See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/264552864

An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop

Chapter · June 2014

CITATIONS READS

18 73,866

6 authors, including:

Fabián Fernández-Luqueño Fernando López-Valdez

Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicada - Instituto Politécnico Nacional
167 PUBLICATIONS 2,677 CITATIONS 59 PUBLICATIONS 943 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Mariana Miranda-Arámbula Nicolaza Pariona

Centro De Investigación En Biotecnología Aplicada Institute of Ecology INECOL
14 PUBLICATIONS 163 CITATIONS 44 PUBLICATIONS 974 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Fernando López-Valdez on 17 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

In: Sunflowers ISBN: 978-1-63117-347-9
Editor: Juan Ignacio Arribas © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SUNFLOWER CROP

Fabián Fernández-Luqueño1,, Fernando López-Valdez2,

Mariana Miranda-Arámbula2, Minerva Rosas-Morales2,
Nicolaza Pariona1 and Roberto Espinoza-Zapata3
1
Natural Resources and Energy Group, Cinvestav-Saltillo, Coahuila, México
2
CIBA - Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Tepetitla de Lardizábal, Tlaxcala, México
3
Crop Breeding Department, UAAAN, Saltillo, Coahuila, México

ABSTRACT
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) belongs to the family Asteraceae. The Helianthus
genus contains 65 different species of which 14 are annual plants. The sunflower plant
originated in eastern North America. It is thought to have been domesticated around 3000
B.C. by Native Americans. In the late 1800s the sunflower was introduced in the Russian
Federation where it became a food crop and Russian farmers made significant
improvements in the way that the sunflower was cultivated. Since 3000 B.C. a wide
range of uses of sunflower have been reported throughout the world such as ornamental
plant, medicinal, alimentary, feedstock, fodder, dyes for textile industry, body painting,
decorations, and so on. Sunflower species are allelopathic in nature and this crop appears
to have a bright future, especially if the scientists can translate the cutting-edge research
into technologies that will reduce the reliance on synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and
crop protection chemicals. On the one hand sunflower is well known by its
phytoremediation potential, thus it can be speculated that the good tolerance of sunflower
towards pollutants coupled with an increased accumulation/degradation capacity might
contribute to an efficient removal of pollutants from soil and water; on the other hand
sunflower possesses the potential to develop bioenergy systems that allow for synergies
between food and energy production. Because the sunflower has several potential
markets, it is a good choice for growers on both small and large scales. However, it has to
be remembered that scientific, technical or agricultural projects linked with sunflower
have to include side effects elsewhere in order to shape a sustainable future.

*
Corresponding author: F. Fernández-Luqueño, Natural Resources and Energy Group, Cinvestav-Saltillo, Coahuila.
C. P. 25900, México Tel.: +52 844 4389625; Fax: +52 844 4389610. E-mail address: cinves.cp.cha.luqueno@
gmail.com.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

2 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

Keywords: Allelopathy, biodiesel, phytoremediation, renewable energy, sustainable

development, symbiosis

1. INTRODUCTION
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) belongs to the family Asteraceae. Helianthus genus
contains 65 different species (Andrew et al., 2013). The name Helianthus, being derived from
helios (the sun) and anthos (a flower), has the same meaning as the English name Sunflower,
which has been given these flowers from a supposition that they follow the sun by day,
always turning towards its direct rays. The sunflower that most people refer to is H. annuus,
an annual sunflower. In general, it is an annual plant which possesses a large inflorescence
(flowering head), and its name is derived from the flower's shape and image, which is often
used to depict the sun. The plant has a rough, hairy stem, broad, coarsely toothed, rough
leaves and circular heads of flowers (Khaleghizadeh, 2011). The heads consist of many
individual flowers which mature into seeds on a receptacle base (Seghatoleslami et al., 2012).
Sunflower is the world‘s fourth largest oil-seed crop and its seeds are used as food and its
dried stalk as fuel. It is already been used as ornamental plant and was used in ancient
ceremonies (Harter et al., 2004; Muller et al., 2011). Additionally, medical uses for
pulmonary afflictions have been reported. In addition, parts of this plant are used in making
dyes for the textile industry, body painting, and other decorations. Sunflower oil is used in
salad dressings, for cooking and in the manufacturing of margarine and shortening
(Kunduraci et al., 2010). Sunflower is used in industry for making paints and cosmetics. A
coffee type could be made with the roasted seeds. In some countries the seed cake that is left
after the oil extraction is used as livestock feed. In the Soviet Union the hulls are used for
manufacturing ethyl alcohol, in lining for plywood and growing yeast. The dried stems have
also been used for fuel. The stems contain phosphorous and potassium which can be
composted and returned to soil as fertilizer. Sunflower meal is a potential source of protein
for human consumption due to its high nutritional value and lack of anti-nutritional factors
(Fozia et al., 2008).
Sunflower was a common crop among American Indian tribes throughout North
America. Evidence suggests that the plant was cultivated by natives in present-day Arizona
and New Mexico about 3000 B.C. Some archaeologists suggest that sunflower may have been
domesticated before corn (NSA, 2013). Although the scientific consensus had long been that
sunflower was domesticated once in eastern North America, the discovery of pre-Columbian
sunflower remains at archaeological sites in Mexico led to the proposal of a second
domestication center in southern Mexico. However, evidences from multiple evolutionary
important loci and from neutral markets support a single domestication event for extant
cultivated sunflower in eastern North America (Blackman et al., 2011).
The objective of this chapter is to present and discuss a summary about the huge amount
of information in which the sunflower is the main subject. The chapter aims to assist people
involved in all aspects of sunflower management, including conservation, agriculture, mining,
energy, food production, health and other industries, to obtain a broad knowledge of
sunflower and of its ecosystem services.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 3

2. BOTANICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Sunflowers are botanically classified as Helianthus annuus L. (Table 1). They are large
plant and are grown throughout the world because of their relatively short growing season.
Sunflower is an annual herb, with a rough, hairy stem, 3 to 12 feet high, broad, coarsely
toothed, rough leaves, 3 to 12 inches long and circular heads of flowers, 3 to 6 inches wide in
wild specimens and often a foot or more in cultivation. The flower-heads are composed of
many small tubular flowers arranged compactly on a flattish disk: those in the outer row have
long strap-shaped corollas, forming the rays of the composite flower. Each sunflower head, or
inflorescence, is actually composed of two types of flowers. What appears to be yellow petals
around the edge of the head are actually individual ray flowers. The face of the head is
comprised of hundreds of disk flowers, which each form into a seed (achene).
The basic chromosome number for the Helianthus genus is 17. Diploid, tetraploid and
hexaploid species are known. There are only 14 annual species of Helianthus. Plant breeders
have made interspecific crosses within the genus and have transferred such useful characters
as higher oil percentage, cytoplasmic male sterility for use in production of hybrids, and
disease and insect resistance to commercial sunflower.

Table 1. Scientific classification of H. annuus L.; this genus counts 65 different species

Taxa
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Viridaeplantae
Infrakingdom Streptophyta
Division Tracheophyta
Subdivision Spermatophytina
Infradivision Angiospermae
Class Magnoliopsida
Superorder Asteranae
Order Asterales
Family Asteraceae
Subfamily Helianthoideae
Tribe Heliantheae
Genus Helianthus
Specie annuus
The taxonomic classification has been in place since 1753.

3. PRODUCTION
In recent years, the sunflower cultivated area has been steadily increasing due to the
breeding of dwarf high yielding hybrids that also facilitate mechanization and the emphasis
given to polyunsaturated acids for human consumption. Global production grew steadily in
last 25 years (PSD-USDA, 2011), and FAO expect a total world output close to 60 million
tons towards 2050. The four largest producers (Russia, Ukraine, European Union and
Argentina) account for 70% of global volume, with an exponential growth of production in

Complimentary Contributor Copy

4 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

the last ten years in the Black Sea region, with increased acreage an higher yields achieved by
the replacing old varieties by hybrid seeds.
According to data from FAOSTAT (FAOSTAT, 2011) Russia Federation ranked first
producing ca. 9.7 millions of tons of sunflower seeds or 26% of the world total. Ukraine and
Argentina ranked second and third place with 8.6 and 3.6 tons of sunflower seeds,
respectively. France, Romania, China, Bulgaria, Hungary, Turkey, and Spain produced
between 1.0 and 1.9 millions of tons of sunflower seeds (Table 2). The United States
produced ca. 1.0 millions of tons of sunflower seeds, or 5% of the world‘s total production.
That is enough to make the United States rank eleventh in that category. South Africa ranked
twelfth producing ca. 0.9 millions of tons of sunflower seeds.

Table 2. The highest twelve sunflower seed producing countries

in the world during 2011

Place Countries Production (tons)

1 Russia Federation 9,696,450
2 Ukraine 8,670,500
3 Argentina 3,671,750
4 France 1,882,450
5 Romania 1,789,330
6 China 1,700,000
7 Bulgaria 1,439,700
8 Hungary 1,374,780
9 Turkey 1,335,000
10 Spain 1,084,300
11 United States of America 924,550
12 South Africa 860,000
Russia followed by Ukraine are harvesting almost half of the world sunflower seed production. The
total sunflower seed production is reaching ca. 35 millions of tons
Data source: data obtained from FAOSTAT (2011).

According to FAO (FAO, 2010), there are some key production parameters which have
to be known by farmers throughout the world:

 Sunflowers are grown in warm to moderate semi-arid climatic regions of the world
from Argentina to Canada and from central Africa to the Commonwealth of
Independent States (Esmaeli et al., 2012; Onemli, 2012).
 Frost will damage sunflowers at all stages of growth. The plant grows well within a
temperature range of 20-25°C; temperatures above 25°C reduce yields and oil
content of the seeds (Thomaz et al., 2012).
 Plants are drought-resistant, but yield and oil content are reduced if they are exposed
to drought stress during the main growing and flowering periods. Sunflowers will
produce moderate yields with as little as 300 mm of rain per year, while 500-750 mm
are required for better yields (Gholamhoseini et al., 2013; Ghaffari et al., 2012).
 Sunflowers adapt to a wide variety of soil, but perform best on good soils suitable for
maize or wheat production (Radanielson et al., 2012).

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 5

 Sunflower plant density of 5-8 plants per m2 is required to form the optimum leaf
area for plant photosynthesis. Kernel weight (40-80 g per 1000 kernels) and the
average number of kernels in a sunflower head (1200-1500) are the other most
important yield component (Seassau et al., 2012; Emami-Bistghani et al., 2012).
 Sunflower growth depends more on nitrogen than any other nutrient. Due to its deep
rooting system, sunflower is able to use nitrogen from soil layers that are inaccessible
to wheat, corn or other field crops. The plant requires a maximum of 150 kg of
nitrogen per hectare to produce a three tons ha-1 yield. Over fertilization may lead to
sunflower lodging. Phosphorous, potassium, boron, magnesium and molybdenum are
also needed to achieve the best yields (Jabeen and Ahmad, 2012; Babaeian et al.,
2011).
 The average fatty acid composition of oil from temperate sunflower crops is 55-75%
linoleic acid and 15-25% oleic acid. Protein content is 15-20% (Aznar-Moreno et al.,
2013; Ali and Ullah, 2012).
 Planting in the Western Balkan countries, Eastern Europe and countries of the
Former Soviet Union takes place during March and April (Zheljazkov et al., 2012;
Saleem et al., 2008).
 Sunflower has one of the shortest growing seasons of the major economically
important crops of the world. Early maturing varieties are ready for harvesting 90 to
120 days after planting, and late maturing varieties 120 to 160 days after planting.
Delayed harvesting causes unwelcome changes in oil quality, with an increase in free
fatty acid content. The seeds are ready to harvest when the heads turn black or brown
and the seed moisture content reaches 10-12%. Grain combines are fairly easily
adapted for the harvesting of sunflower by the addition of a head snatcher (Borbely et
al., 2008).
 Depending on climatic and cultivation conditions, yields can vary from as much as
600 to 3000 kg ha-1; irrigation is a key factor for obtaining high yields (Chigeza et
al., 2013; Khan et al., 2013; Akhtar et al., 2012).

Table 3 shows the oil yields in gallons per acre of oil producing crops, the yields will
vary in different agroclimatic zones. Sunflower produces 98 Gal oil acre-1. That is enough to
make the sunflower rank twenty-third in that category. Additionally, higher-yielding oil crops
like safflower, mustards and sunflower have significant rotational benefits. For example, deep
safflower and sunflower roots help break up hardpan and improve soil tilth.

4. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Sunflower is a broadleaf plant that emerges from the soil with two large cotyledons
(Rawat et al., 2010). The emergence will take four to five days when planted an inch deep in
warm soil, but will take a few days longer in cooler soils or when planted deeper. Soil
crusting can make it difficult for the large seedlings to push out of the soil. Sunflowers grow
rapidly, producing large and rough leaves. Current sunflower varieties reach an average
height of six feet, varying between five and seven feet depending on planting date and soil
conditions (Saensee et al., 2012). After reaching their full height and blooming, heads on

Complimentary Contributor Copy

6 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

commercial cultivars turn downwards, designed to make it harder for birds to eat the seed.
Commercial sunflowers have flowers that are self-compatible for pollination, meaning they
do not require a pollinating insect, although some studies have shown bee pollinators
providing a slight yield boost (de Carvalho and de Toledo, 2008). Some farmers prefer
sowing their rows from north to south so that the capitula can lean into the row space, rather
than bumping against an adjacent plant, causing some seed to fall (Olowe and Adeyemo,
2009).

Table 3. Oil producing crops

Number Crop Scientific name Yield (Gal oil acre-1)

1 Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq. 610
2 Macauba palm Acrocomia aculeata Jacq. 461
3 Pequi Caryocar brasiliense Camb. 383
4 Buriti palm Mauritia flexuosa L. 335
5 Oiticia Licania rigida Benth 307
6 Coconut Cocos nucifera L. 276
7 Avocado Persea americana Mill. 270
8 Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa Humb & Bonpl. 245
9 Macadamia nut Macadamia ternifolia F.V. Muell. 230
10 Jatrofa Jatropha curcas L. 194
11 Babassu palm Orbignya martiana Mart. 188
12 Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis Link 186
13 Pecan Carya illinoensis Wangenh. 183
14 Bacuri Platonia insignis Mart. 146
15 Castor bean Ricinus communis L. 145
16 Ghoper plant Euphorbia lathyris L. 137
17 Pissava Attalea funifera Mart. 136
18 Olive tree Olea europea L. 124
19 Rapessed Brassica napus L. 122
20 Opium poppy Papaver somniferum L. 119
21 Peanut Arachis hypogea L. 109
22 Cocoa Theobroma cacao L. 105
23 Sunflower Helianthus annuus L. 98
24 Tung oil tree Aleurites fordii Hemsl. 96
Yields of common energy crops are associated with biodiesel production. This is not related to ethanol
production, which relies on starch, sugar, and cellulose content instead of oil yields.

Experiments have been carried out to improve the growth and development of sunflower
under natural or stress conditions (Gerardo et al., 2013; Nasim et al., 2011; Da Silva et al.,
2012). Naz and Bano (2013) reported that the adverse effects of salt stress on sunflower
growth could be alleviated by foliar application of salicylic acid alone or in combination with
Azospirillum and Pseudomonas inoculations (Table 4). Gholamhoseini et al. (2013) shown
that the application of Glomus musseae and Glomus hoi could be critical in the cultivation of
sunflowers under arid and semi-arid conditions, where water is the most important factor in
determining plant growth and yield. Additionally, Akbari et al. (2011) reported that
inoculating the sunflower seeds with plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria increased the

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 7

qualitative and quantitative properties of sunflower significantly, as compared to the control

treatment.

Table 4. Recent uses of the sunflower during the last years; main or alternative uses
make evident the diversity of sunflower

Area Description References

Food
Blends of high linoleic sunflower oil with (Ramadan, 2013)
selected cold pressed soils.
Production of florets of sunflower. (Liang et al., 2013)
Tocopherols and phytosterols for the human (Fernández-Cuesta et al.,
food market. 2012)
Sunflower flour as a rich source of high (Levic et al., 2012)
quality proteins.
Protein hydrolysis using proteases. (Tavano, 2013)
Animal Feed
Sunflower products fed to finishing pigs. (González-Vega and Stein,
2012)
Ingestive behavior and physiological (Agy et al., 2013)
responses of goats fed with sunflower cake.
Nutritional value of sunflower meal on broiler (Moghaddam et al., 2012)
chickens.
Potential nutritive value as source of feed for (Osuga et al., 2012)
ruminants in Kenya.
Energy
Methane production. (Fernández-Cegrí et al., 2013;
Todorovic et al., 2013)
Biodiesel production. (Iriarte and Villalobos, 2013;
Iglesias et al., 2012)
Bioenergy: biotechnology progress and (González-Rosas et al., 2013)
emerging possibilities.
Anaerobic digestion of sunflower oil cake. (De la Rubia et al., 2013)
Oil production. (Spinelli et al., 2012)
Sustainability
Of sunflower cultivation within the EU (Spugnoli et al., 2012)
Renewable Energy Directive.
Sustainable sunflower processing. (Weisz et al., 2013)
Economic sustainability of sunflower (Keskin and Dellal, 2011)
production.
Symbiosis and Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation (Naz and Bano, 2013; Audet
on sunflower. and Charest, 2013;
Gholamhoseini et al., 2013)

Complimentary Contributor Copy

8 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

Table 4. (Continued)

Area Description References

Symbiosis and Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
Bacterial inoculation speeds zinc release from (Khoshgoftarmanesh et al.,
ground tire rubber. 2012)
A strain of Bacillus subtilis stimulates (López-Valdez et al., 2011)
sunflower growth.
Remediation
Biodegradation of PAHs. (Tejeda-Agredano et al.,
2013)
Plant response to lead. (Doncheva et al., 2013)
Metal accumulation on sunflower. (Mahmood et al., 2013; Hao et
al., 2012)
Fertilization, pesticides and environment
Foliar fertilization with molybdenum. (Skarpa et al., 2013)
Fertilization affects the agronomic traits of (Mohammadi et al., 2013)
high oleic sunflower hybrid.
Gas exchange in sunflower plants. (Da Silva et al., 2013)
Effect of different nitrogen level on yield (Rafiei et al., 2012)
components.
Biological control
Encrusting offers protection against (Szemruch and Ferrari, 2013)
phytotoxic chemicals.
Biological control of Macrophomina (Ullah, 2010)
phaseolina on sunflower.
Allelopathic effects
On growth of rice and subsequent wheat crop. (Bashir et al., 2012)
On seed germination and seedling growth of (Rawat et al., 2012)
Trianthema portulacastrum.
Health
In vivo evaluation of an oral health toothpaste (Schafer et al., 2007)
with sunflower oil.
Health benefits of the sunflower kernel. (Holliday and Phillips, 2001)

5. SUNFLOWER ALLELOPATHY
Sunflower species are allelopathic in nature; as well cultivated sunflower has great
allelopathic potential and inhibits weed-seedling growth of velvet leaf, thorn apple, morning
glory, wild mustard and other weeds (Macías et al., 1998a). Two members of the genus
Helianthus contain a great quantity of allelopathic compounds. H. annuus is well known for
its allelopathic compounds, including sesquiterpene lactones, heliespirones A, annoionones,
helibis-abonols and heliannols (Macías et al., 1998b). Heliannols A, D and E have special
relevance due to high phytotoxic activity (Macías et al., 1999).

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 9

Figure 1. Some molecular structures of allelopathic compounds presents in sunflower cultivars. A)

Annuithrin (sesquiterpene lactone) or Niveusin C, a growth inhibitor. B) Furanoheliangoline, a
biologically active molecule. C) Germacranolide, a toxic sesquiterpene lactone (a potent feeding
deterrents).

Helianthus tuberosus contains helian-gine and H. annuus contains a sesquiterpene

lactone; a heliangolide [Annuithrin or Niveusin C (Figure 1A)] (a growth inhibitor);
furanoheliangolide [(Figure 1B) a biologically active]; three additional sesquiterpene
lactones: the known compound niveusin B, a germacranolide (Figure 1C) (the tifruticin-type);
a 3-ethoxy-niveusin B; an ethoxyheliangolide (Spring et al., 1982) and coumarins (only
accumulate in healthy sunflower plants as a response to the variation in environmental
conditions that affect field-grown plants). In sunflower, it was reported that the concentrations
of scopolin exceeded those in both infected and uninfected plants (Gutiérrez-Mellado et al.,
1996).
Scopoletin have been described as phytoalexins and allelopathic compounds, being
accumulated in response to fungal and parasitic plant infection, insect attack, mechanical
injury and treatment with abiotic elicitors such as sucrose and CuCl2, and plant hormones;
besides scopoletin has also been shown to have a physiological activity, including the
promotion of stomatal closure in sunflower and inhibition of bud growth in pea at very low
concentrations (Gutiérrez-Mellado et al., 1996).
Annuithrin was tested using a bioassay with Avena straight growth test. The addition of a
concentration range from 50 to 180 μM resulted in a linear reduction of growth between 10
and 90%. In fact, annuithrin was shown to have antibacterial qualities. However, fungi and
yeast were either less inhibited or not inhibited (minimal inhibitory concentration, MIC 45 μg
mL-1 on Bacillus brevis; MIC 90 μg mL-1 on Proteus vulgaris; MIC 90 μg mL-1 on
Eremothecium ashbyi; Macías et al., 1996). In addition, in vivo DNA and RNA synthesis in
cells of the ascitic form of Ehrlich carcinoma was drastically reduced by annuithrin (at an
annuithrin concentration of 20 μg mL-1 about 50% inhibition of DNA synthesis and about
75% inhibition of RNA synthesis) (Spring et al., 1981).
It is well known that there are examples of allelopathic cover crops being used for weed
management in other crops, as well as other cultural methods to employ allelopathy (Duke,
2010). However, there are still no cultivars of crops being sold with allelopathic properties as
a selling point (Cheema and Khaliq, 2000; Tesio and Ferrero, 2010). Enhancement or
impartation of allelopathy in crops through the use of transgenes could eventually be used to

Complimentary Contributor Copy

10 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

produce such a cultivar. The study of allelopathic crops appears to have a bright future,
especially if the scientists can translate the cutting-edge research into technologies that will
reduce the reliance on synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and crop protection chemicals. Tesio
and Ferrero (2010) reported that the use of allelopathic traits from crops or cultivars with
important weed inhibition qualities, together with common weed control strategies, can play
an important role in the establishment of sustainable agriculture. It has to be noted that
allelopathy may also be another component of desired improved weed management. It will
not solve all weed problems in any field, but may help considerably to reduce the population
of weeds in the fields (Labrada, 2008).

6. PHYTOREMEDIATION WITH SUNFLOWER

Phytoremediation consists of mitigating pollutant concentrations in contaminated soils,
water, or air, with plants able to contain, degrade, or eliminate contaminants and its
derivatives (Malaviya and Singh, 2012). H. annuus is a plant with not only food and energy
values, but also with phytoremediation potential (Seth et al., 2011; Mukhtar et al., 2010). It is
one of the most widely studied plants for heavy metal phytoremediation (Kara et al., 2013).
However, it is well known that sunflower is able to contain, degrade or eliminate metals
(Chen et al., 2012; Ker and Charest, 2010; Lee and Yang, 2010), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (Tejeda-Agredano et al., 2013; Gan et al., 2009) and polychlorinated biphenyls
(Fiebig et al., 1997) from soil or water. Investigations with H. annuus have revealed that
several heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and cobalt, accumulate at high
concentrations in shoots as well as in roots. Heavy metal uptake is minor in seeds than in
roots and shoots. However, few attempts have been made to use plant-growth promoting
rhizobacteria to facilitate phytoextraction and cadmium uptake in H. annuus planted in
cadmium-contaminated soil (Prapagdee et al., 2013). Sunflower is a documented metal
accumulator and its growth on contaminated soil for simultaneous remediation and further
energy production has been studied (Marques et al., 2013; Madejon et al., 2003). The good
tolerance of sunflower toward pollutants coupled with an increased accumulation/degradation
capacity might contribute to an efficient removal of pollutants from soil and water. Clearly it
is not an easy job, thus scientists of multidisciplinary areas have to work hard. Additionally,
there is a lack of knowledge concerning the pollutants accumulation and antioxidant
responses during the growth and development of sunflowers.

7. SUNFLOWER AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

Thousands of years ago, people in many regions throughout the world began to process
vegetable oils, utilizing whatever food stuffs they had on hand to obtain oils for a variety of
cooking purposes. The Chinese and Japanese produced soy bean oil as early as 2000 B.C.,
while southern Europeans had begun to produce olive oil by 3000 B.C. In Mexico and North
America, sunflower seeds were roasted and beaten into a paste before being boiled in water;
the oil that rose to the surface was skimmed off (FAO, 2010). During the last decade, an

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 11

increased attention would be observed being paid on the use of sunflower as renewable
energy source.
Oilseed sunflower is quickly gaining popularity as a feedstock crop for biodiesel because
it shares several positive agronomic features with other common oil crops such as canola and
soybean; yields well in a variety of conditions, and can be grown easily and profitably at both
small farm and large field scales. It is well known that a number of crops can be used for both
food and bioenergy production such as sunflower (Kibazohi et al., 2012). Under some
circumstances, the potential exist to develop bioenergy systems that allow for synergies
between food and energy production. Integrated food and energy systems could produce food
crops while simultaneously addressing energy needs (Bogdanski et al., 2010).
There is a trend world-wide to grow crops in short rotation or in monoculture (such as
sunflower), particularly in conventional agriculture (Bennett et al., 2012). This practice is
becoming more prevalent due to a range of factors including economic market trends,
technological advances, government incentives, and retailer and consumer demands. Land-
use intensity will have to increase further in future in order to meet the demands of growing
crops for both bioenergy and food production, and long rotations may not be considered
viable or practical. Notwithstanding, evidence indicates that crops grown in short rotations or
monoculture often suffer from yield decline compared to those grown in longer rotations or
for the first time (Zambrano-Navea et al., 2012). Numerous factors have been hypothesized as
contributing to yield decline, including biotic factors such as plant pathogens, deleterious
rhizosphere microorganisms, mycorrhizas acting as pathogens, and allelopathy or autotoxicity
of the crop, as well as abiotic factors such as land management practices and nutrient
availability (Sun et al., 2011). This section identifies gaps in our understanding about the
energy production of biomass and the interaction of the ecosystems. Additionally, it has to be
remembered that each bioenergy development projects have to include side effects elsewhere
in order to shape a sustainable future.

CONCLUSION
Sunflower was domesticated in eastern North America and since 3000 B.C. this crop was
bred by natives. Thenceforth a wide range of uses of sunflower have been reported
throughout the world. Sunflowers are a permanent source of food, oilseed and biofuels
because they are well adapted to a variety of conditions and often require fewer agricultural
inputs than other more common crops, while under some circumstances, the potential exist to
develop bioenergy systems that allow for synergies between food and energy production.
Because the sunflower has several potential markets, it is a good choice for growers in both
small and large scales. However, scientific, technical or agricultural projects linked with
sunflower have to include environmental side effects such as pollution, greenhouse gases
emissions, salinization, or energy consumption elsewhere in order to shape a sustainable
future.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

12 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

REFERENCES
Agy, M. S. F. A., Oliveira, R. L., Carvalho, G. G. P., Leao, A. G., Ribeiro, O. L., Bagaldo, A.
R., Ribeiro, R. D. X. & Ribeiro, M. D. (2013). Ingestive behavior and physiological
responses of goats fed with diets containing sunflower cake from biodiesel production.
Arq Bras Med Vet Zootec 64(5): 1292-1301.
Akbari, P., Ghalavand, A., Sanavy, A. M. M., AghaAlikhani, M. & Kalkhoran, S. S. (2011).
Comparison of different nutritional levels and the effect of plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) on the grain yield and quality of sunflower. Aust J Crop Sci 5(12):
1570-1576.
Akhtar, N., Mahood, T., Ahmad, S., Ashraf, M., Arif, M. S. & Rauf, S. (2012). Screening of
sunflower populations for seed yield and its components through step-wise regression
analysis. Pak J Bot 44(6): 2005-2008.
Ali, A. & Ullah, S. (2012). Effect of nitrogen on achene protein, oil, fatty acid profile, and
yield of sunflower hybrids. Chilean J Agric Res 72(4): 564-567.
Andrew, R. L., Kane, N. C., Baute, G. J., Grassa, C. J. & Rieseberg, L. H. (2013). Recent
nonhybrid origin of sunflower ecotypes in a novel habitat. Mol Ecol 22(3): 799-813.
Audet, P. & Charest, C. (2013). Assessing arbuscular mycorrhizal plant metal uptake and soil
metal bioavailability among ‗dwarf‘ sunflowers in a stratified compartmental growth
environment. Arch Agron Soil Sci 59(4): 533-548.
Aznar-Moreno, J. A., Martínez-Force, E., Venegas-Calerón, M., Garcés, R. & Salas, J. J.
(2013). Changes in acyl-coenzyme A pools in sunflower seeds with modified fatty acid
composition. Phytochemistry 87: 39-50.
Babaeian, M., Piri, I., Tavassoli, A., Esmaeilian, Y. & Gholami, H. (2011). Effect of water
stress and micronutrients (Fe, Zn and Mn) on chlorophyll fluorescence, leaf chlorophyll
content and sunflower nutrient uptake in Sistan region. Afr J Agric Res 6(15): 3526-3531.
Bashir, U., Javaid, A. & Bajwa, R. (2012). Allelopathic effects of sunflower residue on
growth of rice and subsequent wheat crop. Chil J Agr Res 72(3): 326-331.
Bennett, A. J., Bending, G. D., Chandler, D., Hilton, S. & Mills, P. (2012). Meeting the
demand for crop production: the challenge of yield decline in crops grown in short
rotations. Biol Rev 87(1): 52-71.
Blackman, B. K., Scascitelli, M., Kane, N. C., Luton, H. H., Rasmussen, D. A., Bye, R. A.,
Lentz, D. L. & Rieseberg, L. H. (2011). Sunflower domestication alleles support single
domestication center in eastern North America. P Natl Acad Sci USA 108(34): 14360-
14365.
Bogdanski, A., Dubois, O. & Chuluunbaatar, D. (2010). Integrated Food-Energy Systems.
Project assessment in China and Vietnam. In Final Report, 28 (Ed FAO). Rome.
Borbely, E. H., Csajbok, J. & Lesznyak, M. (2008). Yield stability of sunflower (Helianthus
annuus) varieties on chernosem soil Cereal Res Comm 36: 1711-1174.
Cheema, Z. A. & Khaliq, A. (2000). Use of sorghum allelopathic properties to control weeds
in irrigated wheat in a semi arid region of Punjab. Agric Ecosyst Environ 79(2-3): 105-
112.
Chen, K. F., Yeh, T. Y., Hsu, Y. H. & Chen, C. W. (2012). The phytoattenuation of the soil
metal contamination: the effects of plant growth relgualtors (GA3 and IAA) by

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 13

employing wetland macrophyte vetiver and energy plant sunflower. Desalin Water Treat
45(1-3): 144-152.
Chigeza, G., Mashingaidze, K. & Shanahan, P. (2013). Advanced cycle pedigree breeding in
sunflower. I: Genetic variability and testcross hybrid performance for seed yield and
other agronomic traits. Euphytica 190(3): 425-438.
Da Silva, A. R. A., Bezerra, F. M. L., de Lacerda, F. C. F., Pereira F. J. V. & de Freitas, C. A.
S. (2013). Gas exchange in sunflower plants subjected to water deficit at different stages
of growth. Rev Cienc Agron 44(1): 86-93.
da Silva, A. R. A., Bezerra, F. M. L., Freitas, C. A. S., Pereira, J. V., Andrade, R. R. &
Feitosa, D. R. C. (2012). Morphology and biomass of sunflower plants grown under
water deficits in different development stages. Rev Bras Eng Agr Amb 16(9): 959-968.
de Carvalho, C. G. P. & de Toledo, J. F. F. (2008). Extracting female inbred lines from
commercial sunflower hybrids. Pesqui Agropecu Bras 43(9): 1159-1162.
de la Rubia, M., Fernández-Cegrí V, Raposo F & Borja R (2013). Anaerobic digestion of
sunflower oil cake: a current overview. Water Sci Technol 67(2): 410-417.
Doncheva, S., Moustakas, M., Ananieva, K., Chavdarova, M., Gesheva, E., Vassilevska, R. &
Mateev, P. (2013). Plant response to lead in the presence or absence EDTA in two
sunflower genotypes (cultivated H. annuus cv. 1114 and interspecific line H. annuus x H.
argophyllus). Environ Sci Pollut Res 20(2): 823-833.
Duke, S. O. (2010). Allelopathy: Current status of research and future of the discipline: A
Commentary Allelopathy J 25(1): 17-30.
Emami-Bistghani, Z., Siadat, S. A., Torabi, M., Bakhshande, A., Alami, S. K. & Hiresmaeili,
H. (2012). Influence of plant density on light absorption and light extinction coefficient
in sunflower cultivars Res Crop 13(1): 174-179.
Esmaeli, M., Javanmard, H. R., Nassiry, B. M. & Soleymani, A. (2012). Effect of different
plant densities and planting pattern on sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) cultivars grown
under climatic conditions of Isfahan region of Iran. Res Crop 13(2): 517-520.
FAO (2010). Sunflower crude and refined oils. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. Retrieved from: http://www.responsibleagroinvestment. org /sites/
responsibleagroinvestment.org/files/FAO_Agbiz%20handbook_oilseeds_0.pdf. (Verified
June 5, 2013).
FAOSTAT (2011). Production of sunflower seed throughout the world. Retrieved from:
http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#DOWNLOAD. (Verified May 6, 2013).
Fernández-Cegrí, V., Raposo, F., de la Rubia, M. A. & Borja, R. (2013). Effects of chemical
and thermochemical pretreatments on sunflower oil cake in biochemical methane
potential assays. J Chem Technol Biot 88(5): 924-929.
Fernández-Cuesta, A., Nabloussi, A., Fernández-Martínez, J. M. & Velasco, L. (2012).
Tocopherols and phytosterols in sunflower seeds for the human food market. Grasas y
Aceites 63(3): 321-327.
Fiebig, R., Schulze, D., Chung, J.-C. & Lee, S.-T. (1997). Biodegradation of polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) in the presence of a bioemulsifier produced on sunflower oil.
Biodegradation 8(2): 67-75.
Fozia A., Muhammad AZ., Muhammad A. & Zafar MK. (2008). Effect of chromium on
growth attributes in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). J Environ Sci (China) 20(12):
1475-1480.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

14 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

Gan, S., Lau, E. V. & Ng, H. K. (2009). Remediation of soils contaminated with polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). J Hazard Mater 172(2-3): 532-549.
Gerardo, R., Boem, F. H. G. & Fernandez, M. C. (2013). Severe phosphorus stress affects
sunflower and maize but not soybean root to shoot allometry. Agron J 105(5): 1283-
1288.
Ghaffari, M., Toorchi, M., Valizadeh, M. & Shakiba, M. R. (2012). Morpho-physiological
screening of sunflower inbred lines under drought stress condition Turk J Field Crop
17(2): 185-190.
Gholamhoseini, M., Ghalavand, A., Dolatabadian, A., Jamshidi, E. & Khodaei-Joghan, A.
(2013). Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation on growth, yield, nutrient uptake
and irrigation water productivity of sunflowers grown under drought stress. Agr Water
Manage 117: 106-114.
González-Rosas, A., Miranda-Gómez, J. M., Padmasree, K. P. & Fernández-Luqueño, F.
(2013). How Green is bioenergy? A review on myths, challengues, biotechnology
progress and emerging possibilities. Sci Res Essays 8: 532-542.
González-Vega, J. C. & Stein, H. H. (2012). Amino acid digestibility in canola, cottonseed,
and sunflower products fed to finishing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 90(12): 4391-4400.
Gutiérrez-Mellado, M. C., Edwards, R., Tena, M., Cabello, F., Serghini, K. & Jorrín, J.
(1996). The production of coumarin phytoalexins in different plant organs of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.). J. Plant Physiol 149(3-4): 261-266.
Hao, X. Z., Zhou, D. M., Li, D. D. & Jiang, P. (2012). Growth, cadmium and zinc
accumulation of ornamental sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in contaminated soil with
different amendments. Pedosphere 22(5): 631-639.
Harter, A. V., Gardner, K. A., Falush, D., Lentz, D. L., Bye, R. A. & Rieseberg, L. H. (2004).
Origin of extant domesticated sunflower in eastern North America. Nature 430(6996):
201-205.
Holliday, R. & Phillips, K. (2001). Health benefits of the sunflower kernel. Cereal Foods
World. 46(5): 205-208.
Iglesias, L., Laca, A., Herrero, M. & Díaz, M. (2012). A life cycle assessment comparison
between centralized and decentralized biodiesel production from raw sunflower oil and
waste cooking oils. J Clean Prod 37: 162-171.
Iriarte, A. & Villalobos, P. (2013). Greenhouse gas emissions and energy balance of
sunflower biodiesel: Identification of its key factors in the supply chain. Resour Conserv
Recy 73: 46-52.
Jabeen, N. & Ahmad, R. (2012). Improvement in growth and leaf water relation parameters of
sunflower and safflower plants with foliar application of nutrient solutions under salt
stress Pak J Bo 44(4): 1341-1345.
Kara, Y., Koca, S., Vaizogullar, H. E. & Kuru, A. (2013). Studying phytoremediation
capacity of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) in
hydroponic systems. Curr Opin Biotech 24(1): S34.
Ker, K. & Charest, C. (2010). Nickel remediation by AM-colonized sunflower. Mycorrhiza
20(6): 399-406.
Keskin, G. & Dellal, I. (2011). Economic sustainability of sunflower production in thrace
region of turkey. J Environ Prot Ecol 12(1): 245-250.
Khaleghizadeh, A. (2011). Effect of morphological traits of plant, head and seed of sunflower
hybrids on house sparrow damage rate. Crop Prot 30(3): 360-367.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 15

Khan, A., Lang, I., Amjid, M., Shah, A., Ahmad, I. & Nawaz, H. (2013). Inducing salt
tolerance on growth and yield of sunflower by applying different levels of ascorbic acid.
J Plant Nutr 36(8): 1180-1190.
Khoshgoftarmanesh, A., Behzadan, H., Sanaei, A. & Chaney, R. (2012). Bacterial inoculation
speeds zinc release from ground tire rubber used as Zn fertilizer for corn and sunflower in
a calcareous soil. Plant Soil 361(1-2): 71-81.
Kibazohi O, Rincon-Perez L. E, Felix E & Cardona-Alzate C.A (2012). Technical and
economical analysis for biofuel production from sunflower. In Bioenergy and food
security: The BEFS analysis for Tanzania-Sunflower biodiesel, water, and household
food security, 108 (Ed FAO). Tanzania: FAO.
Kunduraci, B. S., Bayrak A., & Kiralan, M. (2010). Effect of essential oil extracts from
oregano (Origanum onites L.) leaves on the oxidative stability of refined sunflower oil.
Asian J Chem 22(2): 1377-1386.
Labrada, R. (2008). Allelopathy as a tool for weed management. Allelopathy J 22(2): 283-
287.
Lee, M. &Yang, M. (2010). Rhizofiltration using sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. vulgaris) to remediate uranium contaminated groundwater. J
Hazard Mater 173(1-3): 589-596.
Levic, J., Ivanov, D., Sredanovic, S., Jovanovic, R., Colovic, R. & Vukmirovic, D. (2012).
Sunflower flour as a rich source of high quality proteins. Agro Food Industry HI-TECH
23(4): 13-15.
Liang, Q., Cui, J., Li, H., Liu, J. & Zhao, G. (2013). Florets of sunflower (Helianthus annuus
L.): potential new sources of dietary fiber and phenolic acids. J Agric Food Chem 61(14):
3435-3442.
López-Valdez, F., Fernández-Luqueño, F., Ceballos-Ramírez, J. M., Marsch, R., Olalde-
Portugal, V. & Dendooven, L. (2011). A strain of Bacillus subtilis stimulates sunflower
growth (Helianthus annuus L.) temporarily. Sci Hort 128(4): 499-505.
Macías F. A., Torres A., Molinillo J. M. G., Varela R. M., & Castellano D. (1996). Potential
allelopathic sesquiterpene lactones from sunflower leaves. Phytochemistry 43(6): 1205-
1215.
Macías F. A., Varela R. M., Torres A. & Molinillo J. M. G (1998b). Heliespinone A, The first
member of a novel family of bioactive sesquiterpenes. Tetrahedron Lett 39: 427-430.
Macías F. A., Varela R. M., Torres A., Oliva R. M. & Molinillo J. (1998a). Bioactive
norsesquiterpenes from Helianthus annuus with potential allelopathic activity.
Phytochemistry 48: 631-636.
Macías F. A., Varela R. M., Torres A. & Molinillo, J. M. G. (1999). New bioactive plant
heliannuols from cultivar sunflower leaves. J Nat Prod 62(12): 1636-1639.
Madejon, P., Murillo, J., Maranon, T., Cabrera, F. & Soriano, M. (2003). Trace element and
nutrient accumulation in sunflower plants two years after the Aznalcollar mine spill. Sci
Total Environ 307(1-3): 239-257.
Mahmood, S., Ishtiaq, S., Malik, M. I. & Ahmed, A. (2013). Differential growth and
photosynthetic responses and pattern of metal accumulation in sunflower (Helianthus
annuus L.) cultivars at elevated levels of lead and mercury. Pak J Bot 45(1): 367-374.
Malaviya, P. & Singh, A. (2012). Phytoremediation Strategies for Remediation of Uranium-
Contaminated Environments: A Review. Crit Rev Env Sci Tec 42(24): 2575-2647.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

16 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

Marques, A. P. G. C., Moreira, H., Franco, A. R., Rangel, A. O. S. S. & Castro, P. M. L.

(2013). Inoculating Helianthus annuus (sunflower) grown in zinc and cadmium
contaminated soils with plant growth promoting bacteria - Effects on phytoremediation
strategies. Chemosphere 92(1): 74-83.
Moghaddam, H. N., Salari, S., Arshami, J., Golian, A. & Maleki, M. (2012). Evaluation of
the nutritional value of sunflower meal and its effect on performance, digestive enzyme
activity, organ weight, and histological alterations of the intestinal villi of broiler
chickens. J Appl Poult Res 21(2): 293-304.
Mohammadi, K., Heidari, G., Javaheri, M., Rokhzadi, A., Nezhad, M. T. K., Sohrabi, Y. &
Talebi, R. (2013). Fertilization affects the agronomic traits of high oleic sunflower hybrid
in different tillage systems. Ind Crops Prod 44: 446-451.
Mukhtar, S., Bhatti, H. N., Khalid, M., Anwar-ul-Haq, M. & Shahzad, S. M. (2010). Potential
of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) for phytoremediation of nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb)
contaminated water. Pak J Bot 42(6): 4017-4026.
Muller, M. H., Latreille, M. & Tollon, C. (2011). The origin and evolution of a recent
agricultural weed: population genetic diversity of weedy populations of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.) in Spain and France. Evol Appl 4(3): 499-514.
Nasim, W., Ahmad, A., Wajid, A., Akhtar, J. & Muhammad, D. (2011). Nitrogen effects on
growth and development of sunflower hybrids under agro-climatic conditions of Multan.
Pak J Bot 43(4): 2083-2092.
Naz, R. & Bano, A. (2013). Influence of exogenously applied salicylic acid and plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria inoculation on the growth and physiology of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.) under salt stress. Pak J Bot 45(2): 367-373.
NSA (2013). All about sunflower. National Sunflower Association. Retrieved from: http://
www.sunflowernsa.com/all-about/history/. (Verified June 6, 2013).
Olowe, V. I. O. & Adeyemo, A. Y. (2009). Enhanced crop productivity and compatibility
through intercropping of sesame and sunflower varieties. Ann Appl Biol 155(2): 285-291.
Onemli, F. (2012). Impact of climate changes and correlations on oil fatty acids in sunflower.
Pak J Agri Sci 49(4): 455-458.
Osuga, I. M., Abdulrazak, S. A., Muleke, C. I. & Fujihara, T. (2012). Potential nutritive value
of various parts of wild sunflower (Tithonia diversifolia) as source of feed for ruminants
in Kenya. J Food Agric Environ 10(2): 632-635.
Prapagdee, B., Chanprasert, M. & Mongkolsuk, S. (2013). Bioaugmentation with cadmium-
resistant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria to assist cadmium phytoextraction by
Helianthus annuus. Chemosphere 92(6): 659-666.
PSD-USDA (2011). Production, Supply & Distribution On Line:- United State Department of
Agriculture. Retrieved from: http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdquery.aspx. (Verified
June 9, 2013).
Radanielson, A. M., Lecoeur, J., Christophe, A. & Guilioni, L. (2012). Use of water
extraction variability to screen for sunflower genotypes well adapted to soil water
limitation. Funct Plant Biol 39(12): 999-1008.
Rafiei, H., Soleymani, A. & Golparvar, A. R. (2012). Effect of different nitrogen levels on
yield components and seed yield of three sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) cultivars. Res
Crop 13(3): 996-1000.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 An Introduction to the Sunflower Crop 17

Ramadan, M. F. (2013). Healthy blends of high linoleic sunflower oil with selected cold
pressed oils: Functionality, stability and antioxidative characteristics. Ind Crops Prod 43:
65-72.
Rawat, L. S., Narwal, S. S., Kadiyan, H. S., Maikhuri, R. K., Negi, V. S. & Pharswan, D. S.
(2012). Allelopathic effects of sunflower on seed germination and seedling growth of
Trianthema portulacastrum. Allelopathy J 30(1): 11-22.
Rawat, L. S., Negi, V. S. & Maikhuri, R. K. (2010). Allelopathic effect of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) rhizosphere soil on germination and seedling growth of kharif crops
and weeds. Natl Acad Sci Lett (India) 33(9-10): 271-278.
Saensee, K., Machikowa, T. & Muangsan, N. 2012. Comparative performace of sunflower
synthetic varieties under drought stress. Int J Agric Biol 14(6): 929-934.
Saleem, M. F., Ma, B. L., Malik, M. A., Cheema, M. A. & Wahid, M. A. (2008). Yield and
quality response of autumn-planted sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) to sowing dates
and planting patterns. Can J Plant Sci 88(1): 101-109.
Schafer, F., Adams, S. E., Nicholson, J. A., Cox, T. F., McGrady, M. & Moore, F. (2007). In
vivo evaluation of an oral health toothpaste with 0.1% vitamin E acetate and 0.5%
sunflower oil (with vitamin F). Int Dent J 57(2): 119-1123.
Seassau, C., Dechamp-Guillaume, G., Mestries, E. & Debaeke, P. (2012). Low plant density
can reduce sunflower premature ripening caused by Phoma macdonaldii. Eur J Agron 43:
185-193.
Seghatoleslami, M. J., Bradaran, R., Ansarinia, E. & Mousavi, S. G. (2012). Effect of
irrigation and nitrogen level on yield, yield components and some morphological traits of
sunflower. Pak J Bot 44(5): 1551-1555.
Seth, C., Misra, V., Singh, R. R. & Zolla, L. (2011). EDTA-enhanced lead phytoremediation
in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) hydroponic culture. Plant Soil 347(1-2): 231-242.
Skarpa, P., Kunzova, E. & Zukalova, H. (2013). Foliar fertilization with molybdenum in
sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Plant Soil Environ 59(4): 156-161.
Spinelli, D., Jez, S. & Basosi, R. (2012). Integrated Environmental Assessment of sunflower
oil production. Process Biochemistry 47(11): 1595-1602.
Spring, O., Albert, K. & Gradmann, W. (1981). Annuithrin, a new biologically active
germacranolide from Helianthus annuus. Phytochemistry 20(8): 1883-1885.
Spring, O., Albert, K. & Hager, A. (1982). Three biologically active heliangolides from
Helianthus annuus. Phytochemistry 21(10): 2551-2553.
Spugnoli, P., Dainelli, R., D'Avino, L., Mazzoncini, M. & Lazzeri, L. (2012). Sustainability
of sunflower cultivation for biodiesel production in Tuscany within the EU Renewable
Energy Directive. Biosyst Eng 112(1): 49-55.
Sun, Y. Y., Jiang, G. Y., Wei, X. C. & Liu, J. G. (2011). Autotoxicity effects of soils
continuously cropped with tomato. Allelopathy J 28(2): 135-144.
Szemruch, C. L. & Ferrari, L. (2013). Encrusting offers protection against phytotoxic
chemicals and maintains the physiological quality of sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
seeds. Seed Sci Technol 41(1): 125-132.
Tavano, O. L. (2013). Protein hydrolysis using proteases: An important tool for food
biotechnology. J Mol Catal B: Enzym 90: 1-11.
Tejeda-Agredano, M. C., Gallego, S., Vila, J., Grifoll, M., Ortega-Calvo, J. J. & Cantos, M.
(2013). Influence of the sunflower rhizosphere on the biodegradation of PAHs in soil.
Soil Biol Biochem 57: 830-840.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

 18 F. Fernández-Luqueño, F. López-Valdez, M. Miranda-Arámbula et al.

Tesio, F. & Ferrero, A. (2010). Allelopathy, a chance for sustainable weed management. Int J
Sust Dev World 17(5): 377-389.
Thomaz, G. L., Zagonel, J., Colasante, L. O. & Nogueira, R. R. (2012). Yield of sunflower
and oil seed content as a function of air temperature, rainfall and solar radiation. Cienc
Rural 42(8): 1380-1385.
Todorovic, Z. B., Stamenkovic, O. S., Stamenkovic, I. S., Avramovic, J. M., Velickovic, A.
V., Bankovic-Ilic, I. B. & Veljkovic, V. B. (2013). The effects of cosolvents on
homogeneously and heterogeneously base-catalyzed methanolysis of sunflower oil. Fuel
107: 493-502.
Ullah, H. (2010). Biological control of Macrophomina phaseolina on sunflower in Pakistan.
Phytopathology 100(6): s128.
Weisz, G. M., Carle, R. & Kammerer, D. R. (2013). Sustainable sunflower processing -II.
Recovery of phenolic compounds as a by-product of sunflower protein extraction. Innov
Food Sci Emerg Technol 17: 169-179.
Zambrano-Navea, C. L., Bastida, F. & Gonzalez-Andujar, J. L. (2012). Herbicidal strategies
to control Phalaris brachystachys in a wheat-sunflower rotation: a simulation approach.
Span J Agric Res 10(4): 1101-1106.
Zheljazkov, V. D., Vick, B. A., Baldwin, B. S., Buehring, N., Astatkie, T. & Johnson, B.
(2012). Effect of planting date, nitrogen rate, and hybrid on sunflower. J Plant Nutr
35(14): 2198-2210.

Complimentary Contributor Copy

View publication stats