External Flows

Viscous Laminar Flows – Lesson 1

External Flow Past an Object
• External flow refers to a situation where the fluid flows around a body immersed in it
(or a moving object in a stationary fluid).
• Such bodies experience forces due to the interaction between the object and the
surrounding fluid.

Streamlines showing the air flow a bullet train shape Streamlines showing the air flow
around an American football
Fluid Forces on Object in External Flow
• The fluid flow force exerted on an object has two distinct contributions from pressure
and shear stresses:
‐ Pressure acts inward and normal to the surfaces of the object.
‐ Viscous shear stresses due to viscous friction act tangentially to the surface.
‐ When integrated over the entire surface, pressure and shear stresses are reduced to two global
force contributors: pressure force, 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 , and viscous force, 𝐹Ԧ𝑣 .
‐ Pressure and viscous force are then summed up into the total fluid force acting on the object,
𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑣 .
𝐩<𝟎
𝛕𝐰

𝐕∞ 𝐕∞
𝐩>𝟎

𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = ඾ 𝑝𝑛ො 𝑑𝐴 𝐹Ԧ𝑣 = ඾ 𝜏Ӗ ∙ 𝑛ො 𝑑𝐴

𝐴 𝐴
Lift and Drag - Basic Concepts

• In fluid dynamics, it is customary to represent the

total fluid force acting on an object in terms of its
drag and lift force components
‐ The drag force 𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 (or simply drag) acts in the direction
of the motion of the fluid relative to the object.
‐ The lift force 𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 (or simply lift) acts normal to the flow Forces acting on an aircraft
direction, and is opposite to the gravitational force
• Lift and drag are commonly scaled by:
where 𝐴 is the reference area
𝜌𝑉∞2
𝐴
2
• Thus giving their non-dimensional values called lift
and drag coefficients:
Lift coefficient Drag coefficient

𝜌𝑉∞2 𝜌𝑉∞2
𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿 𝐴 𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
2 2
Lift
• Lift is produced by generating a difference in the pressure distribution on the top and
bottom surfaces of the object.
• Lift force acts in the direction normal to the free-stream fluid motion.
• The lift on an object is influenced primarily by its shape, with secondary influences
including the Reynolds number, the Mach number (in compressible flows), the
Froude number (if free surface is present, e. g., hydrofoil) and the surface roughness.
• The pressure imbalance, and hence the lift force, can be increased by changing the
angle of attack of the object such as an airfoil, or by having a non-symmetrical shape.
• Unlike drag, lift force can be zero.
‐ e.g – Bodies that are symmetric about the flow direction
Lift – NACA-0012
Angle of attack = 0 Angle of attack = 12

CL Vs α
2
Stall
1.5

CL
1

0.5

Pressure contours 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Angle of Attack α
• Lift force increases with angle of
attack until a limit at which the
boundary layer on the upper
surface separates with a
corresponding drop in lift and an
increase in drag. This condition is
Surface pressure distributions on the airfoil
known as stall.
Drag
• The drag force has both pressure and shear force contributions.
‐ The tangential shear stresses acting on the object produce friction drag (or viscous drag). Friction
drag is dominant in flow past a flat plate or airfoil.
‐ Pressure or form drag results from the normal (pressure) stress and becomes more important in
flows past bluff bodies.

Flow around a bluff body – Pressure drag > Viscous drag Flow around a streamlined body – Viscous drag > Pressure drag
• In general, drag is influenced by the shape of the object, the Reynolds number of the
flow and the surface roughness.
• The drag on an object is always non-zero in viscous flow.
Analytical Modeling Process
• Next, we will discuss an analytical solution to a creeping laminar flow over a sphere.
• Exact solutions provide a good overview of the modeling process.
• The process is as follows:
‐ Define the physical problem exactly
‐ Apply reasonable simplifying assumptions
‐ Reduce the equations according to the simplifications
‐ Solve the equations with standard mathematical methods, usually solving a simplified differential
equation
‐ Examine the solution to see what the mathematics tells us about the physics
Stokes Solution for Low Re Laminar Flow Over a Sphere
• Even at low Reynolds numbers in the laminar flow regime, very few analytical
solutions exist for external flows.
• One such solution was derived by Stokes in 1851.
• The main assumptions behind the Stokes derivations are:
‐ The flow is incompressible,
‐ Re ≪ 1 implying the viscous terms in the Navier-Stokes equations dominate over the inertial terms,
‐ Body forces are neglected.
• Flows under these assumptions are called creeping flows.
• Starting with the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations:

∇∙𝑉 =0 Continuity
𝜕𝑉
𝜌 + 𝑉 ∙ ∇𝑉 = −∇𝑝 + 𝜇 ∇2 𝑉 Momentum
𝜕𝑡
Stokes Solution for Creeping Laminar Flow Over a Sphere (cont.)
• Under the assumption of Re ≪ 1, the inertial term can be dropped from the
momentum equation:
𝜕𝑉
𝜌 + 𝑉 ∙ ∇𝑉 = −∇𝑝 + 𝜇 ∇2 𝑉
𝜕𝑡
• and the equations reduce to:
∇∙𝑉 =0
∇𝑝 = 𝜇 ∇2 𝑉 𝑉
• This set of governing equations can be solved analytically for the flow over a sphere of
radius “a” in spherical coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑) where the dependence on the azimuthal
angle 𝜑 can be ignored.
• Appropriate boundary conditions are:
‐ No-slip boundary condition at the wall, 𝑉 𝑎 = 0
‐ Velocity tends to prescribed free-stream velocity at infinity: 𝑉 → 𝑢∞ 𝑒Ƹ𝑧 = 𝑢∞ cos𝜃 𝑒Ƹ𝑟 − 𝑢∞ sin𝜃 𝑒Ƹ𝜃
 Stokes Solution for Creeping Laminar Flow Over a Sphere (cont.)
• The velocity components in spherical coordinates, 𝑢𝑟 and 𝑢𝜃 can be expressed in
terms of Stokes Stream function:
1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓
𝑢𝑟 = 2 𝑢𝜃 = −
𝑟 sin𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin𝜃 𝜕𝑟
• They satisfy the continuity equation and reduce the momentum equation to:
2
𝜕2 1 𝜕2 cos𝜃 𝜕
+ − 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 sin𝜃 𝜕𝜃
• Which can be solved by decomposing the variables in 𝜓 as:
𝜓 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑟 sin2 𝜃

• The boundary conditions for 𝜓 become:

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 1
= = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝜓 → 𝑢∞ 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 + const 𝑎𝑠 𝑟 → ∞
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2
Stokes Solution for Creeping Laminar Flow Over a Sphere (cont.)

• Solving for 𝜓 and applying boundary conditions to determine constants which arose
during integration gives the final solution:

1 𝑎 3𝑟 2𝑟 2
𝜓 = 𝑢∞ 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − + 2
4 𝑟 𝑎 𝑎

𝑎3 3𝑎 𝑎3 3𝑎
𝑉 = 𝑢∞ cos𝜃 1 + 3 − 𝑒Ƹ𝑟 + 𝑢∞ sin𝜃 −1 + 3 + 𝑒Ƹ𝜃
2𝑟 2𝑟 4𝑟 4𝑟

3𝑎 𝜇 𝑢∞
𝑝 = 𝑝∞ − cos𝜃
2𝑟 2
Stokes Solution for Creeping Laminar Flow Over a Sphere (cont.)
• To find the drag D on the sphere, we integrate pressure and tangential viscous shear
stress component 𝜏𝑟𝜃 over its surface, where 𝜏𝑟𝜃 is given by:

𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝑉𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 3 𝑎3
𝜏𝑟𝜃 =𝜇 − + = −𝜇 𝑢∞ 3 sin𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟
• Thus:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝐷 = 𝑎2 න න −𝑝 cos𝜃 − 𝜏𝑟𝜃 sin𝜃 sin𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑 = 2𝜋𝜇𝑢∞ 𝑎 + 4𝜋𝜇𝑢∞ 𝑎
0 0
pressure viscous
drag drag

𝐷 = 6𝜋𝜇𝑢∞ 𝑎 Stokes drag formula

• Expressing drag in terms of the non-dimensional drag coefficient gives:

2𝐷 24 2𝑎𝜌𝑢∞
𝐶𝐷 = 2 𝜋𝑎 2 = where 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑅𝑒 𝜇
Remarks about the Stokes Solution
• The Stokes solution has several outstanding properties:
‐ Streamlines and velocities are independent of viscosity, which is common for creeping flows where
the boundary conditions involve only the velocity field.
‐ The streamlines show upstream-and-downstream symmetry, and there is no wake present, which is
the consequence of dropping inertia terms.
‐ The local velocity is lower than its freestream value everywhere, and it recovers 𝑢∞ only in the limit 𝑟
→ ∞.
‐ The effect of the sphere on the flow is not limited to the local region, and it extends to the far-field.

u∞

Streamlines around a sphere

• In two dimensions a solution satisfying all boundary condition under the Stokes approximation cannot be
found. This is the so called Stokes Paradox which again is the result of neglecting inertial terms.
Remarks about the Stokes Solution (cont.)
• Upon examining streamlines of the Stokes solution in the reference frame of the sphere with those
from the potential flow solution, a remarkable difference is observed:
‐ Sphere motion in the potential flow shows circulating streamlines, which indicates it simply pushes the fluid
out of its way.
‐ On the other hand, sphere motion in creeping Stokes flow drags the entire flow field with it, and recirculation
is absent.

u∞ u∞

Stokes flow Potential flow

Oseen’s Approximation for Low Re Laminar Flows
• To overcome the Stokes paradox and extend the validity of the Stokes solution to 2D
flows, Oseen (1910) reasoned that away from the sphere the disturbance is small,
and the Navier-Stokes equations can be linearized into the following form:

∇∙𝑉 =0 Continuity

𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝑢∞ = −∇𝑝 + 𝜇 ∇2 𝑉 Momentum
𝜕𝑥
• Note the linearized convective term which is absent in the Stoke formulation.
• The boundary conditions are:
‐ 𝑢∞ 𝑒Ƹ𝑧 + 𝑉 = 0 at 𝑟 = 𝑎
‐ 𝑝 → 0 and 𝑉 → 0 as 𝑟 → ∞

• These linear equations can be solved for a variety of flows, as discussed in the original
texts by Oseen (1927).
Oseen’s Approximation for Low Re Laminar Flows (cont.)
• The Oseen solution for the drag on a sphere add an additional terms to the Stoke’s
drag formula:
24 3
𝐶𝐷 = 1+ 𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒 16

• The Oseen solution for the drag on a cylinder is:

8𝜋
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒[0.5 − Γ + ln 8/𝑅𝑒 ]

where Γ = 0.577216 is Euler ′ s constant

• When comparing with experimental data, the Oseen solution is not valid for Re > 1.
Final Remarks
• Our analysis of creeping flows was important in one more aspect. It highlighted the
fact that very few external viscous flows can be examined by means of analytical
solutions, and despite simplifying approximations, derivations of these solutions is
mathematically involved.
• The validity of the analytical solutions is limited to small values of Reynolds number,
Re < 1.
• Very few flows of interest are represented by this Reynolds number range, and an
overwhelming majority of practical flows correspond to orders of magnitude higher
Re.
• While purely analytical solutions for higher Reynolds numbers are not possible,
there are practical approximations, such as the boundary layer theory, which can
provide analytical or semi-empirical tools for analyzing high-Re flows.
• Discussion of such approaches is beyond the scope of this introductory course.
Summary
• In this lesson we:
‐ Examined fluid forces acting on bodies in external fluid flows
‐ Introduced concepts of lift and drag forces, and their non-dimensional coefficients
‐ Described two analytical solutions to creeping flows for very low Reynolds numbers: Stokes solution
for a flow over a sphere, and Oseen’s improvement to the Stokes formulation
‐ Discussed the limitations of exact solutions of viscous flows
• Next, we will cover internal viscous flows, but limit our discussion to flow regimes
where analytical solutions to classical internal problems are possible.
• DECEMBER 2019

Internal Flows

Viscous Laminar Flows – Lesson 2

Internal Flow - What Do We Want to Know?
• Internal flows are seen anywhere a fluid is
transported from one point to another.
• Applications of internal flow analysis are
numerous – pipes, ducts – literally any confined
space!
‐ Example – water transport from municipal water
source to your home
• As the flow travels though the internal
passages, energy is lost due to viscous effects
and turbulence.
• Viscous forces affect the entire internal flow
‐ Unlike external flows, where the forces are dominant
only near the walls and can be ignored farther away
from the object

2
Flow Geometries
SIMPLE COMPLEX
• Internal flow geometries can
range from simple to complex
‐ Straight pipe or duct
‐ Pipes and ducts with simple bends
‐ Complex internal passages with
obstructions and restrictions
‐ Manifolds
‐ Complex internal flow network
(parallel-serial passages, obstructions, Basic piping components Flow of blood inside
etc.) human body

3
Intro

• In this lesson we will discuss possible analytical approaches to solving selected

internal viscous flows under simplifying assumptions:
‐ Couette flows in channels with moving walls
‐ Poiseuille flows through ducts and pipes

• We will see that, unlike external viscous flows, the validity of analytical solutions for
internal flows extends to the entire laminar range, thus making them useful analysis
tools.

4
Couette Flows

• Couette flows are named after M. Couette (1890) who experimentally investigated the flow between
fixed and moving concentric cylinders.
• Here we will consider three examples of Couette flows:
‐ Steady flow between two moving plates
‐ Flow between axially moving concentric cylinders
‐ Flow between rotating concentric cylinders

• We will also discuss the range of Reynolds numbers where derived analytical solutions for Couette
flows are valid.

5
Couette Flow between Two Moving Plates
• Consider steady 2D flow of a viscous fluid between two infinite parallel plates
which are 2h apart, with the bottom plate moving at 𝑈0 and the top plate
moving at 𝑈1 . We assume the flow is laminar with a viscosity 𝜇.

• The Navier-Stokes equations reduce to:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 0 continuity , 𝜇 2 = 0 (x − momentum)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• Continuity confirms that the velocity is a function of 𝑦 only.

• Boundary conditions are: 𝑢 −ℎ = 𝑈0 , 𝑢 ℎ = 𝑈1

• Integrating the momentum equation twice gives the linear solution:

𝑢 = 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2
• Evaluating the constants according to the boundary conditions yields the
general solution independent of fluid properties:
𝑦 1
𝑢 𝑦 =− 𝑈0 − 𝑈1 + 𝑈0 + 𝑈1
2ℎ 2 Velocity profile for 𝑼𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝑼𝟏 = 𝟏 𝐦/𝐬

6
Couette Flow between Two Moving Plates – Shear Stress
• Since the velocity profile is linear, the shear stress is a constant throughout the flow:

𝜕𝑢 𝜇
𝜏=𝜇 = 𝑈 − 𝑈0
𝜕𝑦 2ℎ 1
• Thus the friction force is directly proportional to the velocity difference and viscosity and inversely proportional
to the plate distance.
• In engineering applications, the shear stress is usually expressed in terms of a non-dimensional friction
coefficient: 𝜏 𝜇 1
𝐶𝑓 = 1 = =
2𝜌 𝑈1 −𝑈0
2 𝜌 𝑈1 − 𝑈0 ℎ 𝑅𝑒ℎ

• For developed internal laminar channel flows, Poiseuille number, defined as a product of the friction coefficient
and Reynolds number, is commonly used as a convenient non-dimensional parameter:
𝑃𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝑅𝑒ℎ
• For any 2D Couette flow, the Poiseuille number is unity:
𝑃𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝑅𝑒ℎ =1

7
Couette Flow Between Axially Moving Concentric Cylinders
• Consider steady axisymmetric flow of a viscous fluid between two long concentric cylinders.
• Either the inner (𝑟 = 𝑅0 ) cylinder moves axially at 𝑈0 ,or the outer (𝑟 = 𝑅1 ) cylinder moves axially at
𝑈1 .

• The flow is assumed to be laminar with a viscosity 𝜇.

• With radial and azimuthal velocities equal to zero, and the
axial component being a function of radial distance only, 𝑅1
the continuity equation is satisfied identically, and the
axial momentum equation reduces to:
1𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝑅0
𝑟 =0 𝑥
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

• The solution of this equation is:

𝑢 𝑟 = 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶1

8
Couette Flow Between Axially Moving Concentric Cylinders (cont.)
• The constants 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are determined from the boundary conditions on cylinder walls, and the
solution becomes:
ln(𝑅1 Τ𝑟) −𝜇𝑈0 Case of inner cylinder moving
𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑈0 , 𝜏=
ln(𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 ) 𝑟 ln(𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 )

ln(𝑟Τ𝑅0 ) 𝜇𝑈1 Case of outer cylinder moving

𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑈1 , 𝜏=
ln(𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 ) 𝑟 ln(𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 )

outer cylinder wall

outer cylinder
moving

Velocity distributions

inner cylinder
moving

inner cylinder wall

9
Couette Flow Between Rotating Concentric Cylinders
• Consider steady flow of a viscous fluid between two rotating concentric cylinders.

• The inner (𝑟 = 𝑅0 ) cylinder rotates with the angular velocity 𝜔0 ,and the outer (𝑟 = 𝑅1 ) rotates with 𝜔1 .

• The flow is assumed to be laminar with a viscosity 𝜇.

• Only the azimuthal velocity 𝑢𝜑 (𝑟) is non-zero, thus the continuity equation
𝑅1
is satisfied identically, and the momentum equations reduce to:

2
𝑑𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝜑 𝑟 momentum
= 𝑅0
𝑑𝑟 𝑟

𝑑 2 𝑢𝜑 𝑑 𝑢𝜑
+ =0 𝜑 momentum
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑟

At 𝑟 = 𝑅0 : 𝑢𝜑 = 𝑅0 𝜔0
• Boundary conditions are:

At 𝑟 = 𝑅1 : 𝑢𝜑 = 𝑅1 𝜔1 , 𝑝 = 𝑝1

10
Couette Flow Between Rotating Concentric Cylinders (cont.)

• The solution of the 𝜑 momentum equation is:

𝐶2
𝑢𝜑 = 𝐶1 𝑟 +
𝑟
solid body “potential”
rotation vortex
• The constants 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are determined from the boundary condition, and the final azimuthal velocity is given
by the sum of inner- and outer-driven flows:

𝑅1 Τ𝑟 − 𝑟Τ𝑅1 𝑟Τ𝑅0 − 𝑅0 Τ𝑟
𝑢𝜑 = 𝑅0 𝜔0 + 𝑅1 𝜔1
𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 − 𝑅0 Τ𝑅1 𝑅1 Τ𝑅0 − 𝑅0 Τ𝑅1
The pressure is expressed as:

𝑟 2 𝐶2
2 𝜔1 𝑅12 − 𝜔0 𝑅02 (𝜔1 −𝜔0 ) 𝑅02 𝑅12
𝑝 = 𝜌 𝐶12 + 2𝐶1 𝐶2 ln 𝑟 − 2 + 𝐶3 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 =
2 2𝑟 𝑅12 − 𝑅02 𝑅12 − 𝑅02

where the remaining constant 𝐶3 can be found from the boundary condition for pressure.

11
Couette Flow Between Rotating Concentric Cylinders (cont.)
• The viscous shear stress on the inner cylinder wall is:

𝑟𝜕(𝑢𝜑 Τ𝑟) (𝜔0 −𝜔1 ) 𝑅12

𝜏=𝜇 = −2𝜇
𝜕𝑟 𝑅12 − 𝑅02

• The torque (or moment of force) per unit length L on the inner cylinder then can be found as:

𝜏 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 𝑎 2
𝑅12 𝑅22
𝑇𝑞 = = 2𝜋𝑎 𝜏 = 4𝜋𝜇 2 (𝜔 −𝜔0 )
𝐿 𝑅1 − 𝑅02 1

• Similarly, the torque on the outer cylinder is given by:

𝑅12 𝑅22
𝑇𝑞 = −4𝜋𝜇 2 (𝜔1 −𝜔0 )
𝑅1 − 𝑅02

• These expressions for torque are valid only if the flow remains entirely circumferential.

12
Couette Flow Between Rotating Cylinders – Viscosity
Measurements
• Couette flow between rotating concentric cylinders has one practical application in
experimental measurements of fluid viscosity.
• Knowing the angular velocity of the outer cylinder, and the torque on the inner
cylinder, the viscosity can be determined as:

𝑅12 − 𝑅02
𝜇 = 𝑇𝑞
4𝜋𝜔1 𝑅02 𝑅12 𝐿

13
Couette Flow Between Rotating Cylinders – Special Cases
• If no inner cylinder is present (𝑅0 = 0, 𝜔0 = 0), the solution reduces to:

𝑢𝜑 = 𝜔1 𝑟

which corresponds to the fluid rotating as a solid body

• If the outer cylinder becomes infinitely large and remains stationary (𝑅1 → ∞, 𝜔1 = 0), the solution becomes a
potential vortex driven by the no-slip condition:

𝑅02 𝜔0
𝑢𝜑 =
𝑟
• Another special case is a very small clearance between the cylinders, (𝑅1 − 𝑅0 ≪ 𝑅0 ). Assuming the outer
cylinder stationary, the solution becomes:

𝑢𝜑 𝑟 − 𝑅0
=1−
𝑅0 𝑟 𝑅1 − 𝑅0
which is nothing more but the Couette flow between parallel plates. This
basic behavior is seen in fluid journal bearings, where two surfaces move
relative to each other with a thin layer of fluid in between.

14
Poiseuille Flows
• Poiseuille flows are named after Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille (1838) who experimentally
investigated the flow through a drinking straw and hypodermic needles.
• Independently, Gotthilf Hagen, carried out similar investigations at around the same time.
• The theory of the Poiseuille law was published by George Stokes in 1845.
• Here we will consider two examples of Poiseuille flows:
‐ Steady two-dimensional flow between two plates
‐ Steady axisymmetric flow in a circular pipe

• We will also discuss the range of Reynolds numbers where derived analytical solution for Poiseuille
flows are valid.

15
2D Poiseuille Flow
• Consider now steady, laminar flow in a 2D planar channel.

• The flow is driven by upstream pressure such that a constant

mean velocity exists.

• Furthermore, the axial velocity gradients and y velocity are

found to asymptotically diminish to zero. This is called a fully-
developed flow condition. ℎ
𝑦
• The governing equations in this case are:
𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑝
=0 − +𝜇 2 =0 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
(continuity) x − momentum (y − momentum)

• Boundary conditions are:

𝑢 0 =𝑢 ℎ =0

16
2D Poiseuille Flow (cont.)
• Like Couette flow, the velocity is a function of 𝑦 alone.

• However, the pressure is a function of 𝑥 alone (constant in 𝑦).

Thus, the momentum equations imply that the axial pressure
gradient must be a constant.

• To obtain a unique solution, we thus need to define the axial

pressure gradient, which in turn will define the mean velocity
(i. e. the mass flow rate through the channel).

• Couette flow model, except its velocity profile is parabolic:

1 𝑑𝑝 𝑦
𝑢 𝑦 = − ℎ−𝑦
𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2

• Note that in order for 𝑢(𝑦) to be positive, the pressure

gradient is taken with the negative sign. Velocity profile for 𝐊 = −𝟏𝟎, 𝐡 = 𝟏 𝐦

17
2D Poiseuille Flow (cont.)
• The wall shear stress is given by: 𝑑𝑢 ℎ 𝑑𝑝
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 − = −
𝑑𝑦 𝑤
2 𝑑𝑥

• The shear stress inside the fluid varies linearly as:

𝑑𝑝 ℎ
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = − −𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

• The maximum velocity is found to occur in the channel center (ℎ/2):

ℎ2 𝑑𝑝
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥

• The volume flow rate 𝑄ሶ per unit depth is:

ℎ
ℎ3 𝑑𝑝
𝑄ሶ = න 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = −
0 12𝜇 𝑑𝑥

𝑄ሶ ℎ2 𝑑𝑝
• The mean velocity is then: 𝑢ത = = −
ℎ 12𝜇 𝑑𝑥

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Axisymmetric Hagen-Poiseuille Flow (Round Pipe - cont.)
• A similar problem to the parallel plate channel flow is fully
developed flow in a round pipe. The flow is axisymmetric
(circumferential flow gradients are zero).
• Assuming fully developed conditions as before, the Navier-
Stokes equations in cylindrical-polar form can be written as:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 1𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝
=0 − +𝜇 𝑟 =0 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
(continuity) x − momentum (r − momentum)

• Boundary condition: 𝑢 𝑅 =0

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Axisymmetric Hagen-Poiseuille Flow (Round Pipe – cont.)
• Once again, the axial pressure gradient is a constant,
leading to a simple differential equation for 𝑢(𝑟) based on
the 𝑥 momentum equation. The solution of this equation
is:
𝑑𝑝Τ𝑑𝑥 2
𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶2
4𝜇

• Since the velocity must be finite at the centerline, 𝐶1 = 0.

Evaluating 𝐶2 based on the no slip boundary condition at
𝑟 = 𝑅 yields:
𝑑𝑝Τ𝑑𝑥 2
𝑢 𝑟 =− 𝑅 − 𝑟2
4𝜇

• This solution is a paraboloid of revolution about the

centerline, called a Poiseuille paraboloid.
Velocity profile for 𝐊 = −𝟏𝟎, 𝐑 = 𝟏 𝐦
• Again note that the pressure gradient must be negative in
order for the velocity to be positive.

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Axisymmetric Hagen-Poiseuille Flow (Round Pipe – cont.)
• The maximum velocity is again found to occur at the pipe center (𝑟 = 0) and is given
by:
𝑅2 𝑑𝑝
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥

• The volumetric flow rate through the pipe can be found by integrating 𝑢(𝑟) over the
pipe cross-section:
𝑅
𝜋𝑅4 𝑑𝑝
𝑄ሶ = 2𝜋 න 𝑢(𝑟) 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = −
0 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥

• The mean velocity is then:

𝑄ሶ 𝑅2 𝑑𝑝 1
𝑢ത = = − = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜋𝑅2 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2

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Axisymmetric Hagen-Poiseuille Flow (Round Pipe – cont.)
• For pipe flows, we can correlate the pressure drop to the
Reynolds number using the Darcy friction factor, 𝑓
𝑓 𝑢ത 2
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜌
4 2
• From the pipe flow solution we find
𝜕𝑢 𝑅 𝑑𝑝
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 = −
𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
2 𝑑𝑥
• Combining the above, we obtain the classic friction factor
formula for laminar flow in round pipes:
64 𝜌𝑢ത 𝐷
𝑓= 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = The analytical solution is in excellent agreement
𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝜇
with experimental data for laminar pipe flow.
16
• The skin frictions coefficient is: 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅𝑒𝐷

• and the Poiseuille number: 𝑃𝑜 = 𝐶𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 16

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Validity of Couette and Poiseuille Flow Solutions
• Couette and Poiseuille flow solutions discussed in this lesson are valid for laminar flows only.
• In general, Couette flows remain laminar for:
‐ 𝑅𝑒ℎ < 1500 flow between plates
‐ 𝑅𝑒𝑐 < 2000 flow between axially moving cylinders
‐ 𝑇𝑎 < 1700 flow between rotating cylinders
•Here 𝑇𝑎 is the Taylor number which is the ratio of inertial forces due to rotation to viscous forces:
2 2
𝜔0 𝜌
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑅0 𝑅1 − 𝑅0 3 2
𝜇

‐ It can be thought of as the Reynolds number equivalent for rotational flows.

• Poiseuille (pipe) flows are laminar for:

‐ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2000
• This limits the applicability of Couette and Poiseuille solutions to the above range of 𝑅𝑒
• Unlike the exact laminar solutions for external creeping flows, Couette and Poiseuille solutions are still valid for some practical
internal flows, and they can be used in the design process of fluid systems operating as these laminar Reynolds numbers, e. g.
medical applications for intravenous access and fluid delivery.

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Other Poiseuille Flow Solutions
• Analytical Poiseuille solutions can be derived for other shapes of ducts with non-circular
cross-sections:
‐ Rectangle
‐ Ellipse
‐ Concentric annulus
‐ “Half-moon”
‐ Circular sector
‐ Eccentric annulus
‐ Equilateral triangle
‐ Limacon

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Summary

• In this lesson we have considered several common analytical solutions to the Navier-
Stokes equations for internal laminar flows.
• These exact solutions give us some perspective on both the modeling process and
solution approaches.
• For general problems, however, no analytical solutions are possible, and the use of
numerical methods will be required to obtain solutions to those problems.

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