UNIT 1 ROLE OF ENGLISH IN

INDIA – VARIETIES,
STATUS AND FUNCTIONS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Status of English in India
1.3 The Role and Function of English after Independence
1.4 The Needs of Learners of English
1.5 What is the Task of the Teacher?
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 References and Suggested Readings
1.8 Answers

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the status of English in India;
 explain the role and function of English in the context of a multicultural
society;
 appreciate the need for teaching English in the light of its role and function
in India in the present;
 identify the needs of the English language teaching learning in your classroom;
and

 define your role as an English language teacher in a multilingual classroom.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will examine some language issues which are often discussed
and debated as being of importance for teachers. Many of these issues are
related to the status of the English language in India. The English language in
India is associated with the history of British rule in India, but new factors have
emerged in the post-independence era. For example, there have been concerns
with the relationship of English with other Indian languages. The role of English
has itself been changing with changes in the social, cultural and educational needs
of Indian people. It functions in several ways as a language of communication
and of education, between people within India and at the international level.
It is of benefit to teachers to understand that English co-exists with other Indian
languages, each having its importance in this multilingual and multicultural society.
This awareness will help you in the teaching of English and will also be helpful
to your students in the formation of their language attitudes.
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English and its Varieties
1.2 THE STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA
Languages such as Portugese, French and English came to India through traders
since the fifteenth century. English became dominant after decisive battles against
the French were won. However, it was the Christian missionaries who influenced
the spread of English beginning from the eighteenth century and this played a
seminal role in establishing English in India.
Missionary education had already begun in many parts of the world. The schools
and colleges set up by the missionaries in India made English the medium of
instruction, chiefly to aid the propagation of Christian religion. Their model of
education began to be favoured as it was associated with discipline and
dedication, and the English language itself began to be associated with values,
manners and intelligence. It did succeed in producing educated Indians who
were proficient in English and who went on to contribute greatly in education,
public affairs and even in the long struggle for freedom from British rule. Thus,
education in English became a cornerstone of Indian education and a gateway
to progress.
However, the achievements of missionary education in spreading English also
succeeded in creating an elite class of Indians who were seen to be more
privileged by virtue of their English education. One of the first English schools
established in Tanjore in 1785 was sponsored by the Raja of Tanjore. Other
princes also agreed to the opening of English medium schools in around 1800
by missionary groups such as Baptists in Madras, and Jesuits in Calcutta, and
by the Church Missionary Society at Burdwan and Mirzapur. English education
also supported the aim of British colonialism to spread western knowledge and
values in India, as they perceived Indians to be superstitious, ignorant and lacking
in moral values. English language and literature were considered to be vital
carriers of modern values and knowledge and therefore essential for education,
while Indian languages and literatures were to be excluded. By the early 19th
century, these ideas had become part of a firm policy and many educated Indians
were also convinced that English would open up to them the world of scientific
knowledge and social progress.
Macaulay put forward these ideas in the form of policies, in the well known
Minutes on Education in the British Parliament in 1835. Macaulay wanted to
create a class of persons ‘Indian in blood and colour, but English in opinions,
in morals and in intellect’ who would help the British rulers maintain contact
with the rest of India, teach them the value of British ideas as well as help
in modernizing Indian languages and dialects. Before Macaulay, Raja Ram
Mohan Roy in 1823 recommended the use of English in India. By the middle
of the 19th century, English had replaced Persian as the court language. This
led to widening the gap between the upper class elite who were English educated
and the lower class with whom the ‘vernacular’ languages were associated.
The high status of English was firmly consolidated. English became essential
for the scholar, the job seeker and the affluent in Indian society (Sinha, 1978).
English literature also began to be taught and became highly prestigious. It was
considered that the literary ‘canon’ consisting of English writers such as Chaucer,
Bacon, Milton, Shakespeare, Dryden, Wordsworth etc., was ‘worth all the
literature of the Orient’ (according to Macaulay).
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This is not to say that there was no interest in Indian languages. For Britons Role of English in India –
Varieties, Status and
like William Jones who travelled to India in 1783, “India offered an exciting Functions
treasure trove. Jones “discovered” Sanskrit, and is responsible for establishing
several linguistic links between Sanskrit and other ancient languages such as
Latin, Greek and Persian. His philological studies eventually led to the formulation
of the concept of “Proto Indo-European” as the common source of several
of the world’s languages. Together with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and
Nathaniel Halhed, Jones founded the Asiatic society of Bengal which devoted
itself to the study of Indian languages and literatures. As a result of the recognition
of Indian languages by scholars like Jones, (who were generally referred to
as “Orientalists”) British education policy in India began to provide a modicum
of financial support for the teaching of the classical languages of India. (Kohli,
2017)
However, with the rise of nationalism, some changes were sought to reinstate
Indian languages by establishment of Vidyapeeths in various states. However
English also played a role in the freedom movement, as a medium through
which the educated Indians from all over the country with nationalist interests
used English to argue the cause for Indian independence as well as to
communicate with each other. They spoke eloquently in English and used it with
striking power in the fields of journalism, law and administration. In fact, it
was admitted by the British themselves that Indians spoke ‘purer English than
we speak ourselves, for they take it from the purest models (of English
writers)…such English as is never spoken in England’ (quoted by Krishnaswamy
and Sriraman, 1994).
Many Indian writers had begun to write in English – Swami Vivekananda, Sri
Aurobindo, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rabindranath Tagore and others – to project
Indian history, philosophy and culture. They merged the best of Indian thought
with knowledge from the West. The leaders of the freedom movement could
use English to attack the colonisers. The lines from Shakespeare’s play The
Tempest, spoken by Caliban are often quoted in this context: ‘You taught me
language and my benefit on it is/ I know how to curse’. Novelists and poets
such as Raja Rao, Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan, Sarojini Naidu and several
others had shown the world that Indians could express their thoughts and their
own cultural concerns and identity in English as if it was their own language.
Thus we see that the status of English in the centuries before independence
has been defined in contradictory ways. On one hand, English created class
divisions at social, cultural and economic levels among Indian people. It became
the language associated with privilege and power, and Indian languages suffered
in comparison. In fact, persons who could not have an English education felt
inferior; people felt ashamed if their children spoke in their own languages, and
at school, children were punished if they spoke in their mother tongue. To some
extent, this situation persists even today. On the other hand, English gave
opportunities to Indians to acquire information from the outside world, increase
contact with people from both within the country and abroad, expand their
knowledge base and to create and express new ideas.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Write a brief note on the factors that contributed to the status of English
in India before independence.
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English and its Varieties
1.3 THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF
ENGLISH AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Today we are not so much concerned with establishing that English has a special
status in India, but with a realistic and pragmatic understanding of its role and
functions in the India of the twenty first century with its many languages and
dialects. Let us examine the various twists and turns that have been taken in
this regard over the years after independence.

The debates of the Constituent Assembly held in 1949 clearly indicated the
significance of English in India. It became obvious that Hindi was seen as a
threat by south Indians – a symbol of north Indian supremacy over the south.
On the other hand, those who had fought for years for the dignity of their country
noticed the continuity of the colonial rule in keeping English in India. A
compromise needed to be evolved. The pressures from the most vocal and
elite section of the society were understandably in favour of English, yet English
was not listed in Schedule VIII of the Constitution which included fourteen (now
twenty two) Indian languages: Hindi was declared to be the official language
of the Union and English was given the status of an associate official language
for a period of fifteen years. As the appointed day (26 January 1965) for the
abolition of English approached, there were widespread riots in several part
of south India. The protagonists of Hindi had failed to persuade the people
of India to adopt Hindi as the only official and/or national language. If anything,
they only further antagonized people in different parts of the country. … Nehru
was forced to alleviate the fears of those who did not know Hindi. In a speech
delivered on 7th August, 1959, Nehru assured the people of the non-Hindi-
speaking area that English would continue to be an alternative language as long
as they wish it to be so (Agnihotri and Khanna, pp 29-30).

The absence of agreement on a national language ensured that English would

become a link language between different states of India, each of which had
their own language. It is to be seen that language attitudes in India tend to
be strongly expressed by both the advocates and the critics, as was the case
with the controversy over Hindi.

Various commissions were assigned from time to time to define the policy with
regard to English and the exact role it was required to play in education,
especially in schooling. Different states have varied policies in this regard.
In some states, English is introduced in state schools in class I, because they
believe it should be introduced early to be acquired in a better way; in other
states, it is introduced in Class V, so that the child’s primary education can
take place in the mother tongue. In private schools, English is often the medium
of instruction; there is also the thinking that social studies can be taught in the
regional language, and sciences in English. There are arguments both for and
against each position. When introduced at an early stage, the process of acquiring
English may deter the proper development of the mother tongue of child’s first
language. Also, as pronunciation and speech habits when formed at an early
stage become fixed, the teachers at primary school level need to be really
competent in their own pronunciation. When introduced at a later stage, the
mother tongue may benefit (may, we say, as a lot depends on the way it is
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taught and encouraged), but acquisition of English, particularly good pronunciation Role of English in India –
Varieties, Status and
may become more challenging. But with good materials and the appropriate Functions
teaching methodologies, it can be done.

Even if the mother tongue is the medium of instruction at primary school, higher
studies involves reading and referring to books and journals in English. Thus
English is a library language, through which knowledge in all fields can be
accessed. As the 1966 Report of the Education Commission of India summarized:
‘a student should possess an adequate command of English, be able to express
himself with reasonable ease and felicity, understand lectures in it… English should
be the most useful library language in higher education and our most significant
window on the world’. This definition of the role of English has continued to
be reflected in subsequent statements, even as recently as the knowledge
Commission Report (2009), because, with the growth of computer science and
usage and of international commerce, knowledge of English is even more
important.
One is therefore not surprised that the Government of India proposed a three-
language formula in 1961. It was subsequently modified by the Kothari
Commission (1964-66) seeking to accommodate, as Sridhar (1989:22) says,
the interests of group identity (mother tongues and regional languages), national
pride and unity (Hindi), and administrative efficiency and technological progress
(English). The spirit of the three-language formula was that in the north Indian
(Hindi-speaking) state efforts would be made to teach a language from South,
east or west India as the third language. But most Hindi-speaking states chose
Sanskrit instead. West Bengal and Orissa also chose Sanskrit. There was serious
resentment in the south where people felt that they were being forced to learn
a north Indian language while the reverse was not true … The inevitable reaction
in both the south and the east was to increase the importance of English. Some
states adopted English as their sole official language. Tamilnadu and Mizoram
decided on a two-language policy in their educational system - native language
and English (Agnihotri and Khanna (1997 p. 32).
The three language formula, however, while it privileged the regional language,
did not give any importance to the tribal languages or the dialects spoken by
the marginalized sections of society. The regional languages had a ‘high’ status
for the marginalized while their dialects were considered ‘low’ by the elite and
the powerful.
Many more commissions and surveys have been made, which have mostly
reinforced the position of English, while recognizing that English could not reach
the larger mass of Indian people and that something should be done about it.
There has, therefore, been a considerable thrust towards development of more
effective teaching of English, but in terms of reaching the underprivileged sections
of society these efforts have not had great success. Dalit activists and academics
are now stridently clamoring for the empowerment of the Dalits through the
English language.
Illaiah (2007) asserts, “Within 200 years of its introduction in India it (English)
has become the language of easily about 100 million people. Its expansion in
future will be several folds faster than earlier. It has become a language of day-
to-day use for several million upper middle classes and rich. The poor and
the productive masses have a right to learn the language of administration and
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English and its Varieties global communication”. In 2013, he further says the dalit’s main agenda is not
reservations. My way of equality is English education. Even if 10% of our children
got English education, the intellectual field would have changed. This country
would have changed. My hope is education, not reservation – and I emphasize,
English education.
The importance of English in the job market and for social and economic
opportunities, has affected people’s attitudes towards it – everyone wishes to
be able to speak and write in English, thus leading to the proliferation of private
‘English medium’ schools, private coaching centres, and quick English learning
courses. Attitudes towards English are such that it is also the language of upward
social mobility. Overall, these attitudes to the language are shaped by the roles
and functions it performs in society. The association of English with colonial
role has been deemphasized and its importance as a language of wider
opportunities and global contact is increasingly recognized.
One role that is significant is that of the English language press. Many more
national newspapers and magazines are being published than regional newspapers,
though in recent years regional newspapers have caught up. Another is the
advance of the internet, in which most of the web content is found in English.
This has further widened the function of English as a language for computer
usage. International media and television channels in English are accessible
through satellite television, while even channels in Indian languages mix English
with other languages. Smart phone ‘apps’ are available in English and messaging
in English, with abbreviated ‘SMS’ language is popular. (It is an interesting
phenomenon that words of Hindi and other languages are used by putting them
into Roman script in many instances though we now have Hindi and other
Indian lanugages fonts available.) Social networking, online and face-to-face
business interactions in English have increased. Even in international trade, it
is believed that India’s great asset is the English language by which Indians can
easily participate in the process of globalisation. For all the above reasons,
we can say that the functions of English in different areas of communication
have expanded at all levels – national, international, even personal and social
– from the outer space to inner.
Keeping history aside for the moment, we need to understand that a language
is used to make meaning, and perform complex functions of various kinds. As
the linguist Halliday has explained, when a language is acquired, it has a range
of meaning potential, that is, the many meanings that can be expressed
according to the functions that are to be performed. These functions can be
instrumental (satisfying needs), regulative (getting things done), interactional
(getting on with others), expressive (identifying self), heuristic (asking questions,
finding out), imaginative (creating own world), or informative (telling something
to others). Usually these functions expand as a child acquires its first language.
In the case of acquiring a second language, only some of these functions might
be relevant, while the first language may function in all other respects. For
example, a child in India may use the first language for most functions, and
English only for some. Yet, this may change as time and situations change for
the child. We will discuss in the next section how these functions are related
to the motivation to learn English.
Since language works functionally, and changes as functions expand, the very
nature of English has changed because of its expanded functions in India. Indians
164 mix English with their other languages, creating many new type of words. These
may be considered as ‘hybrids’, as for example ‘goondaism’, ‘policewallah’ etc. Role of English in India –
Varieties, Status and
A variety of English is recognized which is now called ‘Indian English’. It contains Functions
words and sounds used by Indians in English that are clearly different from
English speakers in Britain, or America or other parts of the world. For example,
many expressions such as ‘head clerk’, ‘hill station’, ‘bed tea’ etc., are English
words but are used only by Indians. The cultural and social context of India
has reshaped the English language. English is ‘owned’ by many Indians,
‘adopted’ as well as ‘adapted’. In fact, if we look at English in India today,
we may acknowledge that it is one of the Indian languages now. Though not
of Indian origin, and still indicative of class differences, it is certainly an
‘aspirational’ language in the rapid move towards modernization of Indian people.
Thus, far from being abolished, English has become even more useful, perhaps
even indispensable at this stage. But this does not mean that Indian languages
should be kept away, or diminished in importance. Only if they continue to
have their due status can we be truly bilingual or multilingual. This means that
there will be more inter-lingual interaction between English and other Indian
languages. This is already evident in the work of translation that is taking place,
of texts from different languages into English, and vice versa. Not only this,
but many of the great writings in languages such as French, German, Russian,
Spanish etc., are available to Indian readers through English translation. As
the sociolinguist Agnihotri affirms: ‘Ours is not a culture where barriers of
language, religion or culture reign over the creation of knowledge. Social
tolerance and political maturity will go hand in hand with linguistic enrichment.’
Check Your Progress 2
Please give your views on each of these statements.
1) English has had a good influence on Indian education.
.................................................................................................................
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2) English is important because it allows us to interact with different people
in the world.
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3) Indians who speak English are too westernised and do not care for Indian
culture.
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4) English is important because it adds to one’s prestige and personality.
.................................................................................................................
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English and its Varieties 5) We should make greater effort to learn English better and spread it
throughout India.
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1.4 THE NEEDS OF LEARNERS OF

ENGLISH
Every teacher must understand the needs of the learners. In the case of English,
it is the several functions that are performed by the language (as described earlier)
that create sufficient motivation to acquire the language. Thus, needs and
motivation are linked. As defined by researchers Gardner and Lambert (1972),
motivation is of the following kinds:
Instrumental motivation is that in which the person wishes to learn the target
language to get a job, go abroad, etc. For Indians wishing to acquire English,
this is probably the most important type of motivation, though it may be mixed
with some other types. From writing a resume, appearing for an interview,
working in an office, applying to go abroad for work or study, etc. are all
vital purposes for which English is instrumental, and thus there is strong motivation
of this kind among learners.
Integrative motivation is that in which the person wishes to be part of the
community of the target language. This is perhaps not very important as
motivation for Indians as they generally do not wish to integrate with the English
society and culture, though they may wish to interact with them. Indians wish
to acquire English, and even know about the art, literature and culture of England,
but they do not wish to imitate the way of life of the English people or give
up their own identity and culture. However, when we look at the contemporary
desire of people, particularly the young, to integrate with the global culture (e.g.
to see English films, use branded products, eat at MacDonald’s, etc) some form
of integrative motivation can be seen to operate.
In recent times, the expansion of needs of the learners has brought in the concept
of ‘English for Specific Purposes’. Each area of activity, situation or context
in which English is to be used may require particular type and level of English.
This includes a specific kind of vocabulary that is needed in that activity or
situation, and specific functions which are to be performed. This is also known
as the register of that subject or field. For instance, someone who wishes
to use English for tourism may not need knowledge of literature, and may
primarily need to perform functions of informing (although some functions such
as apologizing, describing, etc may also be needed). Such a learner may not
need to acquire an academic type of English, but may need to do a course
which concentrates on spoken, conversational aspects as well as some reading
and vocabulary related to tourism, and computer skills. Similarly, a scientist
may need English to read and write scientific articles, reports and documents,
and may not focus on other areas, but would certainly require academic reading
and writing skills. Since it is the instrumental motivation that largely prevails
in the learner, learning the target language then becomes less of a burden and
not – as it is for some – a forbidding punishment.
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 Role of English in India –
1.5 WHAT IS THE TASK OF THE TEACHER? Varieties, Status and
Functions
It is not only teachers of English, but all teachers (since language is used by
all) who must be aware of the dynamic relationships between languages in a
multilingual society. ‘The teacher should be critically aware of the social location
of language’ (Agnihotri 1994), which includes awareness of social and economic
inequalities that prevail in the system which impact the status of a language.
The teacher directly or indirectly conveys these attitudes and awareness to
learners. If the teacher looks down upon a particular language or attaches
rewards and punishments with the use of a particular language, the learners will
always associate the language with such attitudes. We know that the status of
English in India has been glorified in the past, and a superior status assigned
to it by people in power: the British themselves, the Indians who served them,
missionaries, administrators, educationists and policy makers. Such an approach
has been detrimental not only for our languages but also for our self-esteem,
self-belief and self-understanding. The aura around English, we now realize, is
unnecessary and limiting. At the same time, we need not rush to the other extreme
and become chauvinistic in our defence of our indigenous languages. We certainly
need to teach them, and to encourage books, films, newspapers and magazines
to keep alive the cultural, literary and artistic traditions. Therefore, first and
foremost, it is our attitude of tolerance and openness which will help us.
Secondly, it is the teacher’s task to aid the learners to achieve the basic
knowledge of the language. Whether it is a course designed for specific needs,
such as English for Business or English for Tourism, or a general English course
in school or college, the basic structures of the language, vocabulary and speech
are the core of language teaching. A clear understanding of the functions
that the learner may need the language to perform may guide the formation
of a course in English. In addition, the teacher may also see herself/himself
as a learner of the language, and should have a desire to continue developing
her/his competence in the use of the language.
Another aspect is the awareness of the range of contexts in which the language
is being used. Teachers sometimes worry about the English language getting
‘corrupted’ and ‘spoiled’ by current use such as in mobile SMS/Whatsapp, etc.
We must recognize such uses as also being function-driven and context-driven.
The language of texting, for instance, is midway between spoken and written,
therefore there will necessarily be deviations from formal written language. Also,
the limitation of time and space makes it necessary that words will be shortened,
spelling modified, abbreviations invented, icons used, to make the message
communicate what the user wants it to be. The teacher need not be biased
against such a use of language, but make sure that learners recognize that what
is acceptable in one context may not be acceptable in another context e.g. when
they write a formal essay, application or resume, they should not use short
forms. The teacher may ponder over the question: why do we never have
to teach people how to use the language in such situations as mobile texting,
while we have to labour over teaching them to write essays? The answer may
lie in the functionality of language in these different situations i.e. which function
is seen as more important; and in the nature of the task itself (messaging is
short, simple, while essay-writing is complex, with many ideas, having more
content etc., therefore needs to be taught). The fact remains that all these different
uses of language exist, and learners may need to be made aware of the difference,
and be able to use the language as required in a range of situations.
167
English and its Varieties We know that English spoken by Indians from different parts of the country
is different in some ways, perhaps influenced by the first languages of the
speakers in various regions. These varieties are to be found all over the world
– no one is expected to speak ‘Queen’s English’ or some such ideal form of
English. However, we now have an ‘international’ or ‘global English’ which is
generally intelligible all over the world. By and large, this has few traces of
regional accents, (though we may be able to recognize which part of the world
the speaker is from), has a common grammar and a set of accepted vocabulary.
Similarly, the varieties of English in India have enough in common to enable
people to communicate, while at the same time maintain differences. The task
of the teacher is first to acknowledge these varieties as systematic usage by
diverse groups, and then to enable the learners to move towards the goal of
being intelligible to other communities and groups.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Differentiate between integrative and instrumental motivation.
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2) Why is it that people find mobile texting easier to learn then essay writing?
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have considered the changing status of English in India, both
before and after independence. We see how English became a language imposed
on Indians by the British and the kind of impact it had on the lives, education,
and the cultural and linguistic attitudes of Indian people. We understand that
English has in many ways become integrated in our society and in our education
system and that it plays an important role in modern India and in the world.
But we also see English as part of our multilingual society, not as the sole language
of authority and power. Our languages interact with English and with each other,
and the interaction makes us richer, in terms of culture as well as in knowledge.
As teachers, we are responsible for the kind of pluralistic society we live in,
and can convey to our learners the attitudes of tolerance towards all our
languages. For this, our awareness of the multifarious roles and functions of
English in India and the needs of our learners is crucial. We must understand
what motivates them to learn English. We also observe that variation occurs
in language depending upon the region where it is spoken, and such variations
are to be seen in speakers of English from different parts of India. Understanding
the context of language use in various situations will help learners in acquiring
as well as using English for a range of functions, wherever it is needed.

1.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
Agnihotri , R.K. and Khanna, A.L. (1997). Problematising English in India.
New Delhi: Sage.
Gardner, R.C. & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second
168 Language Learning. Rowley Mass: Newbury House.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as a Social Semiotic. London: Edward Role of English in India –
Arnold. Varieties, Status and
Functions
Kachru, B. (1983). The Indianization of English. New Delhi: Oxford Univ.
Press.
Kancha, I.(2007). State of English. New Delhi: The Times of India (21.02.07).
Kancha, I. (2013). Even If Ten Percent Dalit Children Got English
Education, India Would Change. New Delhi: TOI (15.02.13).
Khubchandani, L.N. (1983). Plural Languages, Plural Cultures:
Communication, Identity and Sociopolitical Change in Contemporary India.
Hawaii: University of Honolulu Press.
Kohli, V. J. (2017). Indian English? Reframing the issue, A diversity-centred,
sociolinguistic approach to the English of Indians, Pragun Publication, New
Delhi.
Krishnaswamy, N. and Sivaraman, T. (1994). English Language Teaching in
India. Madras: T.R. Publications.
Sinha, S.P. (1978). English in India. Patna: Janaki Prakashan.
Viswanathan, G. (1990). Masks of Conquest: The History of English Literary
Studies in India. New Delhi: O.U.P.

1.8 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. Christian missionaries from the United Kingdom influenced the spread of
English as they began to establish English medium schools in India beginning
from the eighteenth century. In nineteenth century the British rulers
consolidated the high status of English in India through various policies.
English literature began to be taught in educational institutions in India. Many
Indian writers such as Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Tagore and Sarojini Naidu
began to write in English. In the freedom movement, the educated Indians
from all over the country with nationalist interests used English to argue
the cause for Indian independence as well as to communicate with each
other. All these factors contributed to the status of English in India before
independence.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Instrumental motivation is that in which the person wishes to learn the target
language to get a job, go abroad, etc. Integrative motivation is that in which
the person wishes to be part of the community of the target language.
2. There are two factors: function and the nature of the task. Mobile texting
may be perceived as an important function by the user. Messaging is short,
simple, while essay-writing is complex, with many ideas, having more content
etc, and therefore needs to be taught.

169