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 Practical Signals
Theory with
®
MATLAB Applications
 Practical Signals
Theory with
®
MATLAB Applications

RICHARD J. TERVO
VP & PUBLISHER: Donald Fowley
ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER: Dan Sayre
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT: Jessica Knecht
MARKETING MANAGER: Chris Ruel
MARKETING ASSISTANT: Marissa Carroll
DESIGNER: Alson Low
ASSOCIATE PRODUCTION MANAGER: Joyce Poh
PRODUCTION EDITOR: Jolene Ling
COVER ILLUSTRATION: Richard J. Tervo

This book was set in 10/12 NewBaskervilleStd-Roman by MPS Limited, Chennai and printed
and bound by Courier Kendallville. The cover was printed by Courier Kendallville.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tervo, Richard J., 1958–
Practical signals theory with MATLABs applications / Richard J. Tervo.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-11539-8 (pbk.)
1. Signal theory (Telecommunication)—Mathematics. 2. MATLAB. I. Title.
TK5102.83.T47 2014
621.382'23—dc23
2012030207

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Rowena
 BRIEF CONTENTS
¢

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems 1

Chapter 2 Classification of Signals 30

Chapter 3 Linear Systems 66

Chapter 4 The Fourier Series 101

Chapter 5 The Fourier Transform 171

Chapter 6 Practical Fourier Transforms 206

Chapter 7 The Laplace Transform 240

Chapter 8 Discrete Signals 301

Chapter 9 The z-Transform 344

Chapter 10 Introduction to Communications 381

Appendix A The Illustrated Fourier Transform 411

Appendix B The Illustrated Laplace Transform 419

Appendix C The Illustrated z-Transform 425

Appendix D MATLAB Reference Guide 431

Appendix E Reference Tables 440

Bibliography 443

Index 445

vii
 CONTENTS
¢

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxiii

1 Introduction to Signals and Systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 What Is a Signal? 2
1.1.2 What Is a System? 2
1.2 Introduction to Signal Manipulation 3
1.2.1 Linear Combination 5
1.2.2 Addition and Multiplication of Signals 5
1.2.3 Visualizing Signals—An Important Skill 7
1.2.4 Introduction to Signal Manipulation Using MATLAB 8
Defining Signals 8
Basic Plotting Commands 8
Multiple Plots on One Figure 9
1.3 A Few Useful Signals 9
1.3.1 The Unit Rectangle rect(t ) 9
1.3.2 The Unit Step u(t ) 11
1.3.3 Reflection about t 5 0 12
1.3.4 The Exponential ext 12
1.3.5 The Unit Impulse δ(t ) 14
Sketching the Unit Impulse 15
The Sifting Property of δ(t ) 16
Sampling Function 16
1.4 The Sinusoidal Signal 17
1.4.1 The One-Sided Cosine Graph 19
1.4.2 Phase Change—Φ 20
1.5 Phase Change vs. Time Shift 21
1.5.1 Sine vs. Cosine 22
1.5.2 Combining Signals: The Gated Sine Wave 22
1.5.3 Combining Signals: A Dial Tone Generator 24
1.6 Useful Hints and Help with MATLAB 25
1.6.1 Annotating Graphs 25
1.7 Conclusions 26

2 Classification of Signals 30
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Periodic Signals 31
2.2.1 Sinusoid 31
2.2.2 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoid 31
2.2.3 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoid 33
2.2.4 Square Wave 33

ix
x Contents

2.2.5 Sawtooth Wave 35

2.2.6 Pulse Train 35
2.2.7 Rectangular Wave 36
2.2.8 Triangle Wave 37
2.2.9 Impulse Train 37
DC Component in Periodic Signals 38
2.3 Odd and Even Signals 38
2.3.1 Combining Odd and Even signals 40
2.3.2 The Constant Value s(t) 5 A 42
2.3.3 Trigonometric Identities 42
2.3.4 The Modulation Property 43
A Television Tuner Box 43
Squaring the Sinusoid 45
2.4 Energy and Power Signals 47
2.4.1 Periodic Signals 5 Power
pffiffiffiSignals 49
Vrms Does not Equal A= 2 for All Periodic Signals 49
MATLAB Exercise 1: Computation of Vrms 50
2.4.2 Comparing Signal Power: The Decibel (dB) 51
2.5 Complex Signals 52
MATLAB Exercise 2: Complex Signals 54
2.6 Discrete Time Signals 56
2.7 Digital Signals 58
2.8 } Random Signals 58
2.9 Useful Hints and Help with MATLAB 60
2.10 Conclusions 61

3 Linear Systems 66
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Definition of a Linear System 67
3.2.1 Superposition 67
3.2.2 Linear System Exercise 1: Zero State Response 68
Zero Input - Zero Output 68
3.2.3 Linear System Exercise 2: Operating in a Linear Region 69
Nonlinear Components 70
3.2.4 Linear System Exercise 3: Mixer 70
A System Is Defined by Its Response Function 70
3.2.5 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems 71
3.2.6 Bounded Input, Bounded Output 72
3.2.7 System Behavior as a Black Box 72
3.3 Linear System Response Function h(t) 73
3.4 Convolution 73
3.4.1 The Convolution Integral 74
3.4.2 Convolution Is Commutative 76
3.4.3 Convolution Is Associative 77
3.4.4 Convolution Is Distributive over Addition 78
3.4.5 Evaluation of the Convolution Integral 78
Graphical Exercise 1: Convolution of a Rectangle with Itself 79
3.4.6 Convolution Properties 80
Graphical Exercise 2: Convolution of Two Rectangles 81
Graphical Exercise 3: Convolution of a Rectangle
and an Exponential Decay 82
A Pulse Input Signal 82
 Contents xi

3.4.7 Convolution with MATLAB 84

MATLAB Exercise 1: Convolution of a Rectangle with Itself 84
MATLAB Exercise 2: Convolution of Two Rectangles 85
MATLAB Exercise 3: Convolution of a Rectangle
with an Exponential Decay 86
3.5 Determining h(t ) in an Unknown System 88
3.5.1 The Unit Impulse δ(t ) Test Signal 88
3.5.2 Convolution and Signal Decomposition 89
Convolution and Periodic Signals 90
3.5.3 An Ideal Distortionless System 90
Deconvolution 90
3.6 Causality 91
3.6.1 Causality and Zero Input Response 92
3.7 Combined Systems 92
MATLAB Exercise 4. Systems in Series 93
3.8 } Convolution and Random Numbers 94
3.9 Useful Hints and Help with MATLAB 96
3.10 Chapter Summary 97
3.11 Conclusions 97

4 The Fourier Series 101

Chapter Overview 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Expressing Signals by Components 102
The Spectrum Analyzer 103
4.2.1 Approximating a Signal s(t ) by Another: The Signal
Inner Product 104
4.2.2 Estimating One Signal by Another 105
4.3 Part One—Orthogonal Signals 106
4.4 Orthogonality 107
4.4.1 An Orthogonal Signal Space 107
Interpreting the Inner Product 109
4.4.2 The Signal Inner Product Formulation 109
4.4.3 Complete Set of Orthogonal Signals 110
4.4.4 What If a Complete Set Is Not Present? 111
4.4.5 An Orthogonal Set of Signals 111
Defining Orthogonal Basis Signals 111
Confirming Orthogonal Basis Signals 112
Finding Orthogonal Components 113
4.4.6 Orthogonal Signals and Linearly Independent Equations 115
MATLAB Exercise 1: Evaluating an Inner Product 117
4.5 Part Two—The Fourier Series 118
4.5.1 A Special Set of Orthogonal Functions 118
4.5.2 The Fourier Series—An Orthogonal Set? 119
4.6 Computing Fourier Series Components 121
4.6.1 Fourier Series Approximation to an Odd Square Wave 121
4.6.2 Zero-Frequency (DC) Component 122
4.7 Fundamental Frequency Component 123
4.7.1 Higher-Order Components 124
4.7.2 Frequency Spectrum of the Square Wave s(t ) 125
4.8 Practical Harmonics 126
4.8.1 The 60 Hz Power Line 126
xii Contents

4.8.2 Audio Amplifier Specs—Total Harmonic Distortion 127

4.8.3 The CB Radio Booster 127
4.9 Odd and Even Square Waves 128
4.9.1 The Fourier Series Components of an Even Square Wave 128
4.10 Gibb’s Phenomenon 131
4.11 Setting Up the Fourier Series Calculation 132
4.11.1 Appearance of Pulse Train Frequency Components 134
Pulse Train with 10 Percent Duty Cycle 134
Pulse Train with 20 Percent Duty Cycle 134
Pulse Train with 50 Percent Duty Cycle (Square Wave) 136
4.12 Some Common Fourier Series 136
4.13 Part Three—The Complex Fourier Series 137
4.13.1 Not All Signals Are Even or Odd 137
4.14 The Complex Fourier Series 138
4.14.1 Complex Fourier Series—The Frequency Domain 139
4.14.2 Comparing the Real and Complex Fourier Series 142
4.14.3 Magnitude and Phase 142
4.15 Complex Fourier Series Components 143
4.15.1 Real Signals and the Complex Fourier Series 144
4.15.2 Stretching and Squeezing: Time vs. Frequency 144
4.15.3 Shift in Time 145
4.15.4 Change in Amplitude 146
4.15.5 Power in Periodic Signals 146
Find the Total Power in sðtÞ ¼ A cosðtÞ þ B sinðtÞ 147
4.15.6 Parseval’s Theorem for Periodic Signals 147
4.16 Properties of the Complex Fourier Series 151
4.17 Analysis of a DC Power Supply 152
4.17.1 The DC Component 152
4.17.2 An AC-DC Converter 153
4.17.3 Vrms Is Always Greater Than or Equal to Vdc 153
4.17.4 Fourier Series: The Full-Wave Rectifier 154
4.17.5 Complex Fourier Series Components Cn 155
MATLAB Exercise 2: Plotting Fourier Series Components 157
4.18 The Fourier Series with MATLAB 158
4.18.1 Essential Features of the fft() in MATLAB 158
1. Periodic Signals Are Defined on a Period of 2N Points 158
2. The Fourier Series Is Defined on 2N2121
Frequency Components 159
4.18.2 Full-Wave Rectified Cosine (60 Hz) 160
4.18.3 Useful Hints and Help with MATLAB 162
4.19 Conclusions 165

5 The Fourier Transform 171

5.1 Introduction 171
5.1.1 A Fresh Look at the Fourier Series 172
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals 172
5.1.2 Approximating a Nonperiodic Signal over All Time 173
5.1.3 Definition of the Fourier Transform 176
5.1.4 Existence of the Fourier Transform 177
5.1.5 The Inverse Fourier Transform 177
 Contents xiii

5.2 Properties of the Fourier Transform 178

5.2.1 Linearity of the Fourier Transform 178
5.2.2 Value of the Fourier Transform at the Origin 179
5.2.3 Odd and Even Functions and the
Fourier Transform 180
5.3 The Rectangle Signal 181
Alternate Solution 182
5.4 The Sinc Function 182
5.4.1 Expressing a Function in Terms of sinc(t ) 184
5.4.2 The Fourier Transform of a General Rectangle 185
5.4.3 Magnitude of the Fourier Transform 188
5.5 Signal Manipulations: Time and Frequency 189
5.5.1 Amplitude Variations 189
5.5.2 Stretch and Squeeze: The Sinc Function 189
5.5.3 The Scaling Theorem 190
5.5.4 Testing the Limits 191
5.5.5 A Shift in Time 192
5.5.6 The Shifting Theorem 193
5.5.7 The Fourier Transform of a Shifted Rectangle 194
Magnitude of Gð f Þ 194
Phase of Gð f Þ 195
5.5.8 Impulse Series—The Line Spectrum 196
5.5.9 Shifted Impulse δ( f–f0) 197
5.5.10 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal 197
5.6 Fourier Transform Pairs 198
5.6.1 The Illustrated Fourier Transform 200
5.7 Rapid Changes vs. High Frequencies 200
5.7.1 Derivative Theorem 201
5.7.2 Integration Theorem 202
5.8 Conclusions 203

6 Practical Fourier Transforms 206

6.1 Introduction 206
6.2 Convolution: Time and Frequency 206
The Logarithm Domain 207
6.2.1 Simplifying the Convolution Integral 207
6.3 Transfer Function of a Linear System 210
6.3.1 Impulse Response: The Frequency Domain 211
6.3.2 Frequency Response Curve 212
6.4 Energy in Signals: Parseval’s Theorem for the
Fourier Transform 213
6.4.1 Energy Spectral Density 214
6.5 Data Smoothing and the Frequency Domain 215
6.6 Ideal Filters 216
6.6.1 The Ideal Lowpass Filter Is Not Causal 219
6.7 A Real Lowpass Filter 220
MATLAB Example 1: First-Order Filter 223
6.8 The Modulation Theorem 224
6.8.1 A Voice Privacy System 226
Spectral Inversion 227
xiv Contents

6.9 Periodic Signals and the Fourier Transform 230

6.9.1 The Impulse Train 230
6.9.2 General Appearance of Periodic Signals 231
6.9.3 The Fourier Transform of a Square Wave 232
Changing the Pulse Train Appearance 232
6.9.4 Other Periodic Waveforms 233
6.10 The Analog Spectrum Analyzer 233
6.11 Conclusions 235

7 The Laplace Transform 240

7.1 Introduction 241
7.2 The Laplace Transform 241
7.2.1 The Frequency Term e jωt 243
7.2.2 The Exponential Term e σt 243
7.2.3 The s-Domain 243
7.3 Exploring the s-Domain 243
7.3.1 A Pole at the Origin 244
Graphing the Function H ðsÞ ¼ 1=s 246
7.3.2 Decaying Exponential 246
7.3.3 A Sinusoid 249
The Generalized Cosine: A ¼ cosðωt þ ΦÞ 249
7.3.4 A Decaying Sinusoid 250
7.3.5 An Unstable System 251
7.4 Visualizing the Laplace Transform 251
7.4.1 First-Order Lowpass Filter 252
7.4.2 Pole Position Determines Frequency Response 254
7.4.3 Second-Order Lowpass Filter 256
Resonance Frequency 258
Multiple Poles and Zeros 258
7.4.4 Two-Sided Laplace Transform 258
7.4.5 The Bode Plot 260
Bode Plot—Multiple Poles and Zeros 261
Laplace Transform Exercise 1: Calculating
the Laplace Transform 263
7.4.6 System Analysis in MATLAB 264
7.5 Properties of the Laplace Transform 267
7.6 Differential Equations 267
7.6.1 Solving a Differential Equation 268
Compound Interest 270
7.6.2 Transfer Function as Differential Equations 270
7.7 Laplace Transform Pairs 270
7.7.1 The Illustrated Laplace Transform 272
7.8 Circuit Analysis with the Laplace Transform 272
7.8.1 Voltage Divider 274
7.8.2 A First-Order Lowpass Filter 274
7.8.3 A First-Order Highpass Filter 277
7.8.4 A Second-Order Filter 278
Lowpass Filter 278
Bandpass Filter 279
Highpass Filter 280
Analysis of a Second-Order System 281
Series RLC Circuit Analysis 284
 Contents xv

7.9 State Variable Analysis 285

7.9.1 State Variable Analysis—First-Order System 286
7.9.2 First-Order State Space Analysis with MATLAB 287
7.9.3 State Variable Analysis—Second-Order System 288
7.9.4 Matrix Form of the State Space Equations 290
7.9.5 Second-Order State Space Analysis with MATLAB 291
7.9.6 Differential Equation 292
7.9.7 State Space and Transfer Functions with MATLAB 293
7.10 Conclusions 295

8 Discrete Signals 301

8.1 Introduction 301
8.2 Discrete Time vs. Continuous Time Signals 301
8.2.1 Digital Signal Processing 302
8.3 A Discrete Time Signal 303
8.3.1 A Periodic Discrete Time Signal 303
8.4 Data Collection and Sampling Rate 304
8.4.1 The Selection of a Sampling Rate 304
8.4.2 Bandlimited Signal 305
8.4.3 Theory of Sampling 305
8.4.4 The Sampling Function 306
8.4.5 Recovering a Waveform from Samples 307
8.4.6 A Practical Sampling Signal 307
8.4.7 Minimum Sampling Rate 308
8.4.8 Nyquist Sampling Rate 310
8.4.9 The Nyquist Sampling Rate Is a Theoretical Minimum 310
8.4.10 Sampling Rate and Alias Frequency 312
8.4.11 Practical Aliasing 314
8.4.12 Analysis of Aliasing 316
8.4.13 Anti-Alias Filter 318
8.5 Introduction to Digital Filtering 319
8.5.1 Impulse Response Function 319
8.5.2 A Simple Discrete Response Function 319
8.5.3 Delay Blocks Are a Natural Consequence
of Sampling 321
8.5.4 General Digital Filtering 322
8.5.5 The Fourier Transform of Sampled Signals 323
8.5.6 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 325
8.5.7 A Discrete Fourier Series 326
8.5.8 Computing the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 327
8.5.9 The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 328
8.6 Illustrative Examples 328
MATLAB Exercise 1: The FFT and the Inverse FFT 330
8.6.1 FFT and Sample Rate 332
8.6.2 Practical DFT Issues 333
Constructing the Ideal Discrete Signal 333
8.7 Discrete Time Filtering with MATLAB 338
8.7.1 A Discrete Rectangle 338
8.7.2 A Cosine Test Signal 338
8.7.3 Check Calculation 339
8.8 Conclusions 340
xvi Contents

9 The z-Transform 344

9.1 Introduction 344
9.2 The z-Transform 344
9.2.1 Fourier Transform, Laplace Transform, and z-transform 345
9.2.2 Definition of the z-Transform 347
9.2.3 The z-Plane and the Fourier Transform 347
9.3 Calculating the z-Transform 348
9.3.1 Unit Step u[n] 350
9.3.2 Exponential an u[n] 352
9.3.3 Sinusoid cos(nω0) u[n] and sin(nω0) u[n] 353
9.3.4 Differentiation 355
9.3.5 The Effect of Sampling Rate 355
9.4 A Discrete Time Laplace Transform 356
9.5 Properties of the z-Transform 358
9.6 z-Transform Pairs 359
9.7 Transfer Function of a Discrete Linear System 359
9.8 MATLAB Analysis with the z-Transform 360
9.8.1 First-Order Lowpass Filter 360
9.8.2 Pole-Zero Diagram 362
9.8.3 Bode Plot 362
9.8.4 Impulse Response 363
9.8.5 Calculating Frequency Response 364
9.8.6 Pole Position Determines Frequency Response 366
9.9 Digital Filtering—FIR Filter 366
9.9.1 A One-Pole FIR Filter 367
9.9.2 A Two-Pole FIR Filter 368
9.9.3 Higher-Order FIR Filters 369
Frequency Response 369
Pole-Zero Diagram 370
Phase Response 370
Step Response 372
9.10 Digital Filtering—IIR Filter 373
9.10.1 A One-Pole IIR Filter 373
9.10.2 IIR versus FIR 374
9.10.3 Higher-Order IIR Filters 377
9.10.4 Combining FIR and IIR Filters 377
9.11 Conclusions 378

10 Introduction to Communications 381

10.1 Introduction 381
10.1.1 A Baseband Signal m(t ) 381
10.1.2 The Need for a Carrier Signal 382
10.1.3 A Carrier Signal c(t ) 382
10.1.4 Modulation Techniques 383
10.1.5 The Radio Spectrum 383
10.2 Amplitude Modulation 385
10.2.1 Transmitted Carrier Double Sideband—(AM-TCDSB) 385
 Contents xvii

10.2.2 Demodulation of AM Signals 388

10.2.3 Graphical Analysis 389
10.2.4 AM Demodulation—Diode Detector 391
10.2.5 Examples of Diode Detection 394
10.3 Suppressed Carrier Transmission 394
10.3.1 Demodulation of Single Sideband Signals 395
10.3.2 Percent Modulation and Overmodulation 397
10.4 Superheterodyne Receiver 398
10.4.1 An Experiment with Intermediate Frequency 400
10.4.2 When Receivers Become Transmitters 401
10.4.3 Image Frequency 401
10.4.4 Beat Frequency Oscillator 401
10.5 Digital Communications 402
10.5.1 Modulation Methods 403
10.5.2 Morse Code 403
10.5.3 On Off Keying (OOK) 406
10.5.4 Bandwidth Considerations 406
10.5.5 Receiving a Morse Code Signal 406
10.6 Phase Shift Keying 407
10.6.1 Differential Coding 407
10.6.2 Higher-Order Modulation Schemes 408
10.7 Conclusions 409

A The Illustrated Fourier Transform 411

B The Illustrated Laplace Transform 419

C The Illustrated z-Transform 425

D MATLAB Reference Guide 431

D.1 Defining Signals 431
D.1.1 MATLAB Variables 431
D.1.2 The Time Axis 432
D.1.3 Common Signals 432
D.2 Complex Numbers 433
D.3 Plot Commands 434
D.4 Signal Operations 434
D.5 Defining Systems 435
D.5.1 System Definition 435
1. Transfer Function 435
2. Zeros and Poles and Gain 437
3. State Space Model 437
4. Discrete Time Systems 437
D.5.2 System Analysis 437
D.6 Example System Definition and Test 438
xviii Contents

E Reference Tables 440

E.1 Fourier Transform 440
E.1.1 Fourier Transform Theorems 440
E.2 Laplace Transform 441
E.2.1 Laplace Transform Theorems 441
E.3 z-Transform 442
E.3.1 z-Transform Theorems 442

Bibliography 443

Index 445

The symbol } indicates advanced content that may be omitted without

loss of continuity.
 PREFACE
¢

The title Practical Signals Theory incorporates both the words practical and theory to
underscore the reality that engineers use mathematics as a tool for practical ends, often
to gain a better understanding of the behavior of the world around them and just as
often simply to save time and work. True to this notion, signals theory offers both a
means to model complex real-world systems using consistent mathematical methods
and a way to avoid tedious manipulations by leveraging the efforts of mathematicians
and engineers who have already done it the hard way. Thus, signals theory includes the
famous transforms named after Fourier and Laplace designed to view real systems from
advantageous new perspectives. Frequency and phase responses are easily sketched
with pencil and ruler following in the footsteps of Bode, and modern digital signal
processing owes a debt to Nyquist. Moreover, in every equation or formula there is a
clue that relates to something that is real and that may already be very familiar.
Practical Signals Theory was written specifically to present the essential mathe-
matics of signals and systems through an intuitive and graphical approach in which
theory and principles emerge naturally from the observed behavior of familiar sys-
tems. To this end, every new theorem is introduced by real-world examples, and
every new example is chosen to reflect an important element of signals theory. From
the first pages, even the most basic mathematical relationships are reexamined in a
way that will lend their use to the practical application of signals theory. Many
examples are presented using MATLAB, which has become a standard for electrical
engineering students around the world.

Pedagogy
Any presentation of signals theory to an undergraduate audience must confront the
inevitable compromise between keeping the subject material accessible to the
modern student and maintaining the level of mathematical rigor that is the cor-
nerstone of engineering studies. The philosophical issues surrounding rigor are
hardly new[1], although it is perhaps ironic, in this course especially, that many of
the distractions now available to students have come about from commercial
applications of signals theory.1 The presentation of material in this text proceeds
through a carefully paced progression of concepts using sketches and practical
examples to motivate appreciation of the essential elements of signals theory. To
that end, the ability to visualize signals and their transforms is developed as an
important skill that complements a full appreciation of the underlying mathematics.
Indeed, knowing why the math works and how signals interact through established
principles is what distinguishes true understanding from the mere ability to mem-
orize and to manipulate formulas and equations. On the other hand, there are
many situations in which a signal is seen on an instrument or in some graphical or
numerical output and the important question of does it make sense? can only be

1
Video games, MP3 players, and mobile telephones come to mind.

xix
xx Preface

answered if the expected behavior can be readily reasoned and visualized. To

supplement this approach, the use of MATLAB is promoted as a versatile tool to
define, to manipulate, to display, and ultimately to better understand the theory of
signals and systems. The strengths of this text include:
 The essential mathematics of orthogonal signals, the Fourier series, the Fourier
transform (both continuous and discrete), the Laplace transform, and the
z-transform are thoroughly covered and compared. Examples and applications
of different techniques, while focusing on electrical engineering, are drawn
from a range of subject areas.
 Introductory sections review fundamental mathematics and important time-
domain functions while laying the groundwork for the transform-domain
manipulations to follow. Requisite mathematical skills such as the manipula-
tion of complex values are reexamined when first encountered. During a
derivation or example calculation, care is taken to include complete inter-
mediate steps to maintain focus and clarity of presentation.
 New concepts in signals and systems are presented intuitively and graphically with
real-world examples and by working through the relevant mathematics. Trans-
form domains are presented as different perspectives on the same signal where
properties and signal behavior are linked through the underlying mathematics.
 Fourier analysis is defined around a ðt, f Þ notation, which lends itself well to
discussions of frequency and avoids awkward rescaling terms. The conventional
use of ðt, ωÞ is employed for Laplace and z-transform expositions.
 The appendices include useful reference tables and feature illustrated transforms
that graphically present transform pairs side by side and that highlight
important properties relating the time and transform domains.
 The use of hand-drawn sketches is encouraged when exploring the properties
of signals and their manipulation. New and interesting signal properties are
revealed, and the underlying theory is developed by testing different ideas on
known equations.
 Prior to every calculation, the reader is encouraged to sketch signals by hand
and to predict expected results. After a derivation or calculation, the reader is
encouraged to check the answer for consistency and to compare to predicted
outcomes. This practice serves to build confidence in the theory and in the
results obtained.
 The use of MATLAB is presented as a quick and convenient way to rapidly view
and manipulate signals and systems. Examples are limited to functions that are
available in the MATLAB Student Version.
 Many figures in the text are generated using MATLAB, and the script used to
create a figure is often included on the same page.
 MATLAB functions of special interest to signals and systems are used to con-
firm and to illustrate example exercises. In this way, the behavior of systems
modelled as a continuous or discrete transfer function, pole-zero diagram, or
state space equation can readily be studied as a Bode diagram, pole-zero dia-
gram, impulse response, or step response.

Organization
This introductory text covers signals and linear systems theory, including continuous
time and discrete time signals, the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform, and
 Preface xxi

the z-transform. The sequence follows through continuous time signals and systems,
orthogonality, the Fourier series, the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform,
discrete time signals including sampling theorem, the DTFT and DFT, and the
z-transform. A bonus chapter on communications signals is provided as an addi-
tional source of practical applications of signals theory and will be of special interest
to those students who may not otherwise take a communications systems course as
part of their core curriculum.
Each chapter integrates numerous MATLAB examples and illustrations. Particular
use is made of the MATLAB system definitions based on transfer function, zero-pole-
gain model, or state space model to study the behavior of linear systems using the
impulse response, step response, Bode plot, and pole-zero diagram. The ability to model
and to examine simple systems with these tools is an important skill that complements
and reinforces understanding of the mathematical concepts and manipulations.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Signals and Systems

Signals and systems and their interaction are developed, beginning with simple and
familiar signals and manipulations. Mathematical and graphical concepts are
reviewed with emphasis on the skills that will prove most useful to the study of signals
and systems. Shifting and scaling and linear combinations of time-domain signals are
sketched by hand. The frequency and phase characteristics of a sinusoid are carefully
examined, and the elements of a general sinusoid are identified. The impulse
function, unit step, and unit rectangle signals are defined, and common elements of
system block diagrams are introduced.

Chapter 2. Classification of Signals

Signals are identified as real or complex, odd or even, periodic or nonperiodic,
energy or power, continuous or discrete. Examples of common signals of all types
and their definitions in MATLAB are introduced.

Chapter 3. Linear Systems

The linear time invariant system is defined. Convolution is examined in detail.
System impulse response is introduced as well as causality.

Chapter 4. The Fourier Series

A signal is represented in terms of orthogonal components. The special set of
orthogonal sinusoids is introduced, first as the Fourier series and then as the
complex Fourier series.

Chapter 5. The Fourier Transform

The Fourier transform is developed as a limiting case of the Fourier series. The def-
inition of the Fourier transform and its properties follow, with emphasis on relating
the time- and frequency-domain characteristics mathematically and graphically.
xxii Preface

Chapter 6. Practical Fourier Transforms

The introduction of the convolution theorem opens up the full potential of the
Fourier transform in practical applications. The concept of transfer function is
introduced, and a discussion of data filtering follows and leads to the inevitable issue
of causality in ideal filters. Discussion of the energy in signals introduces Parseval’s
theorem. The Fourier transform of an impulse train reveals properties that apply to
all periodic signals.

Chapter 7. The Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform is developed as an extension of the Fourier transform to
include many signals that do not have a Fourier transform and those which incorpo-
rate non-sinusoidal component. First- and second-order systems having differential
and integral components are studied. State space models are introduced.

Chapter 8. Discrete Signals

Sampling theory and the importance of sampling rate, aliasing, and practical sam-
pling issues are covered as well as the nature of discrete signals under the Fourier
transform, including an introduction to digital signal processing.

Chapter 9. The z-Transform

The z-transform is developed as discrete time version of the Laplace transform and
as an extension of the discrete time Fourier transform. FIR and IIR filters are used as
applications of the z-transform.

Chapter 10. Introduction to Communications

The frequency spectrum and the concept of carrier frequency are presented along
with basic analog modulation types. Radio frequency interference is discussed. The
concept of a superheterodyne receiver is studied as an application of the modula-
tion theorem. Amplitude modulation and demodulation are examined as well as an
introduction to digital modulation techniques.
In a single-semester course focusing on Fourier theory, the material may be
presented in the order 1-2-3-4-5-6-8, thereby omitting the Laplace transform and
z-transform. For a focus on continuous time signals and systems, the order may be
1-2-3-4-5-6-7, thereby omitting discrete signals and the z-transform.
This text was originally written for the students in EE3513 at the University of New
Brunswick, where the material was first presented over twenty-five years ago.
Questions and feedback in the classroom have contributed immensely to the style
and presentation of the material and in the examples given throughout the text.
I welcome comments and criticism, and I wish everyone success in the coming
semester.
Richard J. Tervo
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
¢

I am grateful for the support and encouragement received from Wiley during
the publication of this new book and I especially recognize those people who have
worked behind the scenes to facilitate the entire process. After many years of
tentative preparation, this adventure finally took flight when Tiina Ruonamaa rec-
ognized a new author and convinced others to buy into the project. Dan Sayre has
expertly guided the entire process and during the development stage deftly nudged
the content in directions that I would not otherwise have anticipated. I shall miss the
midnight emails from Jolene Ling who has led her production team to produce this
wonderful printed volume in its final form.
Many years ago I learned a great deal about practical signals analysis from Dr. T. J.
Kennett who remains a role model in my academic career. This manuscript was first
adopted in the classroom by someone other than myself when Dr. P. A. Parker chose
this material for his course and in doing so prompted me to revise and to rewrite my
class notes in LaTex form and using MATLAB. Those who remember Toby Tervo
will recognize the ways in which he provided support during many long hours
working on the final manuscript. Finally, to my colleagues and friends who have
endured endless tales about Richard “working on a book”, I am happy to announce
that it is finally here.

xxiii
 CHAPTER 1
¢

Introduction to Signals and Systems

In this chapter, basic definitions essential to the £

study of signals and systems are introduced. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
While some of these concepts will undoubtedly By the end of this chapter, the reader
seem familiar, they are presented here in the will be able to:
 Write the definitions of a signal and
context of electrical engineering applications
a system
and in terms of specific properties that will prove
 Define continuous-time and
important in signals analysis. The mathematical
discrete-time signals
operations of shifting, scaling, and multiplication
 Explain the mathematical basis of
are related to signal delays, time compression, shifting, scaling, and multiplication
and amplification. Emphasis is placed on employ-  Describe the shifting, scaling, and
ing linear combinations of simple signal types to multiplication operations
aid the study of new and interesting functions. A graphically
variety of graphical and arithmetic examples are  Identify a linear combination of
signals
presented. Features of MATLAB used to manipu-
 Describe basic signals in standard
late and to plot various signals are highlighted.
form: unit rectangle, unit step,
impulse, comb, sinusoid
 Create and sketch new signals as
linear combinations of the basic
signals
1.1 Introduction  Identify variations of the basic
signals by component
The world of electrical engineering includes appli-  Apply mathematical operations to
cations as diverse as digital computers, mobile tele- describe new signals in terms of the
phones, communication satellites, and automobile basic signals
sound systems. All these devices perform some useful  Use MATLAB to define and to plot
function by interacting with the electrical signals that simple time domain signals
pass through them. The engineers who develop these
systems strive to achieve the best performance at the
best cost by applying the laws of physics and mathematics to build these everyday
products. It follows that engineers require a sound understanding of the funda-
mental physical behavior of both the signals and the hardware and of the available
tools and techniques for modelling and simulation. In the most generalized
approach, various types of signals might pass through different sorts of systems, and
this defines the broad and fascinating subject matter of signals and systems. This

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems

textbook presents the study of signals and systems through illustrations and examples
of how the mathematics of signals theory relates to practical and everyday applica-
tions, including how signals may be described, how they interact, and how the results
of such operations may be effectively applied to the understanding and solution
of engineering problems.

1.1.1 What Is a Signal?

An electrical signal may be defined as a voltage or current that may vary with time;
such a signal can be represented and its behavior studied as a mathematical function
of time called, for example, s(t ). Any study of the time variations of signals is said to
take place in the time domain. Time domain signals are those familiar waveforms
observed using an oscilloscope, or those that immediately come to mind upon
hearing the words sine wave or square wave. It will be seen that the examination
of signals from other perspectives (in particular, the frequency domain) can be of
great advantage; indeed, the mastery of manipulating signals from various per-
spectives represents a major goal of this textbook. It is through the application of
mathematical transformations that such different perspectives can be achieved. On
the other hand, many of the principles and much of the groundwork for signal
analysis can be laid out in the familiar surroundings of the time domain.

1.1.2 What Is a System?

Observing the monotonous undulations of the cosine waveform sðt Þ ¼ cosðt Þ or the
mathematics of some other function s(t ) would not hold anyone’s interest for very
long. Rather, the utility of such signals depends entirely on what can be done with
them and what happens to the signals as they pass through a circuit or over a radio
channel or into a computer. Of course, it would be impossible to study the effect of
every circuit on every possible input signal, so some abstraction is necessary. Instead, a
generalized signal will be studied as it passes through an arbitrary system. Conse-
quently, the signal s(t ) may be either a voltage or current, it might be a sine or cosine
or some other waveform, and it will be studied as it passes through what could possibly
be a transistor amplifier, but which might well be a computer, or perhaps a shortwave
radio channel. Simple systems may be described through sketches that illustrate
fundamental signal manipulations, which, in turn, are described by mathematical
operations. Effectively, these mathematical functions completely describe a system
and, from a signals analysis point of view, it does not matter what kind of components
or circuitry the system actually contains.
Figure 1.1 models a simple system in which a signal a(t ) passes through a system to
emerge as the signal b(t ). The short form notation for such a system will be
aðt Þ-bðtÞ: This notation implies that the input signal a(t ) leads to the output signal

INPUT OUTPUT
a(t) System b(t)

FIGURE 1.1 System Modelling—The input signal a(t ) passes through some system to emerge as the
output signal b(t ).
 1.2 | Introduction to Signal Manipulation 3

b(t ) after interacting with the system. Representing voltages and currents, and the
interaction of signals in various systems using mathematical models allows a concise
and thorough appreciation of signal behavior. Consequently, much of the emphasis
of this textbook is in understanding the underlying mathematics and being com-
fortable with manipulating equations and interpreting their significance in terms of
real-world applications. By relating generalized mathematical results to practical
systems, the power and convenience of using mathematical descriptions of signals
will be emphasized. Through the study of down-to-earth examples, an approach to
studying signals will be developed, which can then be applied to any type of signal
and to a variety of applications.
In this chapter, a variety of subjects are discussed that will serve to review back-
ground material essential to the exploration of signals and systems. But while much
of this material may seem like basic mathematical functions and relations, it is
presented here from a perspective that lends itself specifically to a study of signals.
The study of signals begins with the mathematical abstractions that underlie the
manipulation of real signals expressed as a function such as s(t ).
As a convention, lowercase letters will be used to define time domain signals.
Consequently, a(t ), b(t ), and s(t ) are all time domain signals. This notation will be
extended to use the corresponding uppercase letters for related signal repre-
sentations. Specifically, A( f ) will denote the frequency-domain version of the signal
a(t ). Likewise, in later chapters, the function A(s) will denote the Laplace transform
version of a(t ) and A(z) will be used to denote the z-transform.

1.2 Introduction to Signal Manipulation

The study of signals theory begins with a very practical example. Consider a voltage
signal within some electronic circuit. As the signal evolves in time, it may be mea-
sured and described as the continuous function of time s(t ). This observation leads
to the definition:

DEFINITION 1.1 Continuous Time Signal

If a signal s(t) is a function of time that has a value defined for every t on some continuous
domain,1 then s(t) is a continuous time signal or simply a continuous signal.

The continuous signal s(t ) may be of finite or infinite duration and this defini-
tion does not exclude a signal s(t ) having discontinuities, where s(t ) may be piecewise
continuous. Many elements of signals analysis and manipulation can be represented
by relatively simple mathematical operations performed on the function s(t ). In a
practical sense, these operations describe the simplest of systems, yet they can be
combined in a variety of ways to describe the most complex systems.
As an example, the signal s(t ) shown in Figure 1.2 is defined for time t ¼ 1 to
t ¼ þ1 and is zero otherwise. This time interval2 may be written as [21, 1]. Upon

1
The domain of a function s(t ) is the set of values that t may take on. The range of a function s(t ) is the set
of values that s(t ) takes on [5].
2
An interval of real numbers is the set containing all numbers between two given numbers (the end-
points) and one, both, or neither endpoint [5]. A closed interval written as [a, b] contains its endpoints
a and b.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems

A s(t)

1 1 Time →
0

FIGURE 1.2 The signal s(t ) may be manipulated through simple mathematical operations.

kA
ks(t)

1 1 Time →
0

FIGURE 1.3 The system sðt Þ-ksðt Þ varies the amplitude of s(t ).

s(t  t0)
A

1 1  t0 t0 1 1  t0
0 Time →

FIGURE 1.4 The system sðt Þ-sðt  t0 Þ shifts s(t ) in time.

passing through some system, this signal may undergo a transformation, which is
reflected both in its appearance and in the function of time describing the output
signal. Several such systems are described below, both mathematically and
graphically.
Amplifying If a signal s(t ) is multiplied by a constant k, it is increased in ampli-
tude when k > 1, and attenuated for 0 , k , 1, as in Figure 1.3. A simple
amplifier or attenuator circuit could be described by the notation sðt Þ-ksðt Þ.
Significantly, multiplying by a constant will not affect the overall appearance
or shape of the input signal s(t ).
Shifting A signal s(t ) may be shifted along the time axis by a constant non-
negative time t0 using the operation sðt Þ-sðt  t0 Þ, as in Figure 1.4. This shift
operation corresponds to a time delay. Note that in the signal sðt  t0 Þ the
original time origin of the graph shifts to t ¼ t0 , such that the delayed signal
sðt  t0 Þ appears shifted to the right of the origin. Similarly, the signal sðt þ t0 Þ
would appear shifted to the left of the origin.
Signals can be delayed without being distorted. Just as with ideal amplifi-
cation, the shape of a signal is not affected by a simple time shift. As an
extreme example, consider a signal consisting of recorded music, played back
at high volume many years after it was performed in a recording studio; the
resulting delayed, amplified signal will ideally be indistinguishable from
the original. Combined, the effects of amplifying and shifting describe an ideal
distortionless system, in which an input signal s(t ) is related to an output signal
by the expression sðt Þ-ksðt  t0 Þ, where k and t0 are constants.
 1.2 | Introduction to Signal Manipulation 5

A s(kt), k  1

1 1 1 1
k k Time →
0

FIGURE 1.5 The system sðt Þ-sðktÞ stretches or squeezes the signal s(t ).

Scaling A third simple operation that can be performed on a signal s(t ) is that of
multiplying t by some constant k, as in Figure 1.5. The signal sðt Þ-sðktÞ will be
scaled for k 6¼ 1. For k > 1, the signal s(kt) will be squeezed along the time axis,
with respect to s(t ) as shown here, while for 0 , k , 1, s(kt) will be stretched in
time with respect to s(t ).
As implied by the descriptions stretch and squeeze, the scaling operation acts
to distort a signal. For example, a tape recording s(t ) will produce the output
signal s(kt), where k is a function of the tape speed. Played at slow speed,
where 0 , k , 1, the signal s(kt) is stretched in time and takes longer to play
back. Alternatively, when played at high speed where k > 1, the signal, is
squeezed in time and plays back quickly. The resulting distortion is also evi-
dent in the audible frequency changes corresponding to each of these two
examples. This effect illustrates the important fact that modifying the time-
varying characteristics of a signal has a direct effect on its frequency
characteristics.

1.2.1 Linear Combination

A linear combination of signals is defined as the signal formed using only the
addition of signals and their multiplication by constant values. For example, if s(t ) is
formed from a linear combination of the signals a(t ), b(t ), and c(t ), then
sðt Þ ¼ ka aðt Þ þ kb bðt Þ þ kc cðt Þ, where ðka , kb , kc Þ are constants. Conversely, the sig-
nal sðt Þ ¼ a 2 ðt Þ is not formed from a linear combination of signals because the
signal is squared.

1.2.2 Addition and Multiplication of Signals

The result of the addition or multiplication of two signals is another signal

expressing their sum or product at every point in time. For example, consider two
signals a(t ) and b(t ) as defined below and shown in Figure 1.9.

1 if 1=2 # t , þ1=2
aðt Þ ¼
0 otherwise

t þ1 if 1 # t , þ1
bðt Þ ¼
0 otherwise

A system that mathematically adds two signals together may be called either an
adder or a summer, and will be sketched as shown in Figure 1.6. The output of this
adder for the above signals is calculated by considering what the numerical result
of the sum would be in each defined region, at every point in time, as shown in
Figure 1.9.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems

a(t) a(t)  b(t)

b(t)

FIGURE 1.6 Adder (Summer)—The output of this system is the sum of the input signals a(t ) and b(t ).

a(t) a(t)  b(t)

b(t)

FIGURE 1.7 Multiplier (Mixer)—The output of this system is the product of the input signals a(t ) and b(t ).

a(t) (2a(t)  3b(t))  c(t)

2

b(t) c(t)
3

FIGURE 1.8 System block diagrams can be combined to create larger systems. The output is
½2aðt Þ  3bðt Þ 3 cðt Þ.

8
> t þ1 if 1 # t , 1=2
>
>
<t þ 2 if 1=2 # t , þ1=2
cðt Þ ¼ aðt Þ þ bðt Þ ¼
>
> t þ1 if þ1=2 # t , 1
>
:
0 otherwise
A system that mathematically multiplies two signals together may be called either
a multiplier or a mixer, and will be sketched as shown in Figure 1.7. The output of this
multiplier is calculated by considering what the numerical result of the product
would be in each defined region, at every point in time, as shown in Figure 1.9.

t þ 1 if 1=2 # t , þ1=2
dðt Þ ¼ aðt Þ 3 bðt Þ ¼
0 otherwise
Multiplication by a constant can be indicated by an amplifier block drawn as a
triangle as seen in Figure 1.8; the accompanying number represents the gain of the
amplifier and may be negative. This system has three inputs and one output as
½2aðt Þ  3bðt Þ 3 cðt Þ.
Operations described by system diagrams are performed graphically in
Figure 1.9. Note that the addition or multiplication is performed point-by-point on
the two operands to produce the output signal. It is often much easier to use graphs
to illustrate signals than it is to appreciate functional definitions like the ones shown
above. Furthermore, the above results can be sketched and understood by inspec-
tion on a graph without the need to specifically compute each point of the result.
The graphical approach often simplifies a computation while greatly adding to the
understanding of the system under study.
 1.2 | Introduction to Signal Manipulation 7

a(t) a(t)  b(t)

3 3

a(t) c(t)
2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Time (s) Time (s)

b(t) a(t)  b(t)

3 3

b(t) d(t)
2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 1.9 Adding and multiplying signals—cðt Þ ¼ aðt Þ þ bðt Þ; dðt Þ ¼ aðt Þ 3 bðt Þ.

1.2.3 Visualizing Signals—An Important Skill

As the examples above show, many signals may be studied by drawing simple sketches
that do not always require a computer package or a calculator to produce. In practice,
it is not always possible to work through the equations or to sit down in front of a
computer. For example, when using a sophisticated digital instrument to measure an
unusual signal, the appearance of the signal on a screen and a knowledge of how its
behavior relates to the mathematics may be all there is to guide a confident mea-
surement. Furthermore, the increasing reliance on computers to perform numerical
calculations and to produce graphs means that numerical results often will be
obtained without seeing the intermediate steps to a calculation.3 Are those results
correct? Ultimately, the same can asked for any results obtained purely by working
through the mathematics by hand. Without a basic understanding of the underlying
signal theory—without knowing what to expect—there is little chance of being able to
interpret an unexpected result or to notice unusual or unreasonable answers. Once
this appreciation is achieved, however, the essential mathematics can be approached
with confidence, and, importantly, there will always be some means of checking the
answer. In the following sections, a few basic signals are introduced along with simple
mathematical manipulations that will allow them to be used as components in

3
The use of MATLAB is no exception in this regard.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems

constructing much more complicated signals. The appreciation of how a signal may
be formed from simpler components is an important step in successful signals analysis.

1.2.4 Introduction to Signal Manipulation

Using MATLAB
MATLAB is a powerful tool that may be readily used to view signals and their
manipulations with simple command line instructions. Once a signal or a technique
has been defined for use in MATLAB, it is immediately tempting to try variations,
which can shed much light on the behavior of signals and systems.
In this section, the signals and graphs in Figure 1.9 are replicated. The rectangle
and straight line signals are first defined, along with their sum and product on the
time interval [21, 11] or 1 # t # þ1. This example can be followed step by step
in the MATLAB command window, or it may be copied as a sequence of commands
to be executed all at once. The use of such a script or m-file is to be recommended
when an operation is to be used repeatedly or tried with different parameters. Help
with any MATLAB function such as plot() is available on the command line as
help plot. A summary of MATLAB commands may be found in Appendix D.

Defining Signals A time axis called t is defined stretching from t 5 21 to t 5 11 s

with increments every 0.001 s.
t ¼  1 : 0:001 : 1; % define a time axis every 0:001 s

If the final semicolon is omitted, all 2001 points in the resulting vector will be listed.
Comments in MATLAB follow the % character. The effective use of comments can greatly
increase the readability of a sequence of commands. Next, functions a(t ) and b(t ) are
defined on the same time interval t. Let a(t ) be a simple rectangle centered at the
origin using the built-in MATLAB function rectpuls(t).4 Let b(t ) be a straight
line with slope 5 1 and intercept 5 1 using the formula b 5 t 1 1. The sum c(t ) and
product d(t ) can then be computed directly.

a = rectpuls(t); % define a(t) = a rectangle

b = t + 1; % define b(t) = a unit slope line
c = a + b; % create c(t) = the sum
d = a .* b; % create d(t) = the product

It is necessary to use a dot as d = a .* b to multiply the two signals a(t ) and b(t )
point by point.5

Basic Plotting Commands Finally, the results may be shown graphically with
the plot() command. Although MATLAB automatically scales the axes to fit, the
horizontal and vertical axes may be set to run from 21 to 11 and 21 to 13,
respectively, using the axis() command. Further commands serve to enhance the
appearance of the graph by adding grid lines and a title, and by labelling the time
axis. Let only the signal c(t ) from Figure 1.9 be displayed.

4
In MATLAB releases prior to 2011a, the command rectpuls returns a logical result. The command
double() can be used to convert a variable to double format as required.
5
Otherwise the simple d = a * b specifies an invalid matrix multiplication.
 1.3 | A Few Useful Signals 9

figure(1); % start figure 1

plot(t,c); % plot the sum
axis([-1 1 -1 3 ]); % change (x,y) limits
grid on; % include grid lines
title ('a(t) + b(t)'); % add a title
xlabel ('time (sec)'); % label the time axis

Multiple Plots on One Figure All four signals may be shown on one figure as in
Figure 1.9 using the subplot command, where subplot(2,2,x) selects graph x
from four graphs in 2 rows and 2 columns.

figure(2); % start figure 2

clf; % clear any old plots
subplot(2,2,1); % plot 1 of 4
plot(t,a); % plot signal A
subplot(2,2,2); % plot 2 of 4
plot(t,c); % plot signal C
subplot(2,2,3); % plot 3 of 4
plot(t,b); % plot signal B
subplot(2,2,4); % plot 4 of 4
plot(t,d); % plot signal D

The use of multiple plots is helpful when comparing related results, and each
subplot may be embellished as shown above to complete the four-plot figure.
As each of the following basic signals is introduced, the corresponding MATLAB
code is presented.

1.3 A Few Useful Signals

In this section, some of the most fundamental and useful signals are introduced. By
applying the manipulations of shifting and scaling and the addition or multiplication
operations, many other signals can be formed. The study of a certain signal can be
greatly simplified if it can be recognized as being composed of some basic signal types.

1.3.1 The Unit Rectangle rect(t )

One of the most versatile signals of interest is a rectangular pulse called the unit
rectangle:

DEFINITION 1.2 Unit Rectangle

Let rect(t) be a function of t such that: 8
>
> if jtj #
1
>
> 1
< 2
rectðt Þ ¼
>
> 1
>
> 0 if jtj >
: 2
then rect(t) will be called the unit rectangle.
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It was evident that all the chiefs sided with the “White Vulture,” as a
sneer was upon every lip. The “Black Dog’s” brows were dark with
rage. In a voice trembling with suppressed passion he answered the
“White Vulture.”
“The ‘White Vulture’ speaks with a forked tongue; his heart is black
toward his brother. The ‘Black Dog’ has no wounds because the
Great Spirit smiled on him and the pale-faces could not harm him.
Though he has no wounds, yet he gave wounds; the white-wagon
braves shrunk before him like the grass before the wind. The ‘Black
Dog’ is not a snake; he crawls not on the ground; but his way is like
the eagle. The ‘Black Dog’ is not blind like an owl, he would not have
run his head against the white wagons to slaughter the braves of the
Crow nation. The ‘White Vulture’ is a great chief; the snakes that
crawl in the grass and the dogs that lick the hand that feeds them,
say he is the ‘great fighting-man of the Crow nation;’ yet the squaws
at our lodges, at the great mountains, will mourn for the braves that
fell by the hands of the white warriors, by the Yellowstone, when the
‘White Vulture’ led them.”
Astonishment was visible upon the faces of the other chiefs, the
“White Vulture” alone excepted, at this speech. The face of the
“great fighting-man of the Crow nation” was like marble, no trace of
anger appeared upon it at the bitter speech of his foe. The “Crow-
Killer” watched the scene eagerly.
“He’ll give the ‘Black Dog’ a lick under the short ribs, the fust thing
he knows on. He a fighter, wah!” and the expression of contempt
was evidently intended for the Dog chief. “If the ‘White Vulture’ goes
for him, I’ll bet my pile on him every time.”
The “White Vulture” arose from his seat to answer the speech of the
“Black Dog”; all the chiefs looked on with evident anxiety; that a
storm was brewing that might end in blood was evident to all.
“The ‘White Vulture’ has listened with his ears open to the words of
the ‘Black Dog’,” began the chief. “The chief has said that the ‘White
Vulture’ led the braves of the Crow nation to death: what is death to
a warrior? Nothing! Does the ‘Black Dog’ know the reason why the
braves of the white wagons beat the red chiefs? If not, the ‘White
Vulture’ will tell him. The red braves were to creep upon the white
wagons as the panther creeps upon his prey; then they were to
spring upon the whites as quick as the forked light comes from the
hand of the Great Spirit—the red chiefs were closing in upon the
white wagons, but they were not ready for the attack, when the
squall of a squaw, the mighty capture of the ‘Black Dog,’ gave
warning to the whites that their foes were near. If the ‘Black Dog’
had not captured the white squaw the Crows would have beaten the
pale-faces.”
A low murmur went round the circle; all agreed with the “White
Vulture,” save, of course, the “Black Dog,” who, with his hand
clutched instinctively on his knife, glared upon his foe.
“My brother talks straight!” said the “Thunder-Cloud.”
Then, calm as a statue, the “White Vulture” went on in his speech:
“My brothers gave me the command of the expedition; it was good;
they are great chiefs, as brave as the white bear and wise as the
beaver.”
All the chiefs bowed assent; the compliment pleased them. Human
nature is the same, whether embosomed in the red breast or the
white. The “Black Dog” alone looked surly; he saw clearly that the
chiefs were all against him, and his heart swelled with rage to see
his foe triumph.
The “White Vulture” continued:
“The ‘Black Dog’ has said that the squaws of the Crow nation will
mourn and sing the death-song for the young braves that the ‘White
Vulture’ led to their graves. The ‘Black Dog’ lies!” and the accusation
came forth with terrific force from the lips of the chief. “The squaws
in the Crow lodges by the big mountain will mourn for the braves
slaughtered by the ‘Black Dog’ for the sake of the white squaw.”
The face of the “Black Dog” was purple with passion. In a voice
hoarse with rage, and drawing the sharp scalping-knife from his
girdle as he spoke, he addressed the “White Vulture”:
“If the great fighting-man of the Crow nation does not fear, he will
follow the ‘Black Dog’.”
And with a stately step the warrior, knife in hand, marched toward
the thicket wherein the “Crow-Killer” was concealed. The “White
Vulture” understood the challenge to mortal combat, and drawing
his knife he followed the “Black Dog.” The rest of the chiefs
remained seated in the circle awaiting the result.
The “Black Dog” headed directly for the spot where the “Crow-Killer”
lay.
“Jerusalem!” muttered the “Crow-Killer,” as the warriors came toward
his hiding-place, “if they keep on, they’ll settle me. I’ll kill that skunk
first any way, an’ save the ‘White Vulture’ the trouble.”
The scout drew his knife, but the “Black Dog” turned off abruptly to
the right and entered the thicket not far from where the scout was
ambushed. Behind stalked the “White Vulture.”
Some thirty feet from where the “Crow-Killer” lay, was a little space
unincumbered by bushes. To this spot the “Black Dog” led the
“White Vulture.”
The “Crow-Killer,” from his hiding-place, commanded a full view of
the scene, by merely turning his head.
“Sho!” he muttered, “it will be as good as a circus; but if the ‘White
Vulture’ don’t settle that fellow’s hash, I ain’t any judge of fighting,”
and then with eager eyes he looked upon the scene.
The two chiefs surveyed each other for a moment, their long, keen-
edged blades glittering in their hands. Then the “Black Dog”
advanced upon the “White Vulture” and began the attack. A moment
they swayed from side to side, like pugilists, the glittering eyes
watching for a weak spot in their opponent’s guard; then suddenly
the “Black Dog” made a desperate hinge at the breast of the “White
Vulture.” The chief avoided it by skillfully jumping back, and before
the “Black Dog” could recover himself, with a quick downward
motion he slashed the “Black Dog” across the face, cutting a terrible
gash from the forehead to the chin, from which the blood streamed
freely. Maddened with the pain and blinded by the blood which
streamed into his eyes, the “Black Dog” made a desperate push on
his nimble opponent as if to crush him by his weight; the “White
Vulture,” quick as a cat, avoided the thrust, by stepping to one side,
and then, as the “Black Dog” passed by him in his mad rush, he
lunged at him and made a terrible wound in his side. The “Black
Dog” fell on his knees, the blood streaming from the two wounds;
his strength was going fast—the wound in his side was mortal. Twice
he attempted to rise and twice he sunk back on his knees. The
“White Vulture” stood at a little distance with folded arms and
regarded him with a calm smile. A third time the “Black Dog”
essayed to gain his feet, his eyes still glaring vengeance upon his
foe. With a mighty effort the chief arose and stood erect. A single
instant only did he keep his feet; and then his strength failing, the
knife dropped from his nerveless hand and he sunk to the ground,
dead.
For a few moments the “White Vulture”—who had not received even
a single scratch in the encounter—regarded the foe who had fallen
by his arm. Calmly he looked upon him, then approached, took the
body of the dead Indian in his arms, carried it to the river’s bank and
committed it to the waters, then he carefully washed off the blood-
stains caused by handling the body, from his hands and breast,
cleaned his knife and returned to the camp.
“He’s chain-lightning!” said Abe, who had not lost a single incident of
the exciting scene.
The “White Vulture” strode into the circle of chiefs, and took his
former seat. They all surveyed him earnestly, but no trace of the
deadly conflict through which he had just passed was upon his
person.
“Brothers, listen,” he said, as he resumed his seat. “The Great Spirit
is angry with the ‘Black Dog’ for having caused so many young
braves to be slain by the white-wagon braves; the ‘Black Dog’ fell
into the swift waters and the Crow nation will see him no more. The
‘White Vulture’ will take the pale-face squaw of the ‘Black Dog,’ and
he will give his brothers his share of the fur-wagons. Is it good?”
The chiefs gravely nodded assent; it was not well for any of the
braves of the Crow nation to cross the will of the “White Vulture.”
The scout in his hiding-place was struck with a sudden idea.
“Durned if I don’t believe he picked the quarrel with the ‘Black Dog’
just to get hold of this ‘white squaw’; that’s why he wiped him out.
He’s a cute Injun,” soliloquized the guide. “The ‘white squaw’ must
be Miss Leona, ’cos thar ain’t any other female missing. I’m afraid
that the ‘Black Dog’ won’t be the only man he’s got to wipe out afore
he can have the ‘white squaw.’ But, whar on earth is the gal? I can’t
see her anywhar. She must be in the timber.”
And so the “Crow-Killer” watched the Indians eagerly, keen to
discover their plans.
 CHAPTER X.
OLD ABE ON A CRUISE.

After a very brief debate, the Crow chiefs decided to give up the
attack on the wagon-train and return to their homes, being fully
satisfied there was but little chance of success in continuing the fight
with the pale-faces.
Not a single word was said respecting the fate of the “Black Dog”; all
accepted the story of the “White Vulture” that the Dog chief had
fallen into the swift waters; and though of course the braves were
too sensible not to know that the “White Vulture” must have had
some agency in the matter, yet the explanation was reasonable and
probably would satisfy the friends and relatives of the dead brave at
home.
The council broke up, and braves were dispatched to call in the
warriors to prepare for the march. Hardly had they departed when
two mounted Indians, bearing the body of the young brave slain on
his post in the little glade by the “Crow-Killer,” dashed into the camp.
The warriors crowded around and examined the body with wonder.
That a foe should dare to slay one of their pickets, and accomplish
it, too, without exciting the slightest alarm, was a puzzle to them.
The old chief, the “Thunder-Cloud,” carefully examined the body; he
could see no other wound save the single knife-thrust through the
heart—a blow evidently driven home by a powerful and practiced
arm.
There was silence in the throng.
“The ‘Crow-Killer’!” said the old chief. He had often seen the deadly
effects of the old Indian-fighter’s arm, and rightly guessed who had
slain the young brave.
Within half an hour, the “Crow-Killer,” from his hiding-place, had the
satisfaction of seeing the red braves gather in their warriors, mount
their horses and depart, taking a course that led to the west; but no
sign did he see of Leona. Yet it was evident from the words of the
chiefs, that she was a prisoner in their hands.
“I’m sart’in that she’s in their hands,” he reflected, as the last of the
red chiefs disappeared from the little glade and was hid from his
eyes by the thicket which cut off his view of the distant prairie to the
west. “Now, the best thing I can do is to get back to the wagons as
soon as possible. I’ll send Dave on with the train to Montana, and
then I’ll trail the red devils an’ try an’ sneak the little gal out of their
clutches. That will be no easy matter, I’m afeard; but, thar’s nothin’
like tryin’. I’ve been wanting to go to the Crow nation for a long
time; now hyar’s a chance. First, to rescue the little gal; second, to
find out ’bout my Injun wife. The sooner I’m off for camp the better.”
Carefully through the timber the guide retraced his steps.
When the “Crow-Killer” reached the glade where he had slain the
Crow warrior, he halted for a moment in the timber at its edge.
“’Pears to me,” he said, talking low to himself, as usual, “that the
other side of this leetle opening in the timber would be just the
place for Dave to ambush himself. I’m downright sorry that I hain’t
had a chance to lead a dozen or so of the red devils into his fire,
but, what can’t be cured must be endured, as I’ve hearn say. Guess
I’ll find out whether Dave’s thar or not.”
Putting his hands to his mouth, Abe gave a short quick bark like a
coyote.
In a second the bark was repeated on the other side of the glade
from the thicket.
Fearlessly the “Crow-Killer” stepped from the timber into the open
space, and as he did so, Dave, rifle in hand, stepped from among
the bushes on the opposite side of the glade while behind him
appeared some four of the emigrants.
“Are the Indians near?” questioned Dave, as he met the “Crow-
Killer” in the center of the little opening and wrung him warmly by
the hand.
“Nary Injun,” responded the old hunter. “They’ve taken the back
track an’ gone off, bag an’ baggage, for the mountains.”
“And Leona?” anxiously questioned the young guide.
“I hain’t seen her,” said Abe.
The expression of disappointment upon the manly features of Dave
was painful to behold. The old guide hastened to relieve his mind.
“Don’t look or feel downhearted, man. Though I hain’t seen her, yet
I’ve hearn of her.”
“You have?” cried Dave, eagerly.
“You bet! But ’tain’t much consolation for you. She’s in the hands of
the Crows, an’ they’re carrying her off for the mountains.”
Then the “Crow-Killer” told Dave all that he had witnessed from his
hiding-place. When he had finished his story, Dave for a few minutes
was silent, apparently in deep thought.
“Abe, what shall I do?” he asked, at length.
“I s’pose you want my honest advice,” said the “Crow-Killer.”
“Yes,” responded the young guide.
“Wal, the case is jist hyar; the Crows are carrying the gal off to their
lodges in the mountains, in the Crow nation, probably to the village
of the ‘Thunder-Cloud.’ When they get thar, of course they’ll
celebrate their capture of the fur-wagons; then they’ll probably
marry the little gal to the ‘White Vulture’; that’s the programme, I
think.”
“But, if we with a small party follow them instantly, we might be able
to rescue Leona from their hands,” said Dave, eagerly.
“Small chance of that, Dave,” replied the “Crow-Killer,” shaking his
head gravely. “The Injuns are sixty or seventy strong, an’ they won’t
let the grass grow under their feet now, till they reach home. If we
follered an’ come up with ’em, the chances are, ten to one, that we’d
all be wiped out. Besides, Dave,” and the “Crow-Killer” laid his hand
on the young man’s shoulder, “you forget the wagon-train. We’ve
pledged our word to take the train safe to Montana, to guide it an’
fight for it, an’ you know, Dave, a man ain’t got much left in this
world arter he loses his word. It’s a hard thing, I know. You love the
little gal, an’ it’s a hard thing to go on an’ leave her helpless, as it
’pears, in the hands of these red devils; but, thar’s women and
children in that ’are train, an’ our word is pledged to put ’em through
to Montana.”
“I know it! I know it!” cried the young man, wrestling with the agony
of pain that thrilled through his heart, as he thought of the peril of
his Leona, the only woman in the world that he had ever loved. “I
know our word is pledged, but, to think of Leona being borne away
helpless in the hands of these red demons! Oh, Abe! show me some
way that I can at least risk my life in an attempt to save her.”
“Don’t take it so hard, Davy, lad,” said the “Crow-Killer,” in a voice
that showed his deep feeling for the young hunter. “I’ve got a plan in
my head that I think will help us a little. Two days’ travel due north
will bring the train to Fort Benton. At Fort Benton you can get guides
to take our places. Now, this is the way we’ll fix it. I’ll speak to the
emigrants, explain how the matter stands, an’ ask ’em to let me off
now. I don’t think they’ll hesitate for a minute to do it; then I’ll foller
the Crows. I know the country as well as I do my own hand; I’ve
been in the village of the ‘Thunder-Cloud’ before, though it were
years ago. You carry the train on to Fort Benton, get the guides thar
for ’em, then strike down the Missouri. The Injun village is ’bout a
hundred miles, as the crow flies, from the fort; it lies in a leetle
plain, between the Missouri and the mountains. The country is all
timbered and fine for scouting. It will take you two days to reach
Fort Benton, an’ then two days more to get to the Injun village.
When you get near the village, you foller the river all the time. Jist
hide your horse in the timber an’ scout in on foot. I’ll keep a look-out
for you. Now, what do you think of the plan? My idea for you to go
on with the train an’ let me foller the Crows is ’cos I know the
country out thar so much better than you do, an’ I can see exactly
how things air, afore you come.”
“I agree with you!” cried Dave, shaking the old hunter’s hand
warmly. “I will go on with the train, and then will join you on the
Missouri. I feel sure we shall save her from the hands of these red
devils.”
“Yes, an’ cunning alone can do it, for in that country of theirs, the
Crows can whip ten times their number easy; but if we use our
heads I think we can flax ’em.”
To the men of the train, Abe briefly explained his plan to rescue
Leona from the hands of the Crows. The emigrants willingly gave
their consent to his departure, for not a man was there—Dick
Hickman alone excepted—but would have risked their lives for the
captive girl. So the wagon-train again proceeded on its march for
golden Montana.
With a hearty shake of the hand, Abe and Dave parted—Dave riding
on with the train, and Abe, mounted on the trusty roan mare,
heading westward on the trail of the Crows.
“Guess I needn’t to hurry myself much,” said the “Crow-Killer,” as,
holding his steed by the spot where the Indians had been camped,
he watched the white-topped wagons as they disappeared in the
distance over the rolling prairie.
Finally the last one was lost to sight, and he remained alone upon
the prairie.
“I reckon I shan’t bother myself much to foller their trail,”
soliloquized the old guide. “The Injuns, of course, are going to the
village of the ‘Thunder-Cloud,’ an’ I think I could find that in the
darkest night I ever did see. So I’ll ride on slowly an’ not worry
myself. It’s ’bout two days’ journey, if the Crows travel fast, an’ I
kinder think they will. So, old hoss, you an’ I will take it easy.”
And so the hunter journeyed on leisurely. For the first five miles the
trail led by the bank of the Yellowstone; then the river turned
abruptly to the south, and the trail, parting from it, led across the
prairie, westward.
At sundown the hunter selected a convenient clump of timber, let his
horse feed on the fresh young prairie-grass, made a scanty meal
from a store of sun-dried beef and some hard crackers that he
carried, soldier-fashion, in his saddle-bags; then, after a careful
survey of the country around, went to sleep.
Early at sunrise on the following morning the “Crow-Killer” awoke,
made another scanty meal, mounted his horse and again rode on
the trail.
The savages had not even taken the trouble to conceal their tracks,
confident, doubtless, in the number of their band and the
improbability of any one following in pursuit. So the old hunter had
but little trouble in following the plainly-defined trail.
On the evening of the second day, thinking that he was within ten
miles of the Indian camp, the old guide dismounted and halted for
the night.
The third morning’s light found him again in the saddle.
The surface of the country had greatly changed, and showed that he
was at the base of the Rocky Mountains; though on the east bank of
the river, beyond the timber that fringed the stream, commenced the
vast prairie that extended eastward to the junction of the
Yellowstone and the Missouri rivers, and which is commonly called
the valley of the Yellowstone, as fertile a spot of land as the sun ever
shone upon.
The “Crow-Killer” recrossed the river, made a circuit around the
Indian village so as to approach it from the north, as Dave would
come up the bank of the river from the north and it would clearly be
an impossibility for the guide to meet him if he remained south of
the Indian village.
The “Crow-Killer” accomplished his purpose; he could easily tell the
position of the village, by the smoke arising from it and floating on
the clear mountain air.
The guide carefully hid his horse in a thicket on the river’s bank,
some three miles from the Indian settlement, and then carefully
approached it on foot.
The country was rough and uneven, and, as the “Crow-Killer” had
said, excellent for scouting. The village lay in a little hollow, near the
Missouri, surrounded on all sides, except the one washed by the
river, by hills heavily timbered.
The scout had got within a mile or so of the village—he could tell its
position by the smoke—and was proceeding cautiously along
through a little glade between two rocky hills, when he was suddenly
startled by a noise in the shrubbery right before him. Hardly had he
stopped, and before he could turn to retreat, forth from the thicket
came a huge grizzly bear, who made directly for the hunter. Abe did
not dare to use his rifle, for the report would bring the Indians upon
him—flight was his only hope, for a man stands but little chance for
his life in a close encounter with the brown monarch of the Rocky
Mountains.
Luckily a tree was near at hand, a good-sized oak. Dropping his rifle,
the “Crow-Killer” sprung for the tree, and soon ensconced himself in
its lower branches.
The grizzly came to the foot of the tree and looked upward; then, to
Abe’s dismay, forth from the thicket marched dismay, forth from the
thicket marched another grizzly, if any thing larger than the first.
“Wal, I’m in for it!” thought Abe. “I’d rather fight the Injuns than
these durned brutes. If I ain’t in a pesky difficulty then my name’s
not Abe.”
The second grizzly joined the first at the bottom of the tree, and
then both beasts looked up at the hunter and licked their jaws as if
they expected he would soon fall into them.
Luckily for the man, as it proved, the oak was a small tree, and but
one of the bears could ascend it at a time, for the grizzly is a tree-
climber as well as his brother, the black bear.
Abe watched the grizzlys closely; he knew their habits well; these
were evidently hungry, and would soon ascend the tree for their
prey.
How repulse the attack of the brutes? All of the bear kind have very
tender noses; the grizzly ascending the tree could not very well
begin an attack until he reached the limbs. So the hunter drew his
sharp knife, cut a heavy club from a convenient branch, and
trimming it of its limbs, awaited the bear’s approach.
Bruin stood upon his hind legs a moment, and then, hugging the
tree-trunk in his strong paws, began his slow ascent.
As the ugly creature came within reach, Abe dealt it a terrific blow
with the club on the tender snout, that brought a howl of agony
from the mountain king and drove him back. Again he came on;
again the strong arm of the “Crow-Killer” brought the heavy club
down upon his nose; this time a shower of blows followed the first,
and the bear, howling with agony, relinquished the assault and
descended hastily to the ground, where he rolled around and rubbed
his nose with his great paws, evidently in extreme pain.
The hunter chuckled with delight.
Then the second bear, not understanding the cause of his
companion’s defeat, ascended the tree; the same reception that the
first bear met with was accorded to the second, and he, too,
speedily retreated from the shower of blows rained down upon his
tender snout.
The two bears held a sort of a consultation at the foot of the tree,
rubbing their noses in a comical way, and evidently greatly
astonished at their defeat, and then, as if fully satisfied, they trotted
off to the thicket from which they came, and left the “Crow-Killer”
master of the field.
The guide had great difficulty to refrain from saluting the departing
brutes with a yell of triumph, but the near neighborhood of the
Indians checked him.
After being fully satisfied that the grizzlys really had retired, Abe
descended from his perch, picked up his rifle, and again resumed his
advance toward the Crow village.
 CHAPTER XI.
A RAID INTO THE CROW VILLAGE.

Three days had passed since the “Crow-Killer” had arrived at the
Indian village. On the afternoon of the second he was joined by
Dave, who had ridden night as well as day from Fort Benton.
The two scouts had taken up a position in a thicket, on one of the
hills overlooking the Crow village, and distant from it about a half a
mile. From their post they could see all that passed in the Indian
town.
From the strict watch kept around one of the lodges apart from the
rest in the northern section of the village, and from the fact that the
“White Vulture” seemed to be the only chief that visited it, the
“Crow-Killer” came to the conclusion that Leona was there confined.
The Indians had celebrated their capture of the fur-wagons in their
usual manner, and it was evident that with the furs they had also
captured some “fire-water,” for half the braves were crazy drunk, and
several murderous affrays already had taken place between the
drunken savages. It had required all the efforts of the “White
Vulture” and the older chiefs to prevent a general fight taking place.
“Well, Abe,” said Dave, as the evening of the third day drew on,
“have you devised any plan yet, so that we can penetrate into the
village and at least make an attempt to rescue my poor Leona?”
“Go easy, Dave,” said the “Crow-Killer,” in his usual calm way; “I ain’t
a-goin’ only to attempt to rescue the little gal, but I’m a-goin’ to do
it—that is if Heaven is willin’, an’ I don’t know why it shouldn’t be,
when the object is so good. If you’ve noticed, the ‘White Vulture,’ jist
’bout dusk, generally walks along past the lodge—where I think the
little gal is—an’ goes into the woods beyond it. I s’pose he likes to
get away from the rest of the drunken crowd. Now, my idea is, we’ll
leave this ambush, steal down an’ hide in the thicket jist beyond the
lone lodge; when the ‘White Vulture’ comes into the thicket, we’ll
jump upon, gag and bind him, taking care not to let him cry out;
then we’ll strip him of his toggery, an’ you put it on. You look so
much like him, now that he’s got the war-paint off, that with a little
red daubed on your face—an’ we’ll be apt to find that in his pouch—
none of the red devils will detect you. Then I’ll put on his blanket,
which will hide me, fix my face up a leetle, and we’ll walk bold as
can be, right into the camp. You shall walk right into the hut; I’ll
foller you; the braves at the door will take you for the ‘White Vulture’
an’ they won’t say nary word. When he goes within the lodge, I
notice the guards always go away, and so we’ll have the coast clear.
We’ll not wait, but take the gal and break for our horses. The Crows
won’t be apt to discover that thar’s any thing wrong, for an hour or
two, an’ by that time we’ll be in the saddle, goin’ down the Missouri
like lightning, how’s that?”
“Excellent!” cried Dave. “It can not fail!”
“Don’t be too sure. I’ve seen the best laid plans fail; thar’s a good
deal in luck, arter all,” said the “Crow-Killer,” sagely.
Cautiously the two left their ambush, and by a circuitous route,
gained the timber on the north of the village.
A little path from the open glade, wherein the huts were located,
into the thicket, went some thirty or forty feet and there stopped, as
though the person or persons that made it had been in the habit of
going so far and no further.
“You see,” said the “Crow-Killer,” pointing to the little path, “hyar’s
where he comes. All these big chiefs go away from the rest at times;
the other Injuns think that they go into the woods to talk with the
Great Spirit, but, that’s all humbug. Now, we’ll put ourselves jist
inside the thicket, an’ when he comes, we’ll jump for him. Now for a
gag.” Then the old hunter took a small piece of wood, tore a piece of
flannel from his shirt, and wound it round the wood, thus forming a
ball; then, with his knife he cut a long strip from the tail of his
hunting-shirt. “That will do to bind it in his mouth. Now for our
ambush.”
Then the two men hid themselves carefully in the thicket—one on
each side of the little path.
Just as the shades of night were descending over the Indian village,
the two guides in ambush heard the sound of approaching footsteps.
A second more and the tall form of the “White Vulture” entered the
little thicket.
Three steps he made within the wood; then, with the lightning dash
of the panther, the “Crow-Killer” sprung upon and bore him over
backward upon the earth, his broad hand clutching him by the throat
and checking his utterance; but the “White Vulture,” though taken by
surprise and unarmed, showed no disposition to cry for help. A
moment he struggled with his foe, but the iron weight of the “Crow-
Killer” was upon him, and then, after this brief effort, as if satisfied
that resistance was useless, he lay motionless and silent, while the
two guides stripped off his hunting-shirt—which was curiously
trimmed with the fur of the grizzly bear—and his leggins from him;
the gag had been placed in his mouth and firmly secured there; then
they bound his arms and legs together tightly with their belts.
The warrior bore the treatment without resistance.
The “Crow-Killer” wrapped himself in the blanket of the chief. Dave
put on the hunting-shirt and leggins. In the Indian’s pouch, as the
guide had anticipated, they found red paint, with which they stained
their faces, each acting as artist to decorate the other.
Casting a final glance at the prostrate warrior, the two whites left the
little thicket and stalked toward the village. Dave had placed the
head-dress of the “White Vulture” upon his head, when he became a
perfect likeness of the Crow chief.
On went Dave with a slow and stately step, followed by the “Crow-
Killer.” They reached the little isolated lodge. The braves, mistaking
Dave for the “White Vulture,” took but little notice of him, and left
their post as soon as he entered the little lodge. The “Crow-Killer”
quickly followed, as if by order of the chief.
By the dim light of the fire that blazed fitfully in a corner of the
lodge, Dave discerned a female figure reclining on a low couch of
bear-skins; the face was hidden by the hands, but the red-gold
locks, that hung down over her shoulders, told who the female was.
She raised her head, hearing his approach; and beholding, as she
thought, the hated painted face of the “White Vulture,” she shrunk
from him.
“Leona, do not scream!” said Dave, in a voice tremulous with
emotion.
She did not scream, but murmured, “Saved—saved!”
“Yes, if human aid can save you,” said Dave, earnestly, pressing her
to his breast.
“Come,” commanded the “Crow-Killer”; “no time to lose.”
No time indeed! for an Indian whoop rung out on the still air. Dave
started, and Leona clung tighter to the breast of her lover.
Then there was a rush of footsteps by the lodge.
“Shall we venture?” said Dave.
“We mought as well,” replied Abe.
Then again came another prolonged whoop, this time answered by a
dozen others, seemingly in rage.
“By ginger!” and the “Crow-Killer” started in astonishment, “the
‘White Vulture’!”
“Impossible!” cried Dave; “he could not have got the gag out of his
mouth. Let us make the attempt to escape at once.”
“All right,” replied Abe; “come on.” As he lifted the skin, another
series of war-whoops, coming from the north, from the direction of
the little thicket where they had left the “White Vulture,” caused him
to pause.
“What is the matter?” asked Dave, in alarm.
“Matter enough!” said the “Crow-Killer,” earnestly. “The path
between us an’ the thicket is filled with the red-skins.”
“Do you think they have discovered the ‘White Vulture’?” cried Dave.
“I don’t know,” replied Abe, despondingly, “but I’m afeard they
have.”
“Oh, Dave!” cried Leona, clinging to her lover, “will they separate us?
Oh, I would rather die than lose you!”
“Hope for the best, Leona,” said Dave, softly, yet in a voice
tremulous with emotion.
“Do you think we can escape?” she asked, looking up into the
guide’s face with those large blue eyes, so beautiful, so full of love
and trust.
“I don’t know,” said Dave, sadly, “Heaven alone knows. We’ll do the
best we can; but, if the red-skins have discovered us, I’m afraid that
nothing on earth can save us.”
The “Crow-Killer” had been listening anxiously at the door of the
lodge. The war-whoops had ceased, and a dead silence reigned in
the Indian camp.
“Well, Abe?” questioned Dave.
“I don’t hear any thing more,” said Abe. “After all, maybe it was only
some of the Injuns in one of their drunken sprees; but what they
were doing up hyar, beyond the lodge, puzzles me. At present
they’re right between us an’ the wood; so we can’t stir without
running into their clutches.”
Just then another chorus of yells rung out on the air; the Indians
were apparently approaching the lodge, as the yells were getting
nearer and nearer every moment.
“Dave!” cried the “Crow-Killer,” “I’m afeard we’re gone up; the Injuns
are coming nearer every moment.”
“Can we not fight our way through them?” cried the young guide, in
desperation.
“Nary chance for that,” and the “Crow-Killer” shook his head sagely.
“If we are discovered, better not make any resistance; we shall only
enrage ’em without doing us any good. If we fight ’em, we’re sure to
be overpowered, ’cos they’re a hundred to one; they’ll only kill us
outright; while, if we submit, they’ll shut us up as prisoners, till they
get ready to torture us, and we then stand some chance of
escaping. Just think, Dave, you an’ I dead, what will become of the
little gal?”
Then came on the night-air the sound of hurried footsteps,
approaching closer and closer.
“They’re coming!” cried the “Crow-Killer.” “I’m afeard, Dave, that it’s
all up with us; the devils seem to be heading right for the lodge.”
“Can we not cut a hole and escape through the back of the lodge?”
said Dave, eagerly.
“That’s jist what I were a thinking ’bout; but the cussed red-skins
seem to be all around us. I guess we mought as well keep quiet
awhile, ’cos they may not be after us, arter all—thar’s no tellin’.
Maybe it’s only some of the drunken Injuns.”
But, as if to give the lie to the hunter’s words, the Indian war-whoop
rung around the lodge, showing it to be completely surrounded by
the Crow warriors; then came the sound of many footsteps
approaching the door of the wigwam. The “Crow-Killer” stepped
back a few paces, folded his arms and waited for the entrance of the
foe.
Dave was in despair; he had dared every thing to save the girl he
loved, and now, at the very moment of success, after penetrating to
the Indian village—after gaining access to the prison of the captive
girl—to be baffled by the red-skins was terrible. Oh, how he wished
for a giant’s strength to crush the yelling red demons that
surrounded him! But, no avenue of escape was open; resistance was
useless; fate was against and had crushed him.
A few minutes the scouts waited in breathless suspense; they could
hear the footsteps of the Indians as they moved around the lodge,
but as yet they had not attempted to enter.
“The red sarpints are mighty afeard, I should think, if they have
discovered us, not to come an’ go for us,” said Abe, listening to the
sounds without.
“Pray Heaven!” exclaimed Dave, “that they do not suspect that we
are here.”
“Wal, if they don’t know that we are hyar, I would like to know what
in thunder they’re cavorting round hyar for.”
Another torrent of yells broke forth upon the air.
Leona clung tighter to her lover’s breast.
“Oh, they will kill you,” cried the poor girl, more eager for her lover’s
safety than for her own.
“We must all die some time, Leona,” said Dave, sadly, imprinting a
farewell kiss upon her lips, now colorless with dread.
Again the yells echoed around the lodge and footsteps approached
the door.
“They’re comin’, sart’in,” said the “Crow-Killer,” coolly.
Then the skin that served as a door was torn away, and the tall form
of the “White Vulture” stalked into the lodge, followed by the Crow
braves.
As the hunter had thought, the “White Vulture” had contrived to slip
the gag from his mouth, and it was his war-whoop summoning the
Crows to his assistance that had first startled the guides.
The “White Vulture” surveyed the scene before him for a few
moments in silence.
The guides, on their part, spoke not. The “Crow-Killer” stood, with
folded arms, and looked upon his foes, while Dave supported the
slight form of Leona.
“The ‘Crow-Killer’ is a great warrior, to dare to come into the lodges
of his foes,” said the “White Vulture.” “The Great Spirit has given him
into the hands of the Crow nation, and he shall die like a chief.”
Then, at a motion from the “White Vulture,” the Indians proceeded
to bind Dave and the “Crow-Killer,” who submitted without resistance
—which would, indeed, have been hopeless. Leona, almost fainting,
was taken from Dave’s side, and then the two whites were removed
to another lodge, near the center of the village, and placed under a
strong guard.
 CHAPTER XII.
“THUNDER-CLOUD’S” REVELATION.

“Wal, we’re in for it,” said the “Crow-Killer,” philosophically. “But, if

they will only give us time, we may trick ’em yet,” he said.
“Yes, but they will not give us time; they are too afraid of us to
linger in their vengeance.”
“You’re right, Dave; I expect they’ll settle our hash in short order.
Wal, I’ve been fighting the Crows ’bout twenty years now; I’ve shed
the life’s blood of many a Crow chief, and they can only take my life
in return; so the odds are on my side,” said the “Crow-Killer.”
At that moment the old chief, the “Thunder-Cloud,” followed by two
other warriors entered the lodge.
“Take the young brave to the lodge of the ‘Thunder-Cloud.’” The
Indians assisted Dave to rise from the skin-couch upon which he had
been placed.
“Let the ‘Crow-Killer’ open his ears and hear the words of the Crow
chief,” continued the old brave.
The two Indians conducted Dave from the lodge, through the
village, to the hut of “Thunder-Cloud.” Just at the entrance, the party
was met by the “White Vulture,” who looked at the warriors in
astonishment.
“Who has dared to take the pale-face from the lodge where the
‘White Vulture’ placed him?” questioned the chief, angrily.
“The ‘Thunder-Cloud’ would talk with the ‘Crow-Killer’ alone,”
responded one of the Indians; “he has a secret to tell the pale-face
that will make the great chief howl like a dog.”
“It is well; the ‘Thunder-Cloud’ is a great chief; let my brothers go
on,” replied the “White Vulture” as he walked away. The Indians
placed Dave in the lodge and left him to solitude and the bitterness
of his own reflections.
The “White Vulture” walked slowly through the village, paused at the
hut wherein was confined the “Crow-Killer”—listened for a moment
at the door, and then as if hearing something to excite his curiosity,
he noiselessly stole round to the back of the lodge, extended himself
upon the ground and listened to the conversation going on within.
After the Indians had departed with Dave, the “Thunder-Cloud”
gazed with a look of curiosity upon the massive form of the great
enemy of his nation—the famous “Crow-Killer”—as he lay extended
on the bed of bear-skins.
The hunter’s face was stoically indifferent as he gazed upon the old
chief.
After a long silence, the old chief stirred up the little fire burning
within the lodge, which threw a glimmering, uncertain light around.
“The ‘Crow-Killer’ is a great chief,” said the old warrior, breaking the
silence.
“What does the ‘Thunder-Cloud’ want with the ‘Crow-Killer’?” asked
the guide, speaking in the Crow tongue.
“Many braves of the Crow nation have been sent to the happy
hunting-grounds by the knife and the bullet of the ‘Crow-Killer.’”
“The ‘Thunder-Cloud’ speaks truth,” replied Abe. “I’ve done for
enough Crows to keep the race on short allowance for braves.”
“The ‘Crow-Killer’ is a great warrior; he steals like a snake into the
lodges of the Crows and he overcomes the great chief, the ‘White
Vulture,’ in single fight; the blood of the Crow braves is red upon his
hands; their spirits cry from the white clouds for vengeance. It is
good; the chiefs of the Crows listen; their ears are open, they hear
the wail of their slaughtered brothers; the ‘Crow-Killer’ is a great
chief, he will die before the sun comes over the big river.”
“The chief speaks with a straight tongue; the ‘Crow-Killer’ has done
all that the chief has said; he is a great warrior and the Crows are
dogs that howl and run before him; no Crow chief dares to meet the
‘Crow-Killer’ in single fight. He has slain every Crow warrior that has
faced him. The ‘Thunder-Cloud’ had a brother; that brother, the
‘Rolling Cloud,’ fell by the knife of the ‘Crow-Killer’; he stole away the
singing bird of the Crows, and the ‘Little Star’ sung many moons in
the wigwam of the white chief. The ‘Crow-Killer’ does not fear death;
he is not a dog to howl with fear; he will be tied to the torture-stake
and he will laugh at the Crow warriors that run from him when he is
free and dance around him when he is tied. The Crows are dogs and
the ‘Crow-Killer’ spits upon them!”
The veins upon the forehead of the Indian swelled purple with rage,
as he listened to the taunts of the demon of his race—taunts hurled
at him in his own tongue. At last, the Warrior found his voice:
“The ‘Crow-Killer’ talks big; let him open his ears and the ‘Thunder-
Cloud’ will speak words that will make him howl like a dog. The
‘Crow-Killer’ will not die like a chief at the torture-stake; he will die
here in the wigwam of the Crow—die by the knife of the ‘Thunder-
Cloud’; but, before the red chief strikes the pale-face, he shall listen
to words that kill.”
The “Thunder-Cloud” approached nearer to the “Crow-Killer,” and
then, with a glance of deadly hatred, he spoke again:
“The ‘Crow-Killer’ has said that he stole away the ‘Little Star’ and
that she sung many moons in his wigwam by the big river. The white
chief speaks truth. He did steal the singing bird of the Crow nation;
she sung in his lodge, and when the ice in the big river melted, the
‘Little Star’ gave the ‘Crow-Killer’ two young braves. The white chief
was proud of his pappooses, but the Crows had not forgotten the
singing bird, and when the leaves and grass began to die, the
‘Thunder-Cloud’ led the warriors of the Crows to the big river to the
lodge of the ‘Crow-Killer’ and took his squaw and his two pappooses.
Then they traveled to the Crow villages, but when all was dark they
halted by the bank of the big river; there the Blackfeet surprised the
Crow camp; the Crow braves fought like the white bear, but the
Blackfeet were like the blades of grass on the prairie and took the
‘Little Star’ and the two pappooses of the ‘Crow-Killer’; but the blue-
coated white braves came upon the Blackfeet and took their scalps.
Then the Blackfeet warriors, flying with the ‘Little Star’ and the
pappooses, were set upon by the Crow braves, who again took the
‘Little Star’ and the young braves but, after the fight, one of the
pappooses was gone.” The old hunter started in astonishment.
“Either the Blackfeet braves or the blue-coated whites had taken one
of the pappooses, but the Crows had the ‘Little Star’ and the other
pappoose. They carried them to their lodges by the big mountains.
The ‘Little Star’ would not marry the ‘Rolling Cloud,’ and she was
killed by the Crow nation; but the young pappoose—the pappoose of
the ‘Crow-Killer’ and the ‘Little Star’—was reared and made a warrior
of by the Crows. He is now the ‘great fighting-man of the Crow
nation.’ Does the ‘Crow-Killer’ understand? the ‘White Vulture’ is his
son! That son, to-night, has given him into the hands of the Crows.
The ‘Crow-Killer’ has killed many a young warrior of the Crow nation,
but the red chiefs will be avenged, for the ‘Crow-Killer’ will die and
know that his son is a great Chief of the Crow nation, and that son
hates and will kill the whites. Has my brother heard?”
And the old chief looked down upon the guide with a glance of
triumph. Busy thoughts were in the mind of the ‘Crow-Killer.’ He
replied not to the Crow, and looked at him with an expression of
contempt.
“My brother is silent. Have the words of the ‘Thunder-Cloud’ taken
away his tongue? Let the ‘Crow-Killer’ listen again. When the light
comes over the big river, the ‘Thunder-Cloud’ will come back, and
the knife of the Crow chief will drink the blood of the ‘Crow-Killer.’
The chief has said; it is good.” Saying which, the Indian stalked from
the lodge.
In a few minutes Dave was brought back by the two guards, and
again placed within the hut; then the Indians withdrew and laid
themselves down before the door.
The “Crow-Killer” repeated the story of the “Thunder-Cloud” to
Dave; the mystery of the birth of the young guide was all made
plain, as well as the wonderful resemblance between him and the
“White Vulture”; they were brothers!
“Wal, it’s fate,” finally exclaimed Abe; “I don’t rebel ag’in’ it. I
confess, though, I’d like to have a chance to tell the Crows what I
think about ’em afore I die. It kinder makes me feel proud to think,
too, that a son of mine is their great chief. Blood will tell; the white
blood, my blood, has made him what he is—the biggest fighting-
man in all the Crow nation.”
“We have not many hours before us,” said Dave.
“No, our time is ’bout up; the old chief don’t dare to let us die in
public, now that we know this secret. He’ll probably send the Indians
that guard the lodge away on some pretense, an’ then quietly finish
us.”
And so we’ll leave the two guides to their reflections and return to
Leona. The poor girl was in despair; she thought to herself that she
alone was to blame for the danger of her lover, for, if it had not been
for her, he would never have come, and would have escaped the
certain death that now awaited him.
“Oh!” she cried, in agony, “why did I ever see him—why should I
cost him his life?”
Some time had passed since the Indians had removed the two
guides from the lodge; she dreaded every moment lest she should
hear the sounds that would announce to her the death of her lover;
but, the Indian village was still as death.
Suddenly the poor girl heard the sound of footsteps approaching the
lodge; ’twas but a single man; the skin of the doorway was presently
pushed aside, and the tall form of the “White Vulture” stood before
the helpless maid. In terror she gazed upon the Indian; by the dim
light of the flickering fire she could distinguish his features, now
utterly divested of paint, and for the first time she noticed the
wonderful resemblance that the Indian chief bore to her lover.
“Why does the Singing Bird weep?” asked the “White Vulture,” in
soft tones, and speaking English plainly, and with a very slight Indian
accent.
“Because I am unhappy,” truthfully answered the maiden.
“Why? No harm shall come to the white squaw.”
Leona shook her head sorrowfully, as if in doubt.
“The wigwam of the ‘White Vulture’ is empty; will not the white bird
come and sing in the lodge of the Crow chief?”
“What, I?” For the first time Leona guessed the fate that was
intended for her, and her heart sunk within her at the very thought.
“Yes, you! The ‘White Vulture’ is a great chief of the Crow nation; he
loves the Singing Bird of the whites; he would take her to his
wigwam; she shall not work like the red squaws: she shall be the
Singing Bird of the greatest chief in the Crow nation. Will the white
squaw come?”
“No! no! I can not!” cried Leona, looking pleadingly into the face of
the “White Vulture.”
“The Singing Bird loves another?” asked the “White Vulture,” in his
calm, clear tones.
“Yes,” replied Leona.
“Is the Singing Bird sure that she loves another?” continued the
chief.
“Yes, I am sure,” said Leona, wonderingly.
“The white squaw loves the young guide who looks like the red
chief, and is a prisoner in the village of the Crows?”
“Yes,” answered Leona, mournfully but firmly.
“It is good; does the white hunter love the Singing Bird?” said the
chief.
“Yes, loves her as his life.”
“Does the white squaw know that the young hunter will die by the
hands of the Crows before the sun rises over the big river?”
Leona hid her face in her hands, sobbing.
“The Singing Bird says she loves the white hunter; if she loves him,
will she save him from death?”
Leona, through her tears, gazed in astonishment up at the stolid
features of the Indian.
“I save him? How?” she cried.
“The white hunter’s life belongs to the ‘White Vulture.’ If the ‘White
Vulture’ says ‘Go free,’ no warrior in the Crow nation will dare say
‘No.’ If the Singing Bird will promise to come and sing in the lodge of
the ‘White Vulture,’ the white hunter shall return to his people.” And
the Indian bent his full, dark eyes upon her as he spoke.
A few moments Leona hesitated; she could save her lover’s life by
sacrificing her own, for she knew full well that death would soon
claim her as his own should she remain in the wilderness. Her lover
had risked his life and was now to fall a sacrifice in endeavoring to
save her; she could save him, and as she loved him better than she
did her own life, she resolved upon her own sacrifice.
“Set him free and I promise to do whatever you will.”
“The Singing Bird is wise,” responded the “White Vulture,” in the
same calm tone as before; no trace of feeling could be discerned
upon his face. “Let the Singing Bird follow me.”
Then from the Indian lodge went the “White Vulture,” and Leona
followed him.
The chief led the way through the village, which seemed deserted,
as it really was—as all the braves, with the exception of the two who
watched the lodge wherein the whites were confined, were
assembled at a grand council at the upper end of the tillage.
The chief, passing the lodges, reached the little thicket where the
“Crow-Killer” and Dave had captured him a few hours before.
“The Singing Bird will wait for the chief’s return and not stir?”
questioned the “White Vulture.”
“Yes,” replied Leona, now passive in her agony.
“It is good—wait!” responded the chief.
Then the “White Vulture” left the girl, walked back through the
village and halted at the door of the lodge wherein were confined
the two guides. The two braves on watch at the entrance drew off to
a respectful distance as the chief entered the hut.
The two hunters, by the dim light thrown from the fire, could discern
who their visitor was, and they exchanged a glance of meaning as
the elder looked upon his son and the younger hunter upon his
brother.
Noiselessly and without a word the “White Vulture” drew his keen-
edged scalping-knife, stepped across the lodge and slit the skins that
formed the back of the lodge so as to make a passage through
them; then passing through, he beckoned the hunters to follow.
Their hands alone were bound; they obeyed the gesture in wonder.
The “White Vulture” cautiously led the way back of the lodges to the
outskirts of the village to the little thicket; there he halted and