer Lin Yutang wrote, “Very much
contented am I to lie low, to cling to the soil, to be of kin to the sod. My
soul squirms comfortably in the soil and sand and is happy. Sometimes when
one is drunk with this earth, one’s spirit seems so light that he thinks he is in
heaven.”17 And Xu Zhimo, an eminent Chinese poet in modern times,
wrote, “Isn’t it true that the roots of all great, profound, spirit-lifting,
clear-sighted, and graceful thinking can be sought in the sound of wind,
in clouds, in the mountains and the undulation of landscape, and in the
colors and fragrance of flowers and grasses?”18

L€
u and You: Pursuits in Nature
u 旅 (to travel) and you 遊 (to wander) have great
To the ancient Chinese, l€
symbolic significance. The word l€ u not only denotes “to make an excur-
sion,” but also connotes “common” and “right conduct.” In modern
u can be interpreted to mean when one makes an excursion,
language, l€
one should observe social norms and conduct oneself properly, for one’s

16
Yuan Xingpei et al., eds. A History of Chinese Literature. Beijing: Higher Education Press,
vol. 1, 1999, p. 54.
17
Lin Yutang. The Importance of Living (A John Day Book). New York: Reynal and
Hitchcock, 1937, vii.
18
Xu Zhimo. Notes at a mountain villa in Florence, Modern Criticism, 1925, 2 (30): 13–14.
 LEISURE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE SOCIETY 17

conduct reflects not only one’s self-cultivation, but also one’s upbringing.
You, on the other hand, means “to walk leisurely.” Thus, the ancients
believed the you means “dabbling in the six arts in one’s leisure time”19
and “unhurriedness.”20 Zhuangzi’s “free and easy wandering” is the best
form of going on a tour.
Confucius, Laozi, and Zhuangzi pioneered traveling and tourism for the
Chinese. Confucius spent 14 years going to the different states of his time,
traveling thousands of miles and passing through many difficulties in an
attempt to find a ruler who would adopt the political measures he advo-
cated. Though rejected almost everywhere, he still remained confident that
his political ideal was the right Way, and was steadfast in teaching the Way
and the arts to his disciples. He said, “Knowing something is not as good as
being able to like it, and being able to like it is not as good as being able to
enjoy it.”21 Although he traveled because of his political aspirations, he
actually practiced the Way, and his traveling demonstrated his noble
sentiments.
According to legends, when Laozi saw the Zhou Dynasty was in decline,
he left his official position and traveled throughout the world on the back of
his black ox, accompanied by a lad he took with him. When he reached the
Hangu Pass and was about to go into the unsettled frontier region in the
west from there, the chief of the guards at the pass asked Laozi to write
something for him. Laozi obliged and wrote down a book of about 5,000
characters which then became the famous Daodejing 道德經, in which he
used the concept “Tao” to explain the evolution of all things in the universe.
In this book, he expounded the idea that “The Tao gives birth to the One,
the One to Two (yin and yang, or the feminine and masculine principles),
and the Two to the Three, from which the myriad things are derived.” The
Tao is not commanded by anyone, but comes about naturally. This is an
ancient outlook on nature with its primitive simplicity.
Zhuangzi’s idea about traveling is reflected in the concept “free and easy
wandering,” in which one is independent of mundane things, but becomes
united with nature. One travels throughout the world free of all constraints,

19
Zheng Xuan. The Book of Rites, The Thirteen Confucian Classics with Annotations by Han
and Wei Scholars. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1998, p. 130.
20
Liu Baonan. A Rectified Interpretation of Confucius’ Analects. Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 1990, p. 257.
21
Liu Baonan. A Rectified Interpretation of Confucius’ Analects. Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 1990, p. 235.
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 THE TERRIER.

There are two varieties of this dog, the one has got very short
legs, a long back, and is commonly of a black or yellowish colour
mingled with white; the other is of a more sprightly appearance,
with a much shorter body, and the colour of this species is a reddish-
brown or black.
When gentlemen go out a hunting, they generally take one of
these dogs to accompany their hounds, for they are very expert in
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THE HARE.
This animal not possessing any means of self defence is furnished by
Providence with a high degree of fear. It is attentive to every alarm,
and is furnished with very long ears, which are tube-like, and catch
the most remote sounds. The eyes are so prominent, as to enable
the animal to see both before and behind. The Hare feeds in the
evening, and sleeps during the day, and, as he mostly lies on the
ground, he has the feet protected, both above and below, with a
thick covering of hair. In a moonlight evening many of these
creatures may sometimes be seen starting together, leaping about
and pursuing each other; but the least noise alarms them, and they
then scamper off each in a different direction. Their pace is a kind of
gallop, or quick succession of leaps; and they are very swift,
particularly in ascending hills. In winter they generally choose a form
exposed to the south, and in summer they change this for one
looking to the north: in both cases, they have the instinct of
commonly fixing on a place where the objects around them are
nearly of the colour of their bodies.
 THE RABBIT.

THE RABBIT.

The Rabbit abounds in Great Britain, where its skin forms a very
considerable article in the manufactory of hats. Although the Hare
and the Rabbit are so like each other, nature has placed a strong
barrier between them, in their feeling of mutual aversion. Besides
this, there is a wide difference in their habits and pursuits: the rabbit
lives in holes in the earth, where it brings forth its young, and retires
from the approach of danger; whilst the Hare prefers the open
fields, and trusts to its speed for safety. The female makes a bed of
down for her young, which she pulls off her own coat. She never
leaves them, but when pressed with hunger, and returns as soon as
that is supplied. During the time she tends them, she carefully
conceals them from the male, lest he should devour them; and often
covers up the mouth of the hole, that her retreat may not be
discovered. The tame Rabbit is of various colours, and is somewhat
larger than the wild Rabbit; but its flesh is not so good, being softer
and more insipid. Its food is generally cabbage leaves, colewort,
blades of corn, sourdock, and other moist plants; but sweet short
hay, and a little clean oats, make the best diet.
THE SQUIRREL.

THE SQUIRREL.
This beautiful little creature is of a bright brown colour, inclined to
red; the breast and belly are white; the ears are ornamented with
long tufts of hair; the eyes are large, black, and lively; the fore teeth
strong and sharp; and the fore legs are curiously furnished with long
stiff hairs, which project on each side like whiskers. When it eats, it
sits upright, and uses its fore feet as hands to convey food to its
mouth. It is equally admired for its neatness and elegance of form,
as for its liveliness and activity. Its disposition is gentle and
harmless. Though naturally wild, and very timid, it is easily taught to
receive with freedom the most familiar caresses from the hand that
feeds it. It usually lives in woods, and makes its nest of moss or dry
leaves in the hollow of trees. It seldom descends upon the ground,
but leaps from tree to tree with great agility. Its food consists of
fruits, almonds, nuts, and acorns; of which it collects great stores for
winter provision, and secures them carefully near its nest. In the
summer it feeds on buds and young shoots, and is very fond of the
cones or apples of the fur and pine trees. The tail of the Squirrel is
its greatest ornament, and serves as a defence from the cold, being
large enough to cover the whole body; it likewise assists it in leaping
from one tree to another.
 THE DORMOUSE.

This animal is very much like the common mouse. Its colour is a
tawny red, the throat white, the tail tufted. When it is thirsty it does
not lap, but dips its fore feet, with the toes bent, into the water, and
drinks from them. In the summer this curious little creature is very
industrious, laying up its provision for the winter, which consists of
nuts, beans, and acorns. As soon as the cold weather approaches, it
rolls itself up into a ball, with its tail curled over its head between its
ears, and continues in that state till the warm weather comes again.
 THE DORMOUSE.

Dormice build their nests either in the hollows of trees, or near the
bottom of thick shrubs, and line them with moss, soft birchens, and
dried leaves. Conscious of the length of time they have to pass in
their solitary cells, they are very choice of the materials they make
use of.
 THE RAT.

THE RAT.

There are two kinds known in this country—the Black Rat, which was
formerly universal, but is now very rarely seen, having been almost
all destroyed by the large brown kind, generally distinguished by the
name of the Norway Rat. This formidable invader is now found
throughout the country, from whence every method has been tried
in vain to expel it. It is about nine inches long; of a light brown
colour, the throat and under part of a dirty white inclining to grey; its
feet are naked, and of a pale flesh colour; and the tail is as long as
the body. It is a very bold little animal, and when closely pursued,
will turn and fasten on its assailant. Its bite is keen, and the wound
it inflicts is painful, and difficult to heal, owing to the form of its
teeth, which are long, sharp, and irregular. It is a very singular fact
in the history of these animals, that the skins of such as have been
devoured in their holes, (and they frequently feed upon each other,)
have been found curiously turned inside out; every part being
completely turned, even to the ends of the toes. How the operation
is performed, it would be difficult to discover; but it appears to be
effected by some peculiar mode of eating out the contents. Besides
the numbers that perish in this unnatural way, they have many fierce
and terrible enemies that take every opportunity to destroy them.
THE WATER RAT.

THE WATER RAT.

The Water Rat is somewhat smaller than the common brown Rat; its
head and nose are thicker; its eyes are small; its ears short, scarcely
appearing through the hair; its teeth are large, strong and yellow. In
an old one, the lower front teeth measure somewhat more than half
an inch in length. The hair on its head and body is thicker and
longer than that of the common Rat, and chiefly of a dark brown
colour, mixed with red; the belly is grey; the tail five inches long,
covered with short black hairs, and the tip of the tail is white. The
Water Rat generally frequents the sides of rivers, ponds, and
ditches, where it burrows, and forms its nest. It feeds on frogs,
small fish, and spawn; swims and dives remarkably fast; and can
continue a long time under water.
The Musk Rat somewhat resembles the one just described. The
eyes are large; the ears short, rounded, and covered both inside and
outside with hair. Its fur is soft, glossy, and of a reddish-brown
colour; and beneath this is a much finer fur or thick down, which is
very useful in the manufacture of hats. The tail is flattened and
covered with scales.
 THE MOUSE.

THE MOUSE.

This little creature we all know, because it eats our cheese, and tries
all the good things in the larder, we keep a cat to catch it: yet it is
very pretty. It hides itself in the walls and under the floors; and in
these places it sometimes lays up a considerable store of provision
for future subsistence. Its food is various; and, as it is able to pass
through a very small hole, there are few places secure from its
approach. It seems a constant attendant on man, and is to be found
only near his dwelling. Its sight and hearing are extremely acute:
and as soon as it observes the least motion, or hears the slightest
noise, it listens attentively, sitting erect on its hinder feet; and, if the
alarm continues, it runs in haste to its retreat. But if it be gradually
encouraged, and nourishment and security are offered, it will, by
degrees, lose those fears. An instance is related of a Mouse that
made its appearance every day at the table of its benefactor, and
there waited until it had received its usual portion of food, which it
devoured, and then ran away. Some few of this species are of a pure
white colour; but whether they be a permanent kind, or only an
accidental variety, cannot well be determined.
 THE MOLE.

THE MOLE.

This animal is mostly found in grounds where the soil is loose and
soft, and affords the greatest quantity of worms and insects, on
which it feeds. Destined to seek its food under the surface of the
earth, it is wonderfully adapted by the all-wise Author of Nature, to
its peculiar mode of living. It enjoys the sense of hearing and
smelling in a very eminent degree: but is almost void of sight. To an
animal of such habits, a larger degree of sight would be attended
with great inconvenience, as well as be liable to continual injuries.
Its eyes are extremely small, and completely hid in the fur. The form
of this creature’s body, and particularly the construction of its fore
feet, are admirably adapted to the purpose of making its way in the
earth, which it does with wonderful ease: these feet are quite naked,
very broad, with large palms, almost like a hand: there are five toes
on each, with strong nails at the end. The hind feet are very small,
with five slender toes and a small thumb on the inside. Whenever
surprised on the surface of the ground, the mole disappears in an
instant.
 THE HEDGEHOG.

THE HEDGEHOG.

The Hedgehog generally resides in small thickets and hedges; lives

on fruits, worms, beetles, and all kinds of insects; it conceals itself in
the day, and feeds only during the night. This animal is provided by
nature with a prickly armour, which defends it from the attacks of all
the smaller beasts of prey. When alarmed, it immediately collects
itself into the form of a ball, and presents on all sides a surface
covered with sharp points, which few animals are hardy enough to
engage. The more it is harassed, the closer it rolls itself. There are
few dogs that will venture to attack the Hedgehog. This little animal
has been so far domesticated as to learn to turn a spit by means of
a small wheel in which it is placed; it likewise answered to its name.
In the winter, it wraps itself up in a warm nest, made of moss, dried
grass, and leaves; and sleeps out the greater part of that season. It
is frequently found so completely encircled with herbage that it
resembles a ball of dried leaves.
 THE BAT.

This curious animal appears at first sight to be a bird, but it has

nothing in common with them, but the power of raising itself into
the air. The common species of this animal is about the size of a
mouse, or nearly two inches and a half in length: the wings are in
fact an extension of the skin all round the body; it is stretched on
every side when the animal flies, by the four inner toes of the fore
feet, which are very long.

THE BAT.

The body of the Bat is covered with a short fur, of a mouse colour,
tinged with red; the eyes are very small, and the ears like those of a
mouse.