EPA/600/R-03/019

March 2003

Design Manual:

Removal of Arsenic from

Drinking Water by Adsorptive Media

Prepared by

Frederick Rubel, Jr., P.E.

Rubel Engineering, Inc.
Tucson, Arizona 85712

Prepared for

Battelle
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43281-2693

Under Contract with the U.S. EPA No. 68-C7-0008

Work Assignment Manager

Thomas J. Sorg
Water Supply and Water Resources Division
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268

National Risk Management Research Laboratory

Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 4526

i
 Disclaimer

The information in this document has been funded by the United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) under Work Assignment (WA) No. 4-32 of Con-
tract No. 68-C7-0008 to Battelle. It has been subjected to the Agency’s peer and
administrative reviews and has been approved for publication as an EPA document.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute an endorsement
or recommendation for use.

ii
 Foreword

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with protecting

the Nation’s land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national
environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions leading to
a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to
support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA’s research program is providing
data and technical support for solving environmental problems today and building a
science knowledge base necessary to manage our ecological resources wisely,
understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce environmental
risks in the future.

The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency’s center for
investigation of technological and management approaches for preventing and
reducing risks from pollution that threatens human health and the environment. The
focus of the Laboratory’s research program is on methods and their cost-
effectiveness for prevention and control of pollution to air, land, water, and
subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water systems;
remediation of contaminated sites, sediments and ground water; prevention and
control of indoor air pollution; and restoration of ecosystems. NRMRL collaborates
with both public and private sector partners to foster technologies that reduce the
cost of compliance and to anticipate emerging problems. NRMRL’s research
provides solutions to environmental problems by: developing and promoting
technologies that protect and improve the environment; advancing scientific and
engineering information to support regulatory and policy decisions; and providing the
technical support and information transfer to ensure implementation of environmental
regulations and strategies at the national, state, and community levels.

This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory’s strategic long-term
research plan. It is published and made available by EPA’s Office of Research and
Development to assist the user community and to link researchers with their clients.

Hugh W. McKinnon, Director

National Risk Management Research Laboratory

iii
 Abstract

This design manual is an in-depth presentation of the steps required to design and
operate a water treatment plant for removal of excess arsenic from drinking water
using the adsorptive media process. This treatment process is very reliable, simple
and cost-effective. Several adsorptive media products are available in the market-
place that have successfully demonstrated their capability to remove arsenic from
drinking water to levels well below the revised MCL, 0.010 mg/L. Other new products
continue to be developed. The adsorptive media products are preferential for the
removal of arsenic over other competing ions. Therefore, unless a water system
requires treatment capability for removal of other suspended or dissolved contami-
nants, the adsorptive media treatment method merits evaluation.

The adsorptive media process is implemented with operational options which vary
with the product selected. For water systems that are primarily concerned with finan-
cial feasibility, capital and operating costs, each operational option along with each
available adsorptive media product should be evaluated. This design manual pro-
vides the methods for competently performing each evaluation. The arsenic removal
capacity of some adsorptive media products, such as activated alumina, are very
sensitive to the pH of the water passing thru treatment. Others, such as iron-based
products, are not. Treatment processes incorporating pH adjustment capability
require careful handling and storage of corrosive chemicals (acid and caustic). Some
adsorptive media products, such as activated alumina, are capable of being chem-
ically regenerated for repetition of treatment cycles using the same corrosive chemi-
cals as those used for pH adjustment in the treatment process. Regeneration is not
recommended for other adsorptive media products. Whether or not pH of water being
treated is adjusted, the adsorptive media can be replaced in place of regeneration
upon exhaustion of arsenic capacity. This design manual presents the information
necessary to design and operate treatment systems for any combination of opera-
tional options and for any adsorptive media. It also discusses the capital and operat-
ing costs including the many variables which can raise or lower costs for identical
treatment systems.

iv
 Contents

Abstract........................................................................................................................ iv
Figures .....................................................................................................................v i i i
Tables ..........................................................................................................................i x
Acronyms and Abbreviations....................................................................................... x

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Purpose and Scope........................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background .................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Arsenic in Water Supplies.............................................................................. 2
1.4 Arsenic Speciation ......................................................................................... 2
1.5 Removal of Arsenic ........................................................................................ 3

2.0 Arsenic Removal by Adsorptive Media Treatment Methods ................................. 5

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Granular Adsorptive Media ............................................................................ 5
2.2.1 pH Adjustment System ..................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Non-pH Adjustment System.............................................................. 6
2.3 Treatment With or Without pH Adjustment .................................................... 6
2.4 Treatment Media Regeneration vs. Treatment Media Disposal .................... 7
2.5 Manual vs. Automatic Operation.................................................................... 7

3.0 Design of Central Treatment System .................................................................... 9

3.1 Assemble Design Input Data and Information ............................................... 9
3.2 Conceptual Design....................................................................................... 11
3.2.1 Manual Operation ........................................................................... 12
3.2.2 Automatic Operation ....................................................................... 12
3.3 Preliminary Design ....................................................................................... 18
3.3.1 Treatment Equipment Preliminary Design ...................................... 18
3.3.1.1 Treatment Bed and Vessel Design ................................... 22
3.3.1.2 Pipe Design....................................................................... 22
3.3.1.3 Instrumentation Design ..................................................... 23
3.3.1.4 Acid Storage and Feed Subsystem .................................. 23
3.3.1.5 Caustic Soda Storage and Feed Subsystem .................... 24
3.3.2 Preliminary Treatment Equipment Arrangement ............................ 24
3.3.3 Preliminary Cost Estimate............................................................... 24
3.3.4 Preliminary Design Revisions ......................................................... 25
3.4 Final Design ................................................................................................. 25
3.4.1 Treatment Equipment Final Design ................................................ 26
3.4.1.1 Treatment Bed and Vessel Design ................................... 26
3.4.1.2 Pipe Design....................................................................... 27
3.4.1.3 Instrument Design ............................................................. 28
3.4.1.4 Acid Storage and Feed Subsystem .................................. 28
3.4.1.5 Caustic Soda Storage and Feed System.......................... 29
3.4.1.6 Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank............................. 29
3.4.2 Final Drawings ................................................................................ 29
3.4.3 Final Capital Cost Estimate............................................................. 30
3.4.4 Final Design Revisions ................................................................... 31

4.0 Central Treatment System Capital Cost .............................................................. 33

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 33

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 4.2 Discussion of Cost Variables ....................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Water Chemistry ............................................................................. 35
4.2.2 Climate ............................................................................................ 35
4.2.3 Seismic Zone .................................................................................. 36
4.2.4 Soil Conditions ................................................................................ 36
4.2.5 100-Year Flood Plain ...................................................................... 36
4.2.6 Existing and Planned (Future) Water System Parameters............. 36
4.2.6.1 Number and Location of Wells.......................................... 37
4.2.6.2 Potable Water Storage Facilities....................................... 37
4.2.6.3 Distribution and Consumption ........................................... 37
4.2.7 pH Adjustment of Process Water Included vs. Not Included .......... 37
4.2.8 Regeneration or Replacement of Spent Adsorptive Media ............ 38
4.2.9 Backwash and Regeneration Disposal Concept............................. 38
4.2.10 Chemical Supply Logistics .............................................................. 38
4.2.11 Manual Versus Automatic Operation .............................................. 38
4.2.12 Financial Considerations................................................................. 39
4.3 Relative Capital Cost of Arsenic Removal Central Water Treatment
Plants Based on Flowrate ............................................................................ 39

5.0 Treatment Plant Operation .................................................................................. 43

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 43
5.2 Adsorptive Media Initial Startup ................................................................... 44
5.3 Treatment Process with Spent Treatment Media Regeneration.................. 46
5.3.1 Treatment Mode.............................................................................. 46
5.3.2 Backwash Mode.............................................................................. 49
5.3.3 Regeneration Mode ........................................................................ 49
5.3.4 Neutralization Mode ........................................................................ 50
5.4 Treatment Process with Spent Treatment Media Replacement .................. 51
5.4.1 Treatment Mode.............................................................................. 51
5.4.2 Media Replacement Mode .............................................................. 51
5.5 Operator Requirements ............................................................................... 51
5.6 Laboratory Requirements ............................................................................ 51
5.7 Operating Records ....................................................................................... 52
5.7.1 Plant Log ......................................................................................... 52
5.7.2 Operation Log ................................................................................. 52
5.7.3 Water Analysis Reports .................................................................. 52
5.7.4 Plant Operating Cost Records ........................................................ 52
5.7.5 Correspondence Files..................................................................... 52
5.7.6 Regulatory Agency Reports ............................................................ 52
5.7.7 Miscellaneous Forms ...................................................................... 52
5.8 Treatment Plant Maintenance...................................................................... 52
5.9 Equipment Maintenance .............................................................................. 52
5.10 Treatment Media Maintenance .................................................................... 54
5.11 Treatment Chemicals Supply....................................................................... 54
5.12 Housekeeping .............................................................................................. 54

6.0 Central Treatment Plant Operating Cost ............................................................. 55

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 55
6.2 Discussion of Operating Costs..................................................................... 55
6.2.1 Treatment Chemical Costs ............................................................. 56
6.2.1.1 Acid Cost........................................................................... 56
6.2.1.2 Caustic Cost...................................................................... 58
6.2.2 Operating Labor Costs.................................................................... 59
6.2.3 Utility Cost ....................................................................................... 60
6.2.4 Replacement Treatment Media Cost .............................................. 61
6.2.5 Replacement Parts and Miscellaneous Material Costs .................. 62

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 6.3 Operating Cost Summary ............................................................................ 62

7.0 References .......................................................................................................... 63

Appendix A: Summary of Subsystems Including Components ................................. 65

Appendix B: Treatment System Design Example...................................................... 69
Appendix C: Discussion of Acid Consumption Requirements for pH
Adjustment of Raw Water...................................................................... 73
Appendix D: Tabulations of Estimated Capital Cost Breakdowns for Arsenic
Removal Water Treatment Plants by Means of the Activated
Alumina Process at Typical and Ideal Locations................................... 77
Appendix E: Alternative Methods for Removing Media from Very Small
System Tanks........................................................................................ 83
Appendix F: English to Metric Conversion Table....................................................... 85

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 Figures

Figure 3-1. Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plant Water Analysis Report ......... 10
Figure 3-2. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment
System Without pH Adjustment, With Replacement of Spent
Media ..................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-3. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment
System With pH Adjustment, With Replacement of Spent Media......... 14
Figure 3-4. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment
System With pH Adjustment, With Regeneration of Spent Media ........ 15
Figure 3-5. Treatment Bed and Vessel Design Calculations................................... 16
Figure 3-6. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media Without Process
Water pH Adjustment and With Spent Media Replacement ................. 19
Figure 3-7. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media With Process Water
pH Adjustment and Spent Media Replacement .................................... 20
Figure 3-8. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media With Process Water
pH Adjustment and Spent Media Regeneration .................................... 21
Figure 3-9. Treatment Vessels Piping Isometric Adsorptive Media With or
Without Process Water pH Adjustment and With Spent Media
Replacement ......................................................................................... 30
Figure 3-10. Treatment Vessels Piping Isometric Adsorptive Media With
Process Water pH Adjustment and Spent Media Regeneration ........... 30
Figure 4-1. Capital Cost vs. Flowrate at Typical Locations for Arsenic
Removal Water Treatment Plants by Means of the Activated
Alumina Process.................................................................................... 34
Figure 4-2. Capital Cost vs. Flowrate at Ideal Locations for Arsenic Removal
Water Treatment Plants by Means of the Activated Alumina
Process.................................................................................................. 35
Figure 4-3. Code Pressure Vessel Fabricator Quotation for Adsorptive Media
Treatment Vessels................................................................................ 40
Figure 5-1. Valve Number Diagram ......................................................................... 44
Figure 5-2. Basic Operating Mode Flow Schematics............................................... 47
Figure 5-3. Typical Breakthrough Curve for Arsenic................................................ 48
Figure 5-4. Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plant Operation Log ...................... 53
Figure 5-5. 5,000-gal Chemical Storage Tank – Liquid Volume.............................. 54

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 Tables

Table 1-1. Adsorptive Media List in NSF/ANSI STD 61 (May 2002) ........................ 2
Table 3-1. Preliminary Capital Cost Estimate Examples for Four Types of
Adsorptive Media Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants ............... 22
Table 3-2. Final Capital Cost Estimate Examples for Typical Location for
Four Types of Adsorptive Media Arsenic Removal Water
Treatment Plants ................................................................................... 25
Table 4-1. Final Capital Cost Estimate Example for Ideal Location for Four
Types of Adsorptive Media Arsenic Removal Water Treatment
Plants..................................................................................................... 36
Table 4-2. Process Pipe, Fittings, Valves, and Static Mixers – Itemized Cost
Estimate................................................................................................. 41
Table 4-3. Chemical Feed Pumps, and Static Mixers – Itemized Cost
Estimate................................................................................................. 42
Table 5-1. Valve Operation Chart for Treatment Vessels in Spent Adsorptive
Media Regeneration Operational Modes............................................... 45
Table 5-2. Calculated Activated Alumina (−28, +48 Mesh) Downflow
Pressure Drop Data............................................................................... 46
Table 5-3. Typical Process Conditions for Regeneration of an Activated
Alumina Treatment System ................................................................... 50
Table 6-1. Price for Typical −28, +48 Mesh Activated Alumina.............................. 61
Table 6-2. Operating Cost Tabulation for an Activated Alumina Plant ................... 62

ix
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

ANSI American National Standards Institute

APHA American Public Health Association
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AWWA American Water Works Association

CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride

EBCT empty bed contact time

EPDM ethylene propylene diene monomer
ETV Environmental Technology Verification

FRP fiberglass reinforced polyester

GFAA graphite furnace atomic adsorption

GHAA gaseous hydroxide atomic adsorption
gpd gallons per day
gpm gallons per minute

ICP-MS inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry

MCL maximum contaminant level

N/A not applicable

NPT National Pipe Thread
NSF NSF International
NTNC nontransient, noncommunity

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PLC programmable logic controller

psig pounds per square inch gage
PVC polyvinyl chloride

SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act (of 1974)

STP stabilized temperature platform

TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure

TDS total dissolved solids

U.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

WEF Water Environment Federation

x
 Acknowledgments

This manual was written by Frederick Rubel Jr., Rubel Engineering, Inc. with input
from Thomas J. Sorg, U.S. EPA, Lili Wang, Battelle Memorial Institute, and Bernie
Lucey, State of New Hampshire. The manual was reviewed by the following people
and their suggestions and comments were of valuable assistance in preparation of
the final document:

Dr. Abraham Chen, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH

Dr. Dennis Clifford, University of Houston, Houston, TX
Mr. Jeff Kempic, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC
Mr. Rajiv Khera, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC
Dr. Jerry Lowry, Lowry Environmental Engineering, Blue, ME
Mr. Bernie Lucey, State of New Hampshire, Concord, NH
Mr. Michael McMullin, ADI, Fredericton, NB, Canada
Mr. Edward Robakowski, Kinetico, Inc. Newberry, OH
Mr. Thomas Sorg, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH
Ms. Lili Wang, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH

xii
 1.0 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and Scope publish a proposal to revise the arsenic MCL by January
2000, and publish a final rule by January 2001.
This manual has been prepared to present up-to-date
information on the design of central treatment plants for On January 22, 2001, U.S. EPA published a final
the removal of arsenic from water supplies using the Arsenic Rule in the Federal Register that revised the
adsorptive media process. Although the information pro- MCL for arsenic at 0.01 mg/L (10 µg/L). Two months
vided in this manual is presented to serve the water treat- later, in March 2001, the effective date of the rule was
ment industry for small central treatment plants ranging in extended to provide time for the National Academy of
capacity from 30,000 to 1,000,000 gpd, the treatment Science to review new studies on the health effects of
information, for the most part, can be adapted to both arsenic and for the National Drinking Water Advisory
larger and smaller systems. For the very small systems Council to review the economic issues associated with
having capacities of less than 30,000 gpd (20 gpm), the standard. After considering the reports by the two
some of the equipment may be different and less expen- review groups, the U.S. EPA finalized the arsenic MCL
sive (for example, fiberglass reinforced polyester [FRP] at 0.01 mg/L (10 µg/L) in January 2002. The final rule
tanks and automatic control valves likely would be used). requires all community and nontransient, noncommunity
The detailed design information presented in this manual (NTNC) water systems to achieve compliance with the
applies to granular activated alumina and other granular rule by February 2006. Adsorptive media processes are
adsorptive media technology for selective removal of capable of achieving that level.
arsenic from water supplies.
Granular activated alumina was the first adsorptive
When arsenic is present above its maximum contami- medium to be successfully applied for the removal of
nant level (MCL) in a water supply in combination with arsenic from water supplies. With pH adjustment to 5.5,
quantities of other organic and/or inorganic contami- the activated alumina process preferentially removes
nants, the adsorptive media process may not be the opti- arsenic in place of competing ions, removes arsenic
mal method of arsenic removal. Those water supplies below the MCL, and provides a maximum removal
should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis for selec- capacity for arsenic. It also has been the author’s experi-
tion of the appropriate treatment method, or combination ence that both As(III) and As(V) can be removed from
of methods. raw water with activated alumina when the pH is adjusted
down to 5.5.

1.2 Background The optimum granular adsorptive media mesh size for
activated alumina is −28, +48. Larger mesh sizes can be
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 mandated used, but their arsenic capacities are lower. Finer mesh
that the United States Environmental Protection Agency material has not been used for this application other than
(U.S. EPA) identify and regulate drinking water contami- in laboratory bench-scale work. Mesh sizes for other
nants that may have an adverse human health effect and products are listed in Table 1-1.
that are known or anticipated to occur in public water
supply systems. In 1975, under the SDWA, U.S. EPA Recently, other adsorptive media have been developed
established a MCL for arsenic at 0.05 mg/L. During the and marketed for arsenic removal. These new materials
1980s and early 1990s, U.S. EPA considered changes are either iron or aluminum (modified activated alumina)-
to the MCL, but did not make any. In 1996, Congress based. A listing of the activated alumina and the more
amended the SDWA and these amendments required recently developed media that have obtained NSF Inter-
that the U.S. EPA develop an arsenic research strategy, national (NSF) listing under NSF/ANSI STD 61 are

1
Table 1-1. Adsorptive Media Listed in NSF/ANSI STD 61 (November 2002)

Base Mesh Size Regeneration

Material Company Product Name Material or as Noted of Media
Aluminum Alcan AA-400G Activated Alumina 14 × 28 Yes
Aluminum Alcan AA-400G Activated Alumina 28 × 48 Yes
Aluminum Alcan AAFS-50 Modified Activated Alumina 14 × 28 Yes
Aluminum Alcan AAFS-50 Modified Activated Alumina 28 × 48 Yes
Aluminum Alcoa DD-2 Activated Alumina 28 × 48 Yes
Aluminum Alcoa CPN Activated Alumina 28 × 48 Yes
Aluminum Apyron Aqua-Bind Arsenic Activated Alumina NA NA
Aluminum Engelhard ATS Sorbent Activated Alumina NA Yes
Aluminum Engelhard ATC Sorbent Activated Alumina NA Yes
Aluminum Engelhard ARM Activated Alumina •80 Yes
Iron ADI International G2 Iron Modification 0.08-1.25 mm Yes
Iron SMI SMI III Iron/Sulfur NA NA
Iron U.S. Filter/General Filter Products GFH Iron Hydroxide 0.32-2 mm No
Iron Bayer AG Bayoxide E 33 Iron Oxide 0.5-2 mm No
Zeolite Water Remediation Technology Z - 33 Modified Zeolite 8 x 40 No
Zirconium Magnesium Elekton Isolux Zirconium Hydroxide NA NA
Note: Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation by U.S. EPA.
NA = not available.

shown in Table 1-1. Other media currently are being erosion and dissolution. Arsenic occurs in natural waters
researched by various companies and new products in both organic and inorganic forms. However, inorganic
likely will appear on the market in the future. arsenic is predominant in natural waters and is the most
likely form of arsenic to exist at concentrations that cause
The arsenic removal capacity for some newly developed regulatory concern.
adsorptive media also is enhanced by pH adjustment.
Furthermore, some newly developed adsorptive media The valence and species of inorganic arsenic are
are able to be regenerated by means of chemical pH dependent on the oxidation-reduction conditions and the
adjustment upon exhaustion of arsenic removal capacity. pH of the water. As a general rule of thumb, arsenite, the
This manual is intended to apply to all presently avail- reduced, trivalent form [As(III)], normally is found in
able and future adsorptive media for removal of arsenic ground water (assuming anaerobic conditions); and
from water supplies. This manual provides a design arsenate, the oxidized pentavalent form [As(V)], is found
methodology for the use of adsorptive media for arsenic in surface water (assuming aerobic conditions). This
removal with or without pH adjustment, and with spent rule, however, does not always hold true for ground
adsorptive media regeneration or spent adsorptive media water. Some ground waters have been found to have
replacement. only As(III), others with only As(V), and still others with
the combination of both As(III) and As(V). Arsenate
1.3 Arsenic in Water Supplies exists in four forms in aqueous solution, depending on
pH: H3AsO4, H2AsO4−, HAsO42−, and AsO43−. Similarly,
Arsenic occurs in combination with other ions as arsenic arsenite exits in five forms: H4AsO3+, H3AsO3, H2AsO3−,
compounds. Unless contaminated by arsenic-bearing HAsO32− and AsO33−.
wastes, the arsenic concentrations in surface water sup-
plies are normally less than the MCL. Ground water sup- Until recently, studies on the preservation of the arsenic
plies have higher arsenic concentrations which may species concluded that no effective methods existed for
exceed the MCL due to the exposure of the water to the preserving of As(III) and As(V) in water samples.
arsenic-bearing materials. Because the revision of the Because of the lack of a good preservation method, field
MCL, a large number of systems which had previously separation methods developed by Ficklin (1982), Clifford
been within compliance will require treatment for the et al., (1983) and Edwards et al. (1998) have been used
removal of arsenic. that employ an anion exchange column as the separa-
tion procedure. All the methods have been found to be
1.4 Arsenic Speciation effective and their use is recommended to determine the
oxidation state of the arsenic in the source water to be
Arsenic is a common, naturally occurring drinking water treated.
contaminant that originates from arsenic-containing rocks
and soil and is transported to natural waters through

2
1.5 Removal of Arsenic A second option is to pump good quality water to the
service area from another service area. Similar to the
In water supplies where the arsenic level exceeds the alternate source within the service area, this imported
MCL, steps should be taken to reduce that level to below source can be blended. However, the costs of installing
the MCL. This design manual focuses on the removal of the delivery system and delivering the water become
excess arsenic by using activated alumina and other increasingly unfavorable as the distance increases, the
adsorptive media methods. However, other treatment rise in elevation increases, and/or the existence of
methods exist, such as ion exchange, membrane sepa- physical barriers occurs. The reliability, the cost and the
ration, and chemical coagulation/filtration. Also, other assurance that the consumers will only use that source
options, including alternate sources of supply, may offer are factors to be considered. Another option (which
lower cost solutions. The first option is to locate an includes an element of risk) is to drill a new well (or
existing water supply within the service area with known wells) within the service area. This approach should be
quality that complies with the arsenic MCL in addition to attempted only when there is sound reason to believe
all other MCLs (both organic and inorganic). If another that sufficient quantity of acceptable quality water can be
source complies with the arsenic MCL but exceeds located. The cost (both capital and operating) of a new
another MCL (or MCLs), it may still be feasible to blend well should not exceed the cost of treating the existing
the two sources and achieve a water quality that com- source. Other options such as “point-of-use” treatment
plies with all MCLs. Other features associated with this systems are viable alternatives. However, the treatment
option may present liabilities, including, but not limited reliability of such units cannot be assured unless there
to, high temperature, or undesirable quantities of non- are stringent controls governing their operation and
toxic contaminants such as turbidity, color, odor, hard- maintenance. Also, the problem of assuming that all
ness, iron manganese, chloride, sulfate, and/or sodium. users consume only water that has been treated where
untreated water also is available should be addressed.

3
 2.0 Arsenic Removal by Adsorptive Media Treatment Methods

2.1 Introduction activated alumina process. The process, however, is

preferential for arsenic at the optimum pH level of 5.5.
This chapter provides an overview of the design consid- Other ions that compete with arsenic for the same
erations that are applicable to adsorptive media treat- adsorptive sites at other pH levels are not adsorbed in
ment systems; applicable details are covered in later the pH range of 5.0-6.0. Included are silica and hardness
chapters. The design choices are as follows: ions that are adsorbed in the pH range of 7-10.

1. Selection of adsorptive media Activated alumina either can be regenerated or can be

replaced with new media when the selected break-
2. Treatment with or without pH adjustment through point is reached. At the optimum pH for arsenic
removal, fluoride, selenium, some organic molecules,
3. Treatment media regeneration vs. treatment media and some trace heavy metal ions are adsorbed; how-
disposal ever, these are also completely regenerated along with
arsenic. Because these ions compete for the same
4. Manual vs. automatic operation (or semiautomatic adsorptive sites with arsenic, their presence might deplete
operation). the alumina capacity for arsenic. When excess fluoride
and arsenic are present in the water supply, a special
treatment technique is required (Rubel and Williams,
2.2 Granular Adsorptive Media 1980).
This design manual focuses on the implementation of Newly developed adsorptive media for arsenic removal
the granular adsorptive media method for the selective consist primarily of iron-based materials or iron-modified
removal of arsenic from water supplies with or without activated alumina products (see Table 1-1). Some of
pH adjustment and with or without spent media regener- these materials are not capable of regeneration and,
ation. The treatment method example presented employs thus, are used solely on a replacement basis (throw-
activated alumina media, which utilizes a single treatment away). Some of these media, mainly the iron-based
train and consists of two downflow pressure vessels in products, have demonstrated arsenic removal capacities
series. This method is applicable to the use of any other that exceed that of activated alumina particularly at pHs
adsorptive media, and, therefore, one adsorptive media above the optimum pH 5.5 level for alumina treatment.
can be replaced with another without replacing or mak- The adsorptive capacity of these new materials also is
ing major modifications to an installed treatment system. affected by pH; however, their pH sensitivity does not
resemble that of activated alumina. The benefit of pH
Activated alumina has a long history of use as an adjustment may come more from the elimination of com-
adsorptive treatment technology for arsenic removal. petition for adsorptive site by ions such as silica and
The media is a byproduct of aluminum production. It is phosphate. Consequently, these materials can be
primarily an aluminum oxide that has been activated by employed economically on a spent media replacement
exposure to high temperature and caustic soda. The basis without the incorporation of pH adjustment chemi-
material is extremely porous and has a high average cals and equipment. As new adsorptive media products
surface area per unit weight (350 m2/g). The capacity for and technology evolve, more efficient and economical
arsenic removal by activated alumina is pH-dependent, arsenic removal treatment systems will become available.
with the maximum removal capacity achieved at pH 5.5.
Adjusting the pH of the source water, therefore, provides
removal capacity advantages. As the pH deviates from
2.2.1 pH Adjustment System
the 5.0-6.0 range, the adsorption capacity for arsenic de-
creases at an increasing rate. Process demonstrations The adsorptive capacity of many adsorptive media, par-
have shown that arsenic removal capacity has been ticularly activated alumina, is pH sensitive; removal
reduced by more than 15% at pH 6.0 compared to that capacity increases with decreasing pH. Employing pH
of pH 5.5 (Rubel, 1984). adjustment, therefore, generally provides cost advan-
tages regardless of whether the media is regenerated or
Fluoride, selenium, and other inorganic ions and organic replaced. Because the pH adjustment chemicals are
molecules also are removed by the same pH adjustment usually the same chemicals that are use for regenera-

5
tion, it is generally advantageous to couple regeneration 1. System is inexpensive to install and, depending on
with pH adjustment systems when the media can be the arsenic concentration and water quality (com-
regenerated. petitive ions, etc.), operational cost may be low.

The advantages of using an adsorptive system with pH 2. System does not require chemical feed and storage
adjustment and regeneration or replacement of spent equipment. The handling of corrosive chemical is
media are as follows: not required.

1. System is low-cost and simple to operate. 3. System requires minimal operator attention (part
time) during treatment runs.
2. System requires minimal operator attention (part
time) during treatment runs. 4. System can employ manual operation, and
automatic operation may not be necessary.
3. System can employ manual operation and is
adaptable to automatic operation. 5. If arsenic breakthrough occurs, the arsenic
concentration in the treated water will not exceed
4. Activated alumina media system has longer that of the raw water.
treatment runs (greatest removal capacity). Other
media may have the same advantage. 6. Disposal of spent arsenic-bearing activated alumina
and iron based media products can be accomplished
5. Activated alumina system removes As(III) and As(V) as a nonhazardous waste (i.e., media passes Tox-
at pH 5.5 (author’s experience). icity Characteristic Leaching Procedure [TCLP] test).

The disadvantages of using the pH adjustment method The disadvantages of utilizing the non-pH adjustment
are as follows: method without regeneration of spent media are as
follows:
1. System requires chemical feed equipment and the
storage and handling of corrosive chemicals (acid 1. System has lower adsorptive removal capacity,
and caustic) for pH adjustment of raw water and re- particularly an activated alumina system, resulting in
adjustment of treated water. much shorter treatment runs.

2. pH adjustment chemicals increase inorganic ions 2. Other ions (e.g., silica, phosphate, etc) generally
and total dissolved solids (TDS) in the treated water. compete for adsorption sites with arsenic. The
Secondary MCLs must be considered. extent of competition depends on the pH of the
source water.
3. System with regeneration of spent media requires
disposal of wastewater. 3. System requires more frequent media replacement.
Expensive materials could result in costly operation.
2.2.2 Non-pH Adjustment System
2.3 Treatment With or Without
Some adsorptive media do not provide significant gains pH Adjustment
in removal capacity by lowering pH as does activated
alumina. These materials, as well as activated alumina, Prior to start of design, the best arsenic removal treat-
are used without pH adjustment with good results par- ment method for a given application should be selected.
ticularly by very small systems that do not want to Not all adsorptive media may be as pH-sensitive as acti-
handle pH adjustment chemicals. In the case where pH vated alumina. The manufacturers of these materials
adjustment is not used, regeneration is not advanta- advise that, even though pH adjustment does enhance
geous or practical. Consequently, a non-pH adjustment arsenic removal performance, it is not required to achieve
system usually is coupled with replacement of spent cost-effective results. The selection of adsorptive media
media only. will rely on either the manufacturer’s media performance
claims, or the development of independent technical per-
The advantages of utilizing an adsorptive system without formance data through field pilot testing or other means.
pH adjustment or regeneration of spent media are as Though costly, it is highly recommended that technical
follows: data be collected for a given application.

The decision to adjust treatment pH is determined in the

conceptual design phase of the project. If the decision is

6
not to incorporate pH adjustment, then the capital cost is not a consideration. For systems that are not large
for the treatment system is reduced and regeneration of enough to economically justify the processing of the
adsorptive media is eliminated. If the decision is to incor- regeneration wastewater, regeneration generally is not a
porate pH adjustment for the treatment process, then the consideration. However, very small systems with capa-
capability to regenerate the adsorptive media in place of bility to economically dispose of regeneration waste-
media replacement is available (but optional). water should evaluate this option.

2.4 Treatment Media Regeneration vs. Adsorptive media with very high arsenic removal capaci-
ties can economically justify media replacement rather
Treatment Media Disposal
than regeneration, even though the media can be regen-
erated.
The decision to regenerate or replace spent treatment
media for each system should be made based upon
Chemical regeneration may not be economical without
economic, technical, and/or aesthetic operating require-
implementation of the same chemicals for treatment pH
ments. A major factor to be evaluated is the disposal of
adjustment. Therefore, the regeneration option should
the regeneration wastewater.
be discarded if water utilities prefer not to handle corro-
sive chemicals, or advocate that addition of treatment
Activated alumina and some other adsorptive media can
chemicals might degrade the quality of the potable
be regenerated chemically for reuse rather than being
water, or for other economical, technical, or aesthetic
disposed of after arsenic removal capacity has been
concerns.
exhausted. For regenerable treatment media, an eco-
nomic/technical evaluation should be performed to deter-
mine whether to provide regeneration capability for the 2.5 Manual vs. Automatic Operation
treatment system. If the treatment plant is capable of
adjusting the raw and treated water pH, then the require- The water utility owner should be informed of the advan-
ment to handle, store, and feed corrosive chemicals tages and disadvantages of operational options prior to
(acid and caustic) is already included. However, for a finalizing the decision on mode of operation. The system
media replacement system that does not require major can be operated manually, automatically, or semiautomat-
chemical storage equipment, the procurement of more ically. Automatic operation reduces the operator effort,
costly packaging of pH adjustment chemicals will be but increases the cost of instrumentation and control
required. equipment as well as the skill level required of the oper-
ator who must be able to maintain more sophisticated
Regeneration involves removing the arsenic from the equipment.
treatment media, precipitating the dissolved arsenic in
the regeneration wastewater, dewatering the arsenic- Treatment systems utilizing adsorptive media are suitable
bearing precipitated solids, and finally disposing of waste for manual operation. That operational mode requires the
solids and liquids in a method acceptable to the presid- treatment plant operator to accomplish the following:
ing regulatory agency.
1. Start/stop operation. Adjust flowrate.
Due to increased capacity for arsenic removal resulting
from pH adjustment, the implementation of a pH adjust- 2. Start/stop and adjust rate of chemical feed to control
ment treatment system may be justified with or without pH. Monitor pH (for systems with treatment process
regeneration of the spent adsorptive media. pH adjustment only).

Treatment media regeneration is more likely to be eco- 3. Monitor and adjust system operating pressure.
nomically justified for systems with high flowrates and
high raw water arsenic concentrations due to the result- 4. Start/stop/control each backwash and regeneration
ing rapid consumption of arsenic capacity. The higher step (for systems with spent media regeneration
the arsenic concentration in the raw water, the higher the only).
probability that regeneration of treatment media will be
economically desirable. Each evaluation should include 5. Monitor and adjust water levels in reservoirs and
the variables that affect the cost of spent media regener- other containment facilities.
ation vs. replacement.
6. Monitor arsenic concentrations for raw water, treated
water, and intermediate sample points.
Some adsorptive media are not capable of regeneration
and, upon exhaustion of arsenic capacity, must be
removed for disposal. For those materials, regeneration

7
A fully automatic instrumentation and control system equipment and labor. This design manual presents infor-
includes a programmable logic controller (PLC), an oper- mation regarding instrumentation and control functions,
ator interface (screen with graphics), software, automatic all of which can be accomplished automatically or manu-
instrumentation (sensors, transmitters, controllers, alarms, ally. The only exception is the laboratory analysis require-
electrical conductors, pneumatic tubing, etc.), and auto- ment for determination of arsenic concentration in raw
matically controlled equipment (valves, pumps, chemical water, treated water, wastewater, and at intermediate
feed pumps, air compressor, etc.). The instruments can sample points.
monitor pH, flow, level, pressure, and temperature. Arse-
nic concentration analyses require manual laboratory Automatic operation is only practical for systems employ-
procedures. ing treatment process pH adjustment and spent media
regeneration. Semiautomatic operation is applicable to
Semiautomatic operation entails automating any part of systems that employ treatment process pH adjustment
the instrumentation and control functions, and the remain- with either spent media regeneration or replacement. For
der is accomplished manually. Not included are the PLC, systems without treatment process pH adjustment, auto-
operator interface, and required software. This opera- matic operation is not practical. For those systems with-
tional mode reflects choices made by the owner with the out treatment process pH adjustment, semiautomatic
advice of the designer. The choices require analysis of features for monitoring flow, pressure, and storage liquid
risk and treatment process efficiency vs. investment in levels may be desirable.

8
 3.0 Design of Central Treatment System

The design of a central treatment system for the selec- 1. Assemble design input data and information.
tive removal of arsenic from drinking water supplies is 2. Conceptual Design.
a straightforward process. For simplicity, unless differ- 3. Preliminary Design.
entiation of media is required, the term “adsorptive 4. Final Design.
media” represents all adsorptive media. Arsenic
removal treatment can be applied to existing water 3.1 Assemble Design Input Data
systems that have high arsenic, and to new water and Information
systems with high arsenic that must be reduced. The
design philosophy presented in this manual provides
The design input data and information should be
information that can be applied to any arsenic removal
established prior to initiating the conceptual design. The
adsorptive media that is capable of removing As(III)
design input data and information include, but are not
and As(V). If an adsorptive medium is not capable of
limited to, the following:
removing As(III), preoxidation of As(III) to As(V) will be
required.
1. Chemical analyses (see Figure 3-1) of representa-
tive raw water samples (includes all historical
As(III) can be easily convert to As(V) by several com-
analyses). Comprehensive raw water analyses of
monly used chemical oxidants. A laboratory study on
all inorganic, organic, radionuclide, and
six chemical oxidants has recently been completed by
bacteriological contaminants also are required to
Ghurye and Clifford (2001). The results of this study
verify that this adsorptive media process is
showed that chlorine, potassium permanganate, and
applicable for the selective removal of arsenic.
ozone were very effective oxidants, whereas chlorine
dioxide and monochloramine were not. The actual
2. Treated water quality compliance standards
amounts necessary to oxidize As(III) must take into
issued by the regulatory agency within whose
account other oxidant demand substances in the
jurisdiction the system resides.
source water such as iron, manganese, and sulfide.
The study also showed that a solid oxidizing media
used for iron and manganese removal has the ability 3. Regulatory design standards.
to oxidize As(III). Air oxidation that is effective for
oxidizing iron has been found to be ineffective for 4. Wastewater and waste solids disposal ordinances
As(III) oxidation (Lowry and Lowry, 2002). issued by the responsible regulatory agency.

The information included presents flexibility to adapt to 5. Data on system production and consumption
any combination of the following options: requirements (present and future).

1. Selection of adsorptive media. 6. Manual vs. automatic operation.

2. Treatment with or without raw and treated water

pH adjustment.

3. Spent adsorptive media regeneration or

replacement.

4. Manual, semiautomatic, or automatic operation.

If a treatment system employs chemicals for media

regeneration, it is prudent to use the same chemicals
to adjust the pH of the treatment process.

A four-step design process is employed in this manual.

The included steps are as follows:

9
 CONTAINER
SAMPLE DATE
TAKEN BY:

Analysis *

Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium

Total Cations

Total Alkalinity (M)**

Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (P)**
Total Hardness**

Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Phosphate (PO4)
Silica (SiO2)
Free Carbon Dioxide

Iron (Fe) Unfiltered

Iron (Fe) Filtered
Manganese
Turbidity (NTU)
Color (Units)
Fluoride
Total Arsenic
Soluble Arsenic
Particulate Arsenic
Arsenic (III)
Arsenic (V)

PH (Units)
Specific Conductance (micro-mhos)
Temperature (°F)

* All units reported in mg/L excepted as noted.

** as CaCO3.
Figure 3-1. Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plant Water Analysis Report

10
The treatment system is a subsystem within the larger head loss associated with the treatment system without
water utility system. Other subsystems are the well pump, significant drop in pump efficiency. If the additional head
the storage reservoirs, the pressurization system, and loss cannot be met with the existing pump, several
the distribution system. This design manual is applicable options exist: increasing the size of the motor, increasing
when arsenic removal is the only treatment required. the size of the impeller, or replacing the pump. Storage
Removal of other contaminants such as bacteria, sus- should be provided to contain a minimum of one half the
pended solids, hardness, organics, or other contami- maximum daily consumption requirement. This is based
nants also may be required. In those cases, alternative on the premise that maximum consumption takes place
treatment processes and/or additional treatment proces- during 12 hrs of the day. Then, if treatment operates
ses should be evaluated. during the entire 24 hrs, storage drawdown occurs
during 12 hrs and recovers during the remaining 12 hrs.
The sequence of other treatment steps should be com-
patible with the selected adsorptive media arsenic re- Construction materials must comply with OSHA stand-
moval method. Removal of suspended solids, organics, ards, local building codes, and health department, require-
and hardness should take place upstream of the adsorp- ments in addition to being suitable for the applicable pH
tive media arsenic removal process. Disinfection with range and compatible with any pretreatment chemicals
chlorine should take place after arsenic removal using used (e.g., chlorine, ozone, etc.). Both drinking water
activated alumina because it has been the author’s treatment chemicals and system components should
experience that chlorine will degrade the performance of comply with NSF/ANSI STD 61.
activated alumina. No known investigation has deter-
mined the amount of chlorine that can be tolerated by Treatment system equipment should be protected from
the alumina; however, process degradation has been the elements. Although not mandatory in some locations,
eliminated on projects conducted by the author where it is prudent to house the system within a treatment
prechlorination was terminated. If chemical oxidation is building.
required for the conversion of As(III) to As(V) for the
successful performance of another type of adsorptive Wastewater resulting from backwash and regeneration
media, it is recommended that the preoxidation chemical of the treatment media can only be disposed of in a
be prevented from coming in contact with the media, manner permitted by state and/or local regulatory
unless advised otherwise by the media manufacturer. authorities. Several options are available for disposal;
Other treatment processes may be required upstream of however, they are subject to climate, space and other
the arsenic removal process, but that decision will be environmental limitations. Because each of the variables
made on a case-by-case basis. can significantly affect both capital and operating costs,
careful evaluation of the available wastewater handling
For ground water systems, the most practical concept is options is required prior to making conceptual selections.
to install the treatment plant in the immediate vicinity of
the well (space permitting). The well pump then will 3.2 Conceptual Design
deliver the water through treatment into distribution and/
or storage. If the existing well pump is oversized (pumps The second step in the design process is the conceptual
at a much higher flowrate than the maximum daily flow- design, which provides a definition of the process. How-
rate requirement), it should be resized to deliver slightly ever, it does not provide equipment size, arrangement,
more (i.e., 125% minimum) than the peak requirement. material selection, details, or specifications. Using the
The flowrate dictates the treatment equipment size and design input data and information previously described
capital cost. The design rate should be minimized to the (Section 3.1), the following decisions should be made:
extent possible to ensure that the capital cost of the
treatment system is minimized. Reducing flowrate for an 1. Selection of adsorptive media.
oversized pump can result in excessive equipment wear
and energy costs. The treatment media volume is a func- 2. Decision on whether to implement treatment process
tion of flowrate. The treatment vessels, pipe sizes, and pH adjustment.
chemical feedrates all increase as the flowrate increases.
A well-matched pump likely can handle any additional 3. Decision regarding regeneration or replacement of
spent adsorptive media (applicable if treatment
process pH is used).

4. Decision regarding implementation of manual vs.

automatic operation (applicable if spent adsorptive
media is regenerated).

11
There are four basic options from which a Conceptual is available to proceed with the project should be made;
Design can be selected. Every combination of options this requires a preliminary rough project estimate with an
will perform the process and, under a selected set of accuracy of ±30%. If the preliminary rough estimate
conditions, a certain combination may be preferred. The exceeds the available funds, adjustments should be
options are as follows: made to increase funding or reduce project costs.

1. Gravity or pressure flow 3.2.1 Manual Operation

2. Single or multiple treatment bed(s)
3. Upflow or downflow treatment flow direction In a manual operation, the treatment plant operator per-
4. Series or parallel treatment vessel arrangement. sonally performs all of the operating functions and makes
all operating decisions. The treatment plant equipment
An efficient, cost-effective configuration is a pressure does not accomplish any function independent of the
system utilizing a dual vessel series downflow configura- operating personnel. The equipment is simple and per-
tion with bypass and reblending of raw water. Some forms the basic functions that the operator implements.
state regulations, however, may not allow the bypass of The manual operation includes the following:
untreated water to be blended with treated water. The
two-bed series configuration yields the highest arsenic 1. Motors (pumps, chemical pumps, etc.) with manual
loading on the treatment media and the lowest treated start/stop controls. Some motors have manual speed
water arsenic level. The single treatment unit configura- adjustment capability. Chemical pumps have man-
tion generally is less efficient unless there is an excep- ual speed and stroke length adjustment capability.
tionally large treated water storage capacity. A gravity
flow system does not provide the economics of a pres- 2. Valves with manual handle, lever, handwheel, or
sure system; treatment flowrates are lower, repumping chainwheel operators.
of treated water is always required, and capital costs are
higher. Because free carbon dioxide (CO2) is released to 3. Instrumentation sensors with indicators. Instrumen-
the atmosphere in gravity systems utilizing treatment tation is installed in-line where operating data (flow-
process pH adjustment, pH adjustment is easier to con- rate, total flow, pressure, pH, and liquid levels) are
trol in a pressure system. Downflow treatment has con- indicated. In-line pH sensors, magmeters, ultrasonic
sistently yielded higher arsenic removal efficiency than level sensors are other instruments that require
upflow. Because the downflow concept utilizes a packed electric service.
bed, the flow distribution is superior. If the upflow beds
are restrained from expanding, they would in effect also The adsorptive media treatment process can perform
be packed. However, they would forfeit the necessary manually with or without treatment process pH adjust-
capability to backwash. Once the bed configuration is ment and with spent media replacement or regeneration.
defined, a basic schematic flow diagram is prepared (see
Figures 3-2, 3-3, and 3-4). These diagrams present all of 3.2.2 Automatic Operation
the subsystems without pH adjustment and regeneration
(Figure 3-2), with pH adjustment without regeneration In an automatic operation, the treatment plant is oper-
(Figure 3-3), and with pH adjustment and regeneration ated by a PLC, which initially is programmed by the
(Figure 3-4). An illustration of the treatment unit is pro- operator, the computer supplier, or an outside specialist.
vided as Figure 3-5. A summary of subsystem compo- If programmed by someone other than the plant oper-
nents is presented in Appendix A. ator, the operator should be trained by that individual to
adjust program variables and, if necessary, modify the
For systems in which the raw water arsenic concentra- program. The operator interface and printer are the equip-
tion is slightly above the arsenic MCL, bypassing and ment items which the operator uses during the perform-
reblending a fraction of the raw water with the remaining ance of treatment plant functions. In addition, the operator
fraction that is treated should be evaluated. This option should calibrate and check all of the components of the
saves treatment chemicals, extends treatment media automatic operating equipment system on a routine
cycle life, and reduces operating cost. If bypassing and periodic basis. Finally, the treatment plant operator or a
blending is found to be feasible, the treatment system designated instrumentation and control specialist should
can be sized to treat less than 100% of the total flow. be capable of performing emergency maintenance and/
or repair of all components.
Prior to proceeding with the Preliminary Design, financial
feasibility should be determined. Funding limits for the Every function included in an automatic system should
project should be defined. A determination that funding be capable of manual operation.

12
Figure 3-2. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment System Without pH Adjustment,
With Replacement of Spent Media

13
Figure 3-3. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment System With pH Adjustment,
With Replacement of Spent Media

14
Figure 3-4. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment System With pH Adjustment,
With Regeneration of Spent Media

15
Figure 3-5. Treatment Bed and Vessel Design Calculations

16
The automatic equipment is more sophisticated and computer control of the entire operation. These semi-
costly than that used in a manual operation. When func- automatic functions should include alarms that will notify
tioning normally, an automatic operation can function operators of process functions exceeding limits estab-
continuously with minimal operator attention. This is lished for effective and/or safe operation. Alarm events
recommended for treatment systems in remote areas or can be staged at single (e.g., high) or dual (e.g., high-
areas that are difficult to access, and systems for which high) levels. In a dual-level alarm, the first level notifies
operator availability is limited. The automatic operation the operator that the performance is out of tolerance,
includes the following: and the second level shuts down either a single process
function (e.g., a pump) or the entire process. Examples
1. Motors (pumps, chemical pumps, air compressors, of semiautomatic operational functions include, but are
etc.) with automatic start/stop and speed adjustment not limited to, the following:
controls. Chemical pumps may have manual stroke
length adjustment. Motors should also have a 1. Flow control loop includes an electronic flow sensor
manual on/off control. with totalizer (e.g., magnetic flowmeter) that sends
an electronic signal to an electronic flow controller
2. Valves with either pneumatic or electric operators. (with high and low flowrate alarms), which in turn
Flow or pressure control valves with electronic posi- sends an electronic signal to a flow control valve
tioners for valves with automatic operators. Valves (butterfly valve or ball valve) with an actuator and
require manual overrides for operation during start- electronic positioner. The plant operator designates
up, power failure or compressed air failure. Valves the required flowrate at the flow controller. The
should have opening and closing speed controls to controller receives the flowrate measurement from
prevent water hammer during automatic operation. the flow sensor and transmits signals to the flow
Valve electric position indicators are optional. control valve positioner in order to adjust the valve
position until the flowrate matches that required by
3. Automatic instrumentation may be electronic, the process. If the flowrate deviates from the limits
pneumatic, or a combination. The instruments and established for the process, then a high flowrate or
controls should always be capable of transmitting low flowrate alarm will be issued.
and receiving electronic information to and from the
PLC. In a fully automatic system all of the control, 2. Pressure control loop includes an electronic pres-
monitoring, and alarm functions are monitored and sure transmitter that sends an electronic signal to an
controlled by the PLC. Backup manual instruments electronic pressure controller (with high and low
(e.g., flowrate indicators, pressure indicators, pH pressure alarms), which in turn sends an electronic
indicators, and liquid level indicators) are recom- signal to a pressure control valve with an actuator
mended to provide verification of automatic instru- and electronic positioner. The plant operator
mentation if treatment plant budget is available. designates the required pressure at the pressure
Comprehensive automatic alarms that notify controller. The controller receives the pressure
operators and/or shut down increments or the entire measurement from the pressure transmitter and
treatment system relating to every type of system transmits signals to the pressure control valve posi-
malfunction at the moment such events occur is a tioner to adjust the valve position until the pressure
necessary function that should be incorporated in all matches that required by the process. If the pres-
applicable instrumentation components. sure deviates from the limits established for the
process, then a high pressure or low pressure alarm
The adsorptive media treatment process with automatic should be issued.
operation can perform with or without treatment process
pH adjustment and with spent media replacement or 3. pH control loop includes an electronic pH sensor
spent media regeneration. Automatic operation is most which transmits a pH signal to a pH analyzer (with
applicable to systems with treatment process pH adjust- high and low level alarms) which in turn sends an
ment and treatment media regeneration. Systems electronic signal to a converter which transmits a
employing adsorptive media without treatment process pulse signal to a chemical feed pump (acid or
pH adjustment and media regeneration do not benefit caustic) to adjust the feed pump stroke speed. The
greatly from computer-controlled operations. plant operator designates the required pH at the pH
analyzer. The pH analyzer receives the pH mea-
A semiautomatic operation that employs individual con- surement from the pH sensor and transmits signals
trollers to automatically start/stop or adjust some, but not to the chemical feed pump (via the converter) to
all, of the operational items in the system can contribute adjust the pump stroke speed until the pH matches
significantly to the treatment system operation without that required by the process. If the pH deviates from

17
 the limits established for the process, then a high pH 3.3.1 Treatment Equipment
or low pH alarm should be issued. Preliminary Design
4. Liquid level control loop includes an electronic liquid
This section provides the basic methodology for sizing
level sensor (e.g., ultrasonic level sensor) which
equipment items and selecting materials of construction
transmits an electronic liquid level signal to a level
for arsenic removal treatment systems using granular
controller which indicates the liquid level and trans-
adsorptive media with pH adjustment and regeneration
mits an electronic signal to one or more motors
of exhausted treatment media. An example illustrating
(pump, mixer, etc.) to start or stop. At the level con-
this method is provided in Appendix B. The example is
troller, the plant operator designates the required
based on use of dual vessel series downflow granular
liquid levels at which motors are to start and stop.
adsorptive media with pH adjustment, exhausted media
The level controller receives the liquid level mea-
regeneration, and manual operation. The empty bed
surement from the liquid level sensor and transmits
contact time (EBCT) used for this application is 5 min
signals to the motor(s) to start or stop. If the liquid
per vessel. For systems using different process param-
level deviates from the limits established for the
eters (EBCT, without pH adjustment, with disposal of
process, then a high or low liquid level alarm should
exhausted adsorptive media) the design information pre-
be issued.
sented in this document is easily adjusted. For automatic
or semiautomatic operation the system basic design does
Many other process functions are performed automat- not change; however, equipment material and installa-
ically by means of relays and other electrical devices. An
tion costs will vary.
example is the electrical interlock of chemical feed
pumps with raw water pumps, which prevents chemical
3.3.1.1 Treatment Bed and Vessel Design
feed into the process without the flow of process water.
Another example is the use of a flow switch in a pres- In accordance with the discussion presented in Section
sure relief valve discharge pipe, which, upon detection of 2.2, the recommended treatment concept is based on
water flow, issues an alarm and stops the process feed the use of two treatment pressure vessels piped in ser-
pump. The list of individual failsafe automatic functions ies using the downflow treatment mode. Treatment ves-
can be extensive. All applicable codes, standards, and sel piping also should be configured to provide for media
OSHA requirements should be reviewed to determine backwashing (upflow). The treatment vessel materials of
which requirements are applicable to the project. Then construction employed in the design example presented
based upon sound judgment, available budget, treat- in Appendix B are carbon steel (grade selection based
ment plant operator capability, and availability, a deci- on cost-effective availability) fabrication, assembly, and
sion should be made as to whether a given function testing that complies with American Society of Mechan-
should be automatic or manual. ical Engineers (ASME) Code Section VIII, Division 1.
The interior should be lined with abrasion-resistant vinyl
3.3 Preliminary Design ester or epoxy coating. Interior lining material should be
NSF-certified for potable water application, and suitable
After completion and approval of the Conceptual Design for pH range 2.0-13.5. Vessel pressure rating should be
by the client, the regulatory agency(s), and any other 50 psig or the minimum necessary to satisfy system
affected party, the Preliminary Design commences. This requirements. Other vessel materials of construction
stage includes sizing of the equipment, selecting materi- (e.g., fiberglass), internal lining materials (e.g., abrasion
als for construction, determining an equipment layout, resistant epoxy, rubber, etc.), and stainless steel without
and upgrading the preliminary capital cost estimate to a lining, may also be employed.
±20% accuracy. The deliverable items are:
Prior experience with activated alumina indicates that
1. Schematic flow diagrams (see Figures 3-2, 3-3, the volume of treatment media (V) in each treatment
and 3-4) vessel is • ft3 per gpm of process water flowrate to pro-
vide an EBCT time of 10 min in the dual vessel downflow
2. Preliminary process equipment arrangement process (e.g., 5 min EBCT in each vessel). Actual
drawings (see Figures 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8 for residence time is approximately half the EBCT, because
examples) the space between the grains of media is approximately
50% of the total bed volume. (Note: When raw water is
3. Outline specifications bypassed and blended back with treated water, only the
treated water is included in sizing the treatment media
4. Preliminary capital cost estimate (see Table 3-1). volume.) In order to prevent “wall effects”, bed diameter
(d) should be equal to or greater than one-half the bed

18
Figure 3-6. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media Without Process Water pH Adjustment and
With Spent Media Replacement

depth (h). Good practice indicates that bed depth should manufacturer’s instructions, or develop the technical
be a minimum of 3 ft and a maximum of 6 ft. At less than data independently by means of field pilot studies. As
minimum depth, distribution problems may develop; and, the EBCT decreases below the recommended value,
at greater than maximum depth, fine material removal two undesirable features occur. First, the treatment is
and pressure loss becomes a problem. For very small less efficient (% arsenic removal is reduced), resulting in
systems using tanks of 1-2 ft in diameter, the bed depths treated water arsenic concentration not reaching a low
could be as low as 2 ft. The treatment bed and vessel enough concentration; and second, regeneration fre-
design is illustrated in Figure 3-5. A typical example for quency or spent media replacement frequency increases,
determining treatment bed and treatment vessel dimen- requiring more operating cost, operator attention, and
sions is presented in Appendix B. proportionately more downtime. Conversely, raising the
EBCT above the recommended level increases the size
Five minutes is recommended as a minimum limit for the of the treatment beds and their vessels, thereby increas-
EBCT for activated alumina. For EBCTs of other adsorp- ing capital cost and space requirements.
tive media, the designer should rely either upon the

19
Figure 3-7. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media With Process Water pH Adjustment and
Spent Media Replacement

20
Figure 3-8. Treatment System Plan for Adsorptive Media With Process Water pH Adjustment and
Spent Media Regeneration

21
Table 3-1. Preliminary Capital Cost Estimate Examples for Four Types of Adsorptive Media
Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants

Location:
Flowrate: 570 gpm Cost ($1,000)
Date: Manual Operation Manual Operation Manual Operation Automatic
w/Media w/Media w/Media Operation w/Media
Replacement Replacement Regeneration Regeneration w/pH
w/o pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment Adjustment
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 78 78 78 78
Treatment Media 33 33 33 33
Process Piping, Valves, and Accessories 27 34 50 68
Instruments and Controls 8 13 19 70
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A 45 45 45
Chemical Pumps and Accessories N/A 5 10 10
Subtotal 146 208 235 304
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 30 42 44 48
Electrical 12 22 22 38
Painting and Miscellaneous 13 15 15 15
Subtotal 55 79 81 101
Miscellaneous Installed Items
Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A 130 130
Building and Concrete 45 70 70 70
Site Work, Fence, and Miscellaneous 15 17 24 24
Subtotal 60 87 224 224
Contingency 20% 53 75 108 126
(a)
Total 314 449 648 755
(a) Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes not
included.
N/A = not applicable.

Pressure vessel fabrication is standardized by diameter manway(s) with hinged cover(s) in the top head of the
in multiples of 6-inch outside diameter increments. Tool- vessel.
ing for manufacture of pressure vessel dished heads is
set up for that standard. Design dimensions differentiate 3.3.1.2 Pipe Design
between pressure vessel and treatment bed diameters.
For systems with treatment process pH adjustment and
The vessel outside diameter (D) is approximately 1 inch
spent media regeneration, material should be suitable
greater than the bed (or vessel inside) diameter, which
for ambient temperature, pH range of 2.0-13.5, system
conservatively provides for both vessel walls with lining
pressure, and potable water service. At a low pH, carbon
as well as fabrication tolerances. If the pressure is high
steel is not acceptable unless interior lining is included.
(100 psig or greater), the 1 inch will increase to reflect
Stainless steel is acceptable; however, it may be too
the increased vessel wall thickness.
costly. Plastic materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
are satisfactory. PVC is usually the best selection based
Although many methods are available for distributing the
on its availability, NSF certification for potable water
water flow through a treatment bed, the following method
service, low cost, and ease of fabrication and assembly.
has been successfully used in adsorptive media water
The drawbacks to the PVC materials are their loss of
treatment plants that are presently in operation. The
strength at elevated temperatures (above 100°F); their
water is piped downward into the vessel through an inlet
coefficients of thermal expansion; their external support
diffuser. This diverts the flow into a horizontal pattern.
requirements; their deterioration from exposure to sun-
From there it radiates in a horizontal plane prior to
light; and their vulnerabilities to damage from impact.
starting its downward flow through the adsorptive media
Nevertheless, these liabilities are outweighed by the low
bed. The bed, in turn, is supported by a false flat bottom,
cost and suitability for the service. The piping can easily
which is supported by the bottom head of the pressure
be protected from all of the above concerns, except ele-
vessel by means of concentric rings. The false flat
vated ambient and/or water temperatures. If elevated
bottom also supports the horizontal header and plastic
temperature exists, the use of FRP pipe is recom-
fabric sleeved perforated lateral collection system. Treat-
mended. This material provides the strength and support
ment media are placed in the vessel through circular
that is lacking in the pure plastic materials.

22
For systems without treatment process pH adjustment results in highly corrosive treated water; therefore hydro-
metallic pipe (e.g., carbon steel, copper, etc.) may be chloric acid is not recommended. Bulk delivery provides
used in place of plastic. However, care must be exer- the lowest unit price for the chemical. In small plants,
cised to prevent occurrence of corrosive conditions acid consumption may not be enough to justify large vol-
including, but not limited to, process water pH, free CO2, ume purchase of chemicals. In the smaller plants, drums
chloride concentration, and sulfate concentration, as well or even carboys may be more practical; therefore, for
as galvanic and pit corrosion. that type operation, the requirement for a storage tank is
eliminated. A 48,000-lb tank truck delivers 3,100 gal of
The piping system should be economically sized to allow 66°B• H2SO4 (15.5 lb/gal). A 5,000-gal tank provides a
for delivery of design flow without excessive pressure 50% cushion. The example in Appendix B illustrates the
losses. If water velocities present conditions for water method of designing the components of this system.
hammer (due to fast closing valves, etc.), shock-prevent-
ing devices will be provided. The sulfuric acid carbon steel storage tank does not
require an interior lining; however, the interior should be
Isolation and process control valves should be wafer sandblasted and vacuum-cleaned prior to filling with acid.
style butterfly type, except in low flowrate systems where The storage tank should be protected from the elements
small pipe size dictates the use of true union ball valves. and include a containment basin located outside of the
The use of inexpensive, easily maintained valves that treatment building. Typically, the containment basins are
operate manually provides minimum capital cost. The sized for 110% of the capacity of the storage tank. The
valves are automated by the inclusion of pneumatic or 66°B• H2SO4 freezes at −20°F. Therefore, unless the treat-
electric operators. ment plant is located in an extremely cold climate, no
freeze protection is required. All piping is to be 2-inch
Pressure regulator and rate of flow control valves are carbon steel with threaded cast iron fittings and plug
recommended for safe operation of manually controlled valves. Elastomer seals, seats and gaskets should be
treatment systems. Viton®.

See Appendix B for pipe size design using the example The acid pumps are standard diaphragm models with
employed for vessel and treatment media design. materials of construction suitable for 66°B• H2SO4 service.
Standard sulfuric acid service pumps should be speci-
3.3.1.3 Instrumentation Design fied. In the preliminary design, the sizing is determined
by field test or theoretical calculation (see Appendices B
System functional requirements that are adapted to com-
and C.) Acid feedrate varies with the total alkalinity and
mercially available instruments should be specified.
the free CO2 content of the raw water. The feedrate is
Included are:
accurately determined experimentally by adjusting a raw
water sample pH to 5.5 by acid titration. In a manual
Instrument Range Accuracy
treatment plant operation, the operator should check the
1. Flow sensor Varies(a) ±2%
pH periodically and maintain it at 5.5. The pump stroke
(indicator/totalizer)
speed and length should be adjustable to accommodate
2. Pressure indicator Varies(a) ±1%
these variations. An in-line static mixer should be
3. pH sensor/analyzer/alarm 0-14 ±0.1
installed immediately downstream of each acid injection
4. Level sensor/indicator Varies(a) ±1%
point. This provides thorough mixing of the acid which
5. Temperature indicator 30-120°F ±1%
results in an accurate pH measurement by a pH sensor
(optional)
located at the discharge end of the mixer. The pH
(a) Range to be compatible with application, maximum measurement probes that are used to control pH should be calibrated
not to exceed 90% of range.
against standard buffers at least once per week. For
treatment systems that regenerate adsorptive media an
3.3.1.4 Acid Storage and Feed Subsystem acid feed is required to lower pH of water for neutraliza-
tion of a treatment bed prior to placing that bed back into
Acid feed and storage subsystems are included with treatment service after regeneration. Neutralization pH
treatment systems that include pH adjustment of process feedrate is initially set at 2.5 and increases in steps until
water only (with or without regeneration of exhausted the treatment pH of 5.5 is achieved. Finally wastewater
adsorptive media.) The acid storage tank should be from the regeneration of an adsorptive media bed is
sized to contain tank truck bulk delivery quantities of collected in a surge tank where the pH is adjusted to 6.5,
concentrated sulfuric acid. For water systems that are a level at which arsenic coprecipitates with aluminum
not permitted to increase the sulfate concentration of the hydroxide or ferric hydroxide. An additional acid feed
water, hydrochloric acid can be substituted. However, pump is required to feed acid to the wastewater.
this acid is more costly, more difficult to handle, and

23
 3.3.2 Preliminary Treatment Equipment
3.3.1.5 Caustic Soda Storage and Arrangement
Feed Subsystem
The caustic soda storage tank also is sized to contain Once all of the major equipment size and configuration
tank truck bulk delivery quantities of 50% or 25% sodium information is available, a layout (arrangement drawing)
hydroxide. A 48,000-lb tank truck delivers 3,850 gal of is prepared. The layout provides sufficient space for
50% NaOH which provides a 25% cushion in a 5,000-gal proper installation, operation and maintenance for the
storage tank. 50% NaOH freezes at 55°F; 25% NaOH treatment system as well as each individual equipment
freezes at 0°F. Therefore, 50% NaOH, which is prefer- item. OSHA standards should be applied to these deci-
able because of price, requires an immersion heater to sions during the equipment arrangement design stage.
prevent freezing. The caustic is used for treatment bed These requirements may be supplemented or super-
regeneration and neutralization of treated water. Regen- seded by state or local health and safety regulations, or,
eration frequency is a function of raw water arsenic in some cases, insurance regulations. A compact
concentration, flowrate and treatment media arsenic arrangement to minimize space and resulting cost
capacity. The amount of caustic required to neutralize requirements is recommended. Figures 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8
the treated water, that is to raise the pH from 5.5 to the illustrate typical preliminary arrangement plans. These
pH required for corrosion protection for the water sys- arrangements provide no frills, but do include ample
tem, is a function of the water chemistry at each installa- space for ease of operation and maintenance. Easy
tion. The actual caustic feedrate is easily determined access to all valves and instruments reduces plant oper-
experimentally by readjusting the treated water pH by ator effort.
titrating a sample with caustic until the desired pH is
achieved. If a fraction of the raw water bypasses treat- The type of building used to protect the treatment
ment and is blended with treated water, then the chem- system (and operator) from the elements depends on
ical required for pH adjustment is reduced. In raw water the climate. Standard pre-engineered steel buildings are
with high alkalinity the lowering of pH produces high low-cost, modular units. Concrete block or other material
levels of dissolved CO2. In those waters, removal of the also may be used. Standard building dimensions that
CO2 by aeration raises the pH (prior to blending), pro- satisfy the installation, operation, and maintenance space
viding a less expensive treatment due to reduction of requirements for the treatment system should be
caustic required to raise the pH of the treated water. In selected. The building should provide access doors, light-
low alkalinity water, the chemical addition is less expen- ing, ventilation, emergency shower and eye wash, and a
sive. The carbon steel caustic storage tank is covered in laboratory bench with sink. All other features are optional.
Appendix B. This vessel should be heat-treated to stress
relieve welds. The carbon steel does not require an When the arrangement is completed, the preliminary
interior lining; however, it does require sandblasting and cost estimate is prepared.
vacuum-cleaning prior to filling. All piping is to be 2-inch
carbon steel with threaded cast iron fittings and plug Manual operation is the method employed in the design
valves. Elastomer seals, slots and gaskets should be example in Appendix B. The basic process requirements
ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM). should be reviewed at each stage of design to assure
that every item required to operate the process is
Because 50% NaOH freezes at 55°F, it should maintain included. Although detail design occurs during the final
a minimum temperature of 70°F. This is handled by design phase, provision for operator access for every
a temperature-controlled electrical immersion heater. equipment item should be provided. Automatic operation
Twenty-five percent sodium hydroxide freezes at 0°F; does not require total accessibility; access for mainte-
therefore, unless it is located in an extremely cold cli- nance functions for which ladder or scaffold access will
mate, freeze protection is not required. The storage tank suffice. The extra equipment items required solely for
should be placed in a containment basin inside of an automatic operation (including but not limited to PLC,
enclosure outside of the treatment building. and operator, interface) occupy minimal space and are
located in positions that are most accessible to the
A pump is required to feed caustic into the effluent main operator.
through an in-line static mixer where the treated water is
neutralized. For regeneration, a larger caustic feed pump 3.3.3 Preliminary Cost Estimate
is required for pumping the caustic through a static mixer
in the regeneration feed pipe. There the caustic is diluted At completion of the Preliminary Design, the preliminary
to the 5% (by weight) concentration required to regener- cost estimate is prepared based upon the equipment
ate the adsorptive treatment media.

24
that has been selected, the equipment arrangement and complete process system analysis, complete detail
the building selection. This estimate should be based on design of the building including site work, and a final
the material equipment quantities, unit prices to labor capital cost estimate accurate to within 10%. The deliv-
and material, and finally summarized in a format that is erable items are:
preferred by the owner (see Table 3-1 for example). This
estimate should have an accuracy of ±20%. To assure 1. Complete set of construction plans and
sufficient budget for the project, it is prudent to estimate specifications
on the high side at this stage of design. This may be
accomplished by means of a contingency to cover 2. Final capital cost estimate (See Table 3-2).
unforeseen costs, and an inflation escalation factor.
The Final Design starts with the treatment system equip-
3.3.4 Preliminary Design Revisions ment (if applicable, including the wastewater surge tank);
continues with the building (including concrete slabs and
The Preliminary Design package (described above) then foundations, earthwork excavation/backfill/compaction,
is submitted for approval prior to proceeding with the heating, cooling, painting, lighting, utilities, laboratory,
Final Design. This package may require the approval of personnel facilities, etc.); and finishes with the site work
regulatory authorities, as well as the owner. Requested (including utilities, drainage, paving and landscaping).
acceptable changes should be incorporated and resub- The latter items apply to every type of treatment plant;
mit for approval. Once all requested changes are imple- although they are integral with the treatment system,
mented and Preliminary Design approval is received, the they are not addressed in this manual. The only portions
Final Design can proceed. of the Final Design that should be addressed are the
pertinent aspects of the treatment equipment which were
3.4 Final Design not covered in the Preliminary Design (Section 3.3). Dur-
ing the Conceptual Design and Preliminary Design, the
basic equipment that accomplishes the required func-
After completion and approval of the Preliminary Design
tions were selected, sized, and arranged in a compact,
by the client, the Final Design proceeds. This includes
efficient layout. The decision was cost-conscious, using
detail design of all of the process equipment and piping,

Table 3-2. Final Capital Cost Estimate Examples for Typical Location for Four Types of
Adsorptive Media Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants

Location:
Flowrate: 570 gpm Cost ($1,000)
Date: Manual Operation Manual Operation Manual Operation Automatic
w/ Media w/Media w/Media Operation w/Media
Replacement Replacement Regeneration Regeneration w/pH
w/o pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment Adjustment
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 73 73 73 73
Treatment Media 31 31 31 31
Process Piping, Valves, and Accessories 32 36 49 64
Instruments and Controls 7 11 16 66
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A 40 40 40
Chemical Pumps, Piping, and Accessories N/A 6 12 13
Subtotal 143 197 221 287
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 31 43 46 51
Electrical 10 17 17 41
Painting and Miscellaneous 10 13 13 13
Subtotal 51 73 76 105
Miscellaneous Installed Items
Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A 120 120
Building and Concrete 40 62 62 62
Site Work, Fence, and Miscellaneous 14 15 23 23
Subtotal 54 77 205 205
Contingency 10% 25 35 51 60
(a)
Total 273 382 553 657
(a) Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes not
included.

25
minimum sizes (or standard sizes) and the least expen- Upon completion of installation, functional checkout
sive materials that satisfied the service and/or environ- requirements should be accomplished. All piping should
ment. However, in the Final Design, this effort can be be cleaned and hydrostatically pressure tested prior to
defeated by not heeding simple basic cost control princi- startup. All leaks should be corrected and retested.
ples. Some of these are: Recommended test pressure is 150% of design pres-
sure. Potable water piping and vessels should be disin-
1. Minimize detail (e.g., pipe supports–use one style, fected prior to startup. Disinfection procedures should be
one material, and components common to all sizes). in compliance with regulatory agency requirements and
material manufacturer’s disinfection requirements/limita-
2. Minimize the number of bends in pipe runs (some tions. All electrical systems should satisfy a functional
bends are necessary–those that are optional only checkout. All instruments should be calibrated; if accu-
increase costs). racy does not meet requirements stated in Section
3.3.1.3, the instruments are to be replaced.
3. Minimize field labor; shop fabricate where possible
(e.g., access platforms and pipe supports can be When the plant operation begins, a check on actual sys-
mounted on brackets that are shop fabricated on tem pressure drop is required. If there is a discrepancy
vessel). between design and actual pressure drop, the cause
should be determined (obstruction in line, faulty valve,
4. Skid-mount major equipment items (skids distribute installation error, design error, etc.) and rectified. Pres-
weight of vessels over small mat foundations in sure relief valves should be tested; if not accurate, they
place of piers and spread footings, thereby costly should be adjusted or replaced. Although this activity
foundation work is eliminated). takes place during treatment plant startup (covered in
Chapter 5.0), it should be incorporated on a construction
5. Use treatment vessels as a heat sink to provide document requirement.
insulated building cooling or heating or both
(eliminates heating and/or cooling equipment in 3.4.1 Treatment Equipment
addition to reducing energy cost). Consideration
Final Design
must be given, however, to humid climates where
cold tanks will result in sweating problems.
This section provides a discussion of the details that apply
specifically to arsenic removal water treatment plants.
6. Simplify everything.
3.4.1.1 Treatment Bed and Vessel Design
All subsystems should be analyzed (refer to schematic
flow diagrams in Figure 3-2, 3-3, and 3-4) to account for The treatment media volume was designed by determi-
all components in both equipment specifications and nation of bed dimensions and resulting weight in the
installation drawings. The drawings and specifications Preliminary Design (see Section 3.3.1.1). It is recom-
should provide all information necessary to manufacture mended that a minimum of 10% extra treatment media
and install the equipment. Extra effort to eliminate ambi- be ordered. For lowest price and ease of handling, the
guity in detail and/or specified requirements should be material should be ordered in fiber drums (approximately
exercised. All items should be satisfactory for service 5-8 ft3) on pallets. Several sources of granular adsorptive
conditions besides being able to perform required func- media are available for service in the application.
tions. Each item should be easy to maintain; spare parts Specification requirements should be NSF-certified for
necessary for continuous operation should be included potable water application, mesh size −28, +48 (or as
with the original equipment. All tools required for initial recommended by media supplier), and demonstrated
startup as well as operation and maintenance should be arsenic removal capacity.
furnished during the construction phase of the project.
Once construction, equipment installation, and checkout The vessel design should be simple. The vessel should
are complete, the treatment plant should proceed into have a support system to transfer its loaded weight to
operation without disruption. After all components in the foundation and ultimately to the soil. The loaded
each of the subsystems have been selected, hydraulic weight includes the media, the water, attached appurte-
analysis calculations should be made to determine the nances (platform, pipe filled with liquid, etc.), the vessel,
velocities and pressure drops through the system. and applicable seismic and/or wind loads. The support
Calculations should be run for normal treatment flow and legs should be as short as possible, reducing head room
backwash flow. The latter is more severe, but of short requirements as well as cost. If the equipment is skid-
duration. If pressure losses are excessive, the design mounted, the vessel legs should be integral with the skid
should be modified by decreasing or eliminating losses to distribute the weight over an area greater than the
(e.g., increase pipe size, eliminate bends or restrictions). dimension of the vessel. This distribution eliminates point

26
loads of vessel support legs, so costly piers, footings, 1. Maintain uniform distribution
and excavation requirements are eliminated. The skid
should have provisions for anchorage to the foundation. 2. Provide minimum pressure drop through internal
Exterior brackets (if uniform and simply detailed) are not piping (but sufficient to assure uniform distribution)
costly and provide supports that eliminate need for cum-
bersome costly field fabrications. Conversely, interior 3. Prevent wall effects and channeling
brackets, though required to anchor (or support) vessel
internal distribution or collection systems, should be held 4. Collect treated water within 2 inches of bottom of
to a bare minimum because they are costly to line. treatment bed
Epoxy (or rubber) linings with abrasion resistance qual-
ities are recommended. Vessel interior lining should 5. Anchor internal piping components to vessel to
extend through vessel opening out to the outside edge of prevent any horizontal or vertical movement during
flange faces. Alternatively, vessels may be constructed operation
of stainless steel (no lining required). Openings in the
vessels should be limited to the following: 6. Ensure that construction materials are suitable for
pH range of 2.0-13.5 (PVC, stainless steel are
1. Influent pipe – enters vertically at center of top head. acceptable).

2. Effluent pipe – exits horizontally through vertical Underdrain failures create significant problems; treat-
straight side immediately above false flat bottom in ment media loss, service disruption and labor to repair
front of vessel, or vertically at the center of the problems are very costly. A service platform with access
bottom head. ladder is required for use in loading treatment media into
the vessel. Handrail, toe plate, and other OSHA-required
3. Air/vacuum valve (vent) – mounts vertically on top features should be included.
head adjacent to influent pipe.
3.4.1.2 Pipe Design
4. Media removal – exits horizontally through vertical
straight side immediately above false flat bottom at Each piping subsystem should be reviewed to select each
orientation assigned to this function. of the subsystem components (see Figures 3-2, 3-3, and
3-4). Exclusive of the chemical subsystem, five piping
5. Manway – 16-inch diameter (minimum) mounted on subsystems and two optional subsystems are listed in
top head with center line located within 3 ft of center the Conceptual Design (see Section 3.2); they are:
of vessel and oriented toward work platform.
Manway cover to be hinged or davited. 1. Raw water influent main
2. Intervessel pipe manifold
It is recommended that pad flanges be used for pipe 3. Treated water effluent main
openings in place of nozzles. Pad flanges are flanges 4. Raw water bypass main
that are integral with the tank wall. The exterior faces are
5. Backwash regeneration feed main (optional)
drilled and tapped for threaded studs. The pad flanges
save the cost of material and labor, and are much easier 6. Wastewater main
to line; they also reduce the dimensional requirements of 7. Sample panel (optional).
the vessel. The vessel also requires lifting lugs suitable
for handling the weight of the empty vessel during installa- The detail design now proceeds for each of those sub-
tion. Once installed, the vessel should be shimmed and systems. First, the equipment specification for each equip-
leveled. All space between the bottom surface of the ment component in each subsystem should be defined.
skid structure and the foundation should be sealed with This is followed by a detailed installation drawing, which
an expansion-type grout; provisions should be included locates each component and provides access for opera-
to drain the area under the vessel. tion and maintenance. As each subsystem nears comple-
tion, provisions for pipe system support and anchorage,
The type of vessel internal distribution and collection pip- as well as for thermal expansion/contraction, should be
ing used in operational arsenic removal plants is defined incorporated in the detail design.
in the Preliminary Design (see Section 3.3.1.1). Because
there are many acceptable vessel internal design con- The interface where the concentrated chemical and treat-
cepts, configuration details will be left to sound engineer- ment unit branch piping join is designated as a chemical
ing judgment. The main points to consider in the design injector detail. The chemical injector detail should include
are as follows: provisions to protect materials of construction from the
heat of dilution of concentrated corrosive chemicals. The

27
key factor is to prevent flow of concentrated chemical 3.4.1.3 Instrument Design
when raw water (dilution water) is not flowing. The dilu-
Ease of maintenance is very important. Instruments
tion water should dissipate the heat. The actual injection
require periodic calibration and/or maintenance. Without
should take place in the center of the raw water pipe
removal provisions, the task creates process control
through an injector that extends from the concentrated
problems. Temperature indicators (optional) require ther-
chemical pipe. The injector material should be capable
mal wells installed permanently in the pipe. Pressure
of withstanding the high heat of dilution that develops
indicators require gauge cocks to shut off flow in the
specifically with sulfuric acid and to a lesser degree with
branch to the instrument. pH sensing probes require iso-
caustic soda. Type 316 stainless steel and Teflon™ are
lation valves and union type mounting connections
satisfactory. It also is very important that the concen-
(avoids twisting of signal cables). Supply of pH standard
trated chemical be injected upward from below; other-
buffers (4.0, 7.0, and 10.0) should be specified for pH
wise concentrated chemicals with specific gravities
instrument calibration. A laboratory bench should be
greater than that of water will seep by gravity into the
located adjacent to the sample panel. The sample panel
raw water when flow stops. As described previously, the
receives flow directly from sample points located in the
chemical pumps are to be de-energized when the well
process piping. The sample panel consists of a manifold
pump (or other feed pump) is not running.
of PVC or polyethylene tubing with shutoff valves, which
allows the plant operator to draw samples from any point
The treated water pH should be monitored carefully. A
in the process at the laboratory bench. Laboratory
pH sensor installed in the treated water main indicates
equipment should be specified to include wall cabinet,
the pH at an analyzer. This analyzer should be equipped
base cabinet with chemical resistant counter top and
with adjustable high and low level pH alarms. The alarms
should be interlocked with the well pump (or other feed integral sink, 115V/1N/60Hz 20-amp duplex receptacle,
pump) control (magnetic starter), shutting it down when laboratory equipment/glassware/reagents for analysis of
out-of-tolerance pH excursions occur. A visual and/or pH, arsenic, and other ions. A deionized water capability
audio alarm should be initiated to notify the operator for cleaning glassware and dilution of samples should be
regarding the event. included.

A chemical injector detail similar to that used for acid in 3.4.1.4 Acid Storage and Feed Subsystem
the treatment unit branch piping should be used in the Operator safety for work within close proximity of highly
treated water main to inject caustic in order to raise pH corrosive chemicals takes priority over process func-
in the treated water. If aeration for removal of CO2 is tional requirements. Emergency shower and eyewash
used in place of or in combination with caustic soda must be located within 20 ft of any work area at which
injection for raising treated water pH, then system pres- operator exposure to acid or caustic soda exists. Protec-
sure will be dissipated and the treated water will be tive clothing should be specified. Neutralization materials
repressurized. If the water utility has ground level stor- (e.g., sodium carbonate) should be provided to handle
age tanks, the aeration-neutralization concept can be spills. Potential spill areas must be physically contained.
accomplished without need for a clearwell and repres- Containment volumes should be sufficient to completely
surization. The aerator can be installed at an elevation retain maximum spillage.
that will permit the neutralized treated water to flow to
storage via gravity. Chemical bulk storage tanks are covered in the Prelimi-
nary Design.
Easy maintenance is an important feature in all piping
systems. Air bleed valves should be installed at all high To minimize corrosion of acid pipe material, acid flowrate
points; drain valves should be installed at all low points. is recommended to be less than 0.1 ft/sec. Threaded
This assists the plant operator in both filling and draining pipe and fittings are not recommended; tubing and
pipe systems. Air/vacuum valve and pressure relief valve Swagelok fittings are recommended. CPVC or Teflon™
discharges are to be piped to drains. This feature satis- are satisfactory except for their vulnerability to damage
fies both operator safety and housekeeping require- from external impact forces. Therefore protective clear
ments. Bypass piping for flow control, pressure control, reinforced plastic tubing completely containing the plas-
flowmeter, and other in-line mechanical accessories is tic chemical lines is recommended. Positive backflow
optional. Individual equipment item bypass piping is prevention should be incorporated in each chemical feed
costly and requires extra space. However, if continuous line. Day tanks should be vented to the atmosphere,
treatment plant operation is mandatory, bypass piping have a valved drain, and have a fill line float valve for
should be included. failsafe backup control to prevent overflow. For treat-
ment systems that use HCl instead of H2SO4 for pH
adjustment, it is recommended that references on

28
materials acceptable for the handling and storing of this pipe or PVC pipe is suitable for the service. All relevant
acid be consulted. regulatory authorities should be consulted to ensure
compliance with all safety regulations.
One acid feed pump is required for influent water pH
adjustment. Acid feed pumps are required to adjust pH 3.4.1.6 Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank
during neutralization following a regeneration, and to
Although treatment and disposal of regeneration waste-
neutralize regeneration wastewater in the wastewater
water are not included in this design manual, a surge
surge tank. Though preferable to use separate pumps
tank to receive the wastewater is indicated. The waste-
for each function, it is feasible to accomplish all three
water surge tank should receive the entire batch of
functions with a single pump. The pump should be sized
regeneration wastewater from the start of backwash to
for a minimum of 110% of the maximum flowrate that it
the completion of treatment bed neutralization. To pro-
will provide; it should have a turndown limit no greater
vide adequate capacity for containment of the entire
than 50% of the minimum required flow. Acid pump
batch of regeneration wastewater, this tank should be
power should be interlocked with the well pump (or other
sized to contain 400 gal/ft3 for activated alumina sys-
feed pump) so that the acid pump is de-energized when
tems. For other adsorptive media for which media regen-
that pump is not running. If the chemical feed pump is
eration is included, the media manufacturer should pro-
mounted above the day tank, a foot valve is required in
vide regeneration process parameters. This tank should
the suction tube. Antisiphon provisions should be included
be a ground-level atmospheric carbon steel or PVC tank.
in the system. Because considerably more acid (approxi-
The tank should include a carbon steel floor and roof
mately 1 gal/ft3 of activated alumina) is consumed during
and an interior epoxy lining. The tank should include a
the regeneration of an activated alumina bed than during
reinforced concrete containment structure. The tank
routine treatment operation, a day tank will need to be
should include fill, chemical feed, drain overflow vent,
refilled several times during the neutralization phase of
multiple discharge, and multiple sample pipe connec-
the regeneration. The day tank should be sized for a
tions. The tank should include one ground-level manway
minimum of 200% of the daily acid consumption for the
and one roof manway (with safety ladder and handrails),
treatment process pH adjustment requirement. The day
provisions for a liquid level indicator, for an ultrasonic
tank should be translucent with gallon calibration on the
liquid sludge level sensor, liquid level controller, and a
tank wall. The day tank should be set in an open-top,
side entry mixer.
acid-resistant containment basin. All relevant regulatory
authorities should be consulted to ensure compliance
with all safety regulations. 3.4.2 Final Drawings

3.4.1.5 Caustic Soda Storage and Feed System All of the information required for complete installation of
an arsenic removal water treatment plant should appear
The safety requirements stated for acid (Section 3.4.1.4) in the final construction drawings and specification pack-
also apply to caustic soda. Vinegar should be provided age.
to neutralize caustic spills.
Isometric drawings for clarification of piping subsystems
The day tank and pump design features recommended are recommended; these views clarify the assembly
for acid systems also apply to caustic. Two caustic for the installer (see Figures 3-9 and 3-10). Cross-
pumps and day tanks are required. The process pH referencing drawings, notes, and specifications also is
adjustment pump should be sized to pump 110% of the recommended.
maximum process required. The rule of thumb for sizing
the caustic soda regeneration feed pump requires provi-
3.4.3 Final Capital Cost Estimate
sions of 2 gal of 50% NaOH/ft3 of activated alumina for
activated alumina systems per hour. Depending upon
Similar to the preparation of the preliminary cost esti-
the size of the system, a centrifugal pump or an air-
mate, the final cost estimate is prepared based on a take
operated diaphragm pump are feed pump options. The
off of the installed system. The estimate is now based
process pH adjustment day tank should be sized for
upon exact detailed information rather than general infor-
200% of the maximum daily consumption. The regener-
mation which was used during the preliminary estimate.
ation day tank should be the next standard tank size
The estimate is presented in the same format (see Table
greater than the requirement for one regeneration. Both
3-2) and is to be accurate within ±10%. Because finan-
tanks can be set in one containment basin, sized for the
cial commitments are consummated at this stage, this
largest tank. The regeneration pump can be calibrated
degree of accuracy is required.
by means of timing the flow and adjusting as necessary
to arrive at the design flowrate. Carbon steel threaded

29
Figure 3-9. Treatment Vessels Piping Isometric Adsorptive Media With or Without Process Water
pH Adjustment and With Spent Media Replacement

Figure 3-10. Treatment Vessels Piping Isometric Adsorptive Media With Process Water pH Adjustment
and Spent Media Regeneration

30
3.4.4 Final Design Revisions and resubmitted for approval. If communication with the
approving parties has taken place during the course of
Upon their completion, the final construction drawings and the design, then time-consuming resubmittals should not
specifications are submitted for approval to the owner be necessary. Upon receipt of approval, the owner, with
and the regulatory authorities. If changes or additional assistance from the engineer, solicits bids for the con-
requirements are requested, they should be incorporated struction of the arsenic removal water treatment plant.

31
 4.0 Central Treatment System Capital Cost

4.1 Introduction 12. Existing and planned (future) potable water system
parameters
The client should be provided with the least expensive
absorptive media central treatment system that can (i) Number of wells, location, storage, distribution
remove the excess arsenic from a sufficient quantity of (ii)Potable water
water that will satisfy all water consumption require- (iii)
Water storage (amount, elevation, location
ments. The economic feasibility evaluation should include (iv)Distribution (location, peak flows, total flow,
the initial capital cost along with the operating and main- pressure, etc.)
tenance costs. This chapter covers the capital cost, (v) Consumption (daily, annual)
which is affected by many factors, including operating
13. Financial considerations (cost trends, capital
costs.
financing costs, cash flow, labor rates, utility rates,
chemical costs, etc.)
The water treatment flowrate is the major factor affecting
capital costs, but it is not the only factor. Other factors
Once the capital cost impacts that each of the above
which can have varying impact upon the capital cost
variables can create have been determined, it becomes
include, but are not limited to, the following:
apparent that a cost curve (or capital cost tabulation)
based on flowrate alone is inadequate. Capital cost
1. pH adjustment process water vs. raw water without
curves are presented in Figure 4-1 for activated alumina
pH adjustment
media with and without pH adjustment of process water
2. Regeneration or replacement of spent adsorptive and with regeneration or replacement of spent media. A
media tabulation of the breakdown of these capital costs for this
example is provided in Appendix D. If the impact of these
3. Backwash and regeneration wastewater disposal variables on the cost curves is considered, then a mean-
concept ingful preliminary project cost estimate (as described in
Section 3.2, Conceptual Design) can be produced.
4. Chemical supply logistics
A user-friendly cost estimating computer program (using
5. Manual vs. automatic operation Microsoft Excel Visual Basic) recently has been devel-
oped by Battelle on the use of activated alumina and ion
6. Raw water arsenic concentration. Other chemical exchange for arsenic removal (Battelle, 2002). This pro-
and physical parameters including but not limited to gram was funded by the U.S. EPA under Work Assign-
pH, alkalinity, iron, manganese, hardness, silica, ment 3-20 of Contact No. 68-C7-0008. A copy of the
sulfate, sodium, and turbidity. computer program and the associated document can be
obtained from U.S. EPA National Risk Management Re-
7. Adsorptive media selected for treatment system search Laboratory, Water Supply and Water Resources
Division, in Cincinnati, OH, 45268.
8. Climate (temperature, precipitation, wind, etc.)

9. Seismic zone 4.2 Discussion of Cost Variables

10. Soil conditions Each of the variables mentioned above has direct impact
upon the total installed cost for a central treatment
11. 100-year flood plain

33
Figure 4-1. Capital Cost vs. Flowrate at Typical Locations for Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants
by Means of the Activated Alumina Process

system. Ideally, conditions could exist in which a mini- 6. Existing wastewater disposal capability adjacent to
mum cost system can be designed. Comparable capital treatment site (e.g., a large tailings pond at an open
cost curves are provided in Figure 4-1 for treatment pit mine)
systems in typical locations and in Figure 4-2 for treat-
ment systems in ideal locations. A hypothetical example 7. Acid and caustic stored in large quantities on the site
of an ideal situation would resemble the following: for other purposes

8. Manual operation by labor that is normally at the site

1. Raw water quality presents no problem (moderate
with sufficient spare time
temperature, low alkalinity, low concentrations of
competitive ions, etc.) 9. Funding, space, etc. available.
2. Warm moderate climate (no freezing, no high This ideal situation never exists in reality. Occasionally
temperature, minimal precipitation, no high wind) one or more of the ideal conditions occur, but the fre-
quency is low. If the final estimate for the example used
3. No seismic requirements in Appendix B is revised to incorporate the above ideal
conditions, the cost estimate would be reduced from
4. Existing concrete pad located on well compacted, $553,000 to $278,000 (see Table 4-1). Conversely, ad-
high-bearing capacity soil verse conditions could accumulate, resulting in a cost far
in excess of that for the typical treatment system for the
5. Single well pumping to subsurface storage reservoir same treatment capability. The following subsections pro-
with capacity for peak consumption day vide the basic insight needed to benefit from the above
variables.

34
Figure 4-2. Capital Cost vs. Flowrate at Ideal Locations for Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants by
Means of the Activated Alumina Process

4.2.1 Water Chemistry Each of the physical and chemical characteristics of the
raw water should be evaluated. The technical as well as
The water chemistry can affect capital as well as operat- the economical feasibility for the entire project could
ing costs. With a clear picture of the raw water quality, its hinge on these factors.
possible variations, and its adverse characteristics, the
effect upon the capital cost can be determined readily. 4.2.2 Climate
High water temperature (greater than 100°F) requires
higher cost piping material and/or pipe support. Varying Temperature extremes, precipitation, and high wind will
water temperature requires inclusion of special provi- necessitate a building to house the treatment system
sions for thermal expansion and contraction. Very high equipment. High temperature along with direct sunlight
arsenic may require larger treatment units to reduce the adversely affects the strength of plastic piping materials.
frequency of regeneration. High alkalinity requires higher Freezing is obviously damaging to piping and in some
acid consumption for pH adjustment resulting in larger extreme cases also to tanks. Temperature variation intro-
feed pumps, day tank, piping, etc. This might result in an duces requirements for special thermal expansion/con-
aeration step for post treatment pH adjustment in place traction provisions. A building with heating and/or cooling
of caustic addition. High turbidity arsenic, iron, manga- and adequate insulation will eliminate these problems
nese, suspended solids, and/or other contaminants can and their costs, but will introduce the cost of the building.
require the addition of pretreatment steps to accomplish The building cost should reflect wind loads as well as ther-
removal prior to arsenic removal, or the implementation mal and seismic requirements. Operator comfort in place
of a different arsenic removal treatment method. of economic considerations may dictate building costs.

35
Table 4-1. Final Capital Cost Estimate Example for Ideal Location for Four Types of Adsorptive Media Arsenic
Removal Water Treatment Plants

Location:
Flowrate: 570 gpm Cost ($1,000)
Date: Manual Operation Manual Operation Manual Operation
w/Media w/Media w/Media Automatic Operation
Replacement Replacement Regeneration w/Media Regeneration
w/o pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment w/pH Adjustment
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 73 73 73 73
Treatment Media 31 31 31 31
Process Piping, Valves, and Access. 32 36 49 64
Instruments and Controls 7 11 16 66
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A 0 0 0
Chemical Pumps, Piping, and Access. N/A 6 12 13
Subtotal 143 157 181 247
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 29 40 43 48
Electrical 5 12 12 36
Painting and Miscellaneous 8 11 11 11
Subtotal 42 63 66 95
Miscellaneous Installed Items
Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A 0 0
Building and Concrete 5 5 5 5
Site Work, Fence, and Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 5 5 5 5
Contingency 10% 19 23 26 35
(a)
Total 209 248 278 382
(a) Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes not
included.

The installation costs for the buildings and regeneration

wastewater surge tank along with their associated civil Combinations of poor soil with rock or large boulders can
work becomes a major portion of the overall capital cost. make foundation work more complex and costly. Rock
Care in interpreting the climatological conditions and and boulders in combination with extreme temperatures
their requirements is necessary. can result in very high installation costs for subsurface
raw, treated, and wastewater pipe mains.
4.2.3 Seismic Zone
4.2.5 100-Year Flood Plain
Compliance with the seismic design requirements of the
local building codes can impact capital costs. Buildings For water treatment facilities located within a 100-year
and tall slender equipment are vulnerable to seismic flood plain, the entire site should be relocated to another
loads. The magnitude of seismic design requirements site outside of the 100-year flood plain, be elevated 3 ft
should be determined. In zones of extreme seismic above the 100-year flood plain level, or be protected on
activity, low profile equipment and buildings are recom- all sides by an armored berm that extends a minimum of
mended. 3 ft above the 100-year flood plain level.

4.2.4 Soil Conditions 4.2.6 Existing and Planned (Future)

Water System Parameters
Unless soil-boring data are already available for the
treatment system site, at least one boring in the location Many existing and planned (future) facility configurations
of the foundation for each heavy equipment item (treat- can either significantly increase or decrease the capital
ment vessels, chemical storage tanks, and regeneration cost. The most important factors are discussed in this
wastewater surge tank) is required. If the quality of the section.
soil is questionable (fill, or very poor load-bearing capac-
ity), additional soil borings should be obtained. Poor soil
may require costly excavation/backfill and foundations.

36
4.2.6.1 Number and Location of Wells ground or structurally supported standpipes). The first
two require repressurization; the latter does not. The
When only one well requires treatment, the removal of
elevated storage tanks apply a backpressure on the
arsenic should be accomplished prior to entering the
ground level treatment system requiring higher pressure
distribution system. Theoretically, treatment can occur
(more costly) construction of treatment vessels and pip-
before or after entering storage. Practically speaking,
ing systems. If aeration of treated effluent for pH adjust-
treatment prior to entering storage is much easier to con-
ment is selected with an elevated storage tank, the
trol because the treatment plant flowrate will be con-
treated water should be contained in a clearwell and re-
stant. If treatment takes place after storage, or if there is
pumped to storage. However, the treatment system ves-
no storage, flowrate is intermittent and variable, and pH
sels and piping may be low-pressure construction. When
control is only achievable for a sophisticated automatic
storage is at or below ground level storage, loss of sys-
pH control/acid feed system.
tem pressure is not a factor.
When more than one well requires treatment, a decision
The amount of storage capacity also affects treatment
is required regarding whether a single treatment plant
system cost. The larger the storage capacity (within lim-
treating water from all wells manifolded together or indi-
its), the lower the required treatment plant flowrate (and
vidual treatment plants at each well present a more effi-
resulting cost). A minimum storage capacity of one-half
cient and cost-effective concept. Factors such as distance
of system peak day consumption is recommended.
between wells, distribution arrangement, system pres-
sure, and variation in water quality should be evaluated
4.2.6.3 Distribution and Consumption
in that decision. If all of the wells are in close proximity
and pump similar quantity and quality water, a single The factors that determine the sizing of the treatment
treatment plant serving the entire system is preferable. system are the well (or feed) pump flowrate, the storage
When wells are widely dispersed, manifolding costs capacity, and the system consumption characteristics.
become prohibitively expensive, thus dictating imple- Those features should be coordinated to provide a
mentation of individual treatment plants at each well. capacity to deliver a peak treated water supply to satisfy
Frequently, the distances may be such that the decision all possible conditions of peak consumption. If there is
is not clear cut; then other variables such as water adequate storage capacity, the momentary peaks are
quality, system pressure, distribution configuration, land dampened out. The peak day then defines the system
availability should be evaluated. capacity. The well (or feed) pump then is sized to deliver
the peak daily requirement. The treatment system in turn
Systems that require multiple treatment plant installa- is sized to treat a minimum of what the well (or feed)
tions can achieve cost savings by employing an identical pump delivers.
system at each location. This results in an assembly line
approach to procurement, manufacture, assembly, instal- The distribution system may anticipate future growth or
lation, and operation. Material cost savings, labor reduc- increased consumption. The well (or feed) pump then
tion and engineering for a single configuration will either should pump a flow equal to or greater than the
reduce the cost for the individual plant. maximum anticipated peak daily flows, or should be able
to adjust to future increased flowrate. The treatment plant
4.2.6.2 Potable Water Storage Facilities in turn should incorporate capacity to treat the ultimate
peak flowrate or include provisions to increase the treat-
Similar to the wells, the number, size, and location of
ment capacity in the future.
storage tanks can affect treatment plant size (flowrate)
and capital cost. If there is no storage capacity in the
system, the well pump should be capable of delivering a 4.2.7 pH Adjustment of Process Water
flowrate equal to the system momentary peak consump- Included vs. Not Included
tion; this could be many times the average flowrate for a
peak day. Therefore, if no storage capacity exists, a stor- The decision should be made regarding whether or not
age tank should be added with the treatment system for to include treatment process pH adjustment by means of
treatment water storage. Otherwise, automatic pH instru- acid (to lower pH) and caustic (to raise pH). The purpose
ments and controls will be required to pace pH adjust- of including pH adjustment for some adsorptive media
ment chemical feedrates to the varying process water such as activated alumina is to significantly increase the
flowrate. arsenic removal capacity. A one-time capital cost
increase is required for chemical feed and storage
Most systems have existing storage capacity. The stor- subsystems as well as constant increased operating cost
age may be underground reservoirs, ground level stor- for consumable acid and caustic, and addition of sulfate,
age tanks, or elevated storage tanks (located on high sodium, and TDS to the treated water. However, the pH

37
adjustment method may be the most cost-effective ods (surface discharge, percolation), the disposal costs
method of removing arsenic from water due to the sig- are not large. The total volume of wastewater regenera-
nificant increase of treatment cycle life for the treatment tion generally is 300-400 gal/ft3 of adsorptive media. With
media. This is the key to use of adsorptive media with pH adjustment, the activated alumina process can
treatment process pH adjustment, regardless of whether achieve 10,000 (74,800 gal/ft3) to 25,000 (187,000 gal/ft3)
the adsorptive media is replaced or regenerated. The bed volumes of treated water depending on the arsenic
material manufacturer should be consulted for technical concentration in the raw water. Therefore, the ratio of
information relating to the process improvement resulting wastewater to treated water is insignificant (<<1%).
from the addition of pH adjustment to the treatment pro-
cess. The decision should relate to characteristics of the In the event a zero discharge of wastewater is required,
adsorptive media and the water analysis for each indi- the wastewater supernatant and filtrate (from solids
vidual application. Pilot studies also can provide infor- dewatering) should be fed back to the head of the treat-
mation to aid in the decision. ment plant and very slowly added to the raw water. The
dewatered solids containing nearly all of the arsenic are
4.2.8 Regeneration or Replacement then removed for disposal. Although this concept has not
of Spent Adsorptive Media been incorporated in a full-scale treatment plant, it has
been successfully accomplished on a pilot scale by the
author.
Regeneration should not be included for spent adsorp-
tive media unless the treatment process also includes
pH adjustment of process water. Unless the treatment 4.2.10 Chemical Supply Logistics
process already includes chemical feed and storage
subsystems for the treatment process pH adjustment, Sulfuric acid (normally 66°B• H2SO4) and caustic soda
adding those subsystems only for media regeneration is (normally 50% NaOH) are commercially available and
not economically feasible. are usually the least expensive chemicals to use for pH
adjustment. Other chemicals such as hydrochloric acid
Chemical regeneration of adsorptive media that is satu- and caustic potash (KOH) are technically acceptable, but
rated with arsenic is economically sound for large sys- almost always more costly, and therefore are not com-
tems with high arsenic concentrations. As the size of the monly used. The acid and caustic are much cheaper
system is decreased, and/or the raw water arsenic con- when purchased in bulk quantities, usually 48,000-lb
centration is decreased, the economic benefit compared tank trucks. In very small plants, the cost of storage
to the capital and operating cost is diminished. For very tanks for those volumes is not justified and therefore,
small systems, the design may include the use of port- smaller volumes with higher unit prices are procured
able tanks that are removed and replaced with new (drums and carboys). In very large treatment plants, cost
media. In this situation, the media is likely to be regen- can be lowered by procuring the chemicals via 200,000-
erated at the vendor’s facility and reused. lb railroad tank cars. However, this approach requires a
rail siding and rail unloading facility; nevertheless, it does
4.2.9 Backwash and Regeneration present an option of lowering the overall cost. A chemi-
cal unloading rail terminal presents another intriguing
Disposal Concept option for facilities with multiple treatment plants. In this
approach, smaller site storage tanks are supplied via
Regeneration wastewater and waste solids processing “mini tank trucks” relaying chemicals to the treatment
and disposal is not included in the scope of this docu- site from the rail terminal. This brings down the size (and
ment. Depending on wastewater discharge limits estab- cost) of chemical storage tanks at each site. However,
lished by the U.S. EPA, state and local regulatory agen- this could increase the truck traffic of corrosive chemi-
cies, wastewater disposal is a significant cost item that cals through populated areas, a risk that may not be
should be evaluated in the capital (and operating) cost acceptable.
projection. Requirements can vary from zero discharge
to discharge into an available existing receiving facility.
4.2.11 Manual Versus
Disposal and/or discharge can be accomplished by chem-
ical coprecipitation of arsenic with precipitated aluminum Automatic Operation
or ferric hydroxide by adjustment of pH to 6.0-6.5 and
dewatering of precipitated suspended solids. The dewat- Automatic operation is technically feasible. However, the
ered solids should pass the U.S. EPA TCLP. The waste- periodic presence of an operator is always required. The
water, though containing low arsenic concentrations, will capital cost of automation (computer hardware/software,
contain elevated levels of TDS, sodium, and sulfate. If valve operators, controls, instrumentation, etc.) as well
regulatory agency permits disposal by conventional meth- as maintenance costs may exceed budget limits that the
client will accept. Therefore, either manual or semiauto-

38
matic operation is normally furnished. The advantages 4.3 Relative Capital Cost of Arsenic
and disadvantages of manual, automatic and semiauto- Removal Central Water Treatment
matic operation require careful evaluation prior to deter-
mination of the proper selection. Plants Based on Flowrate
The relative capital costs of activated alumina central
4.2.12 Financial Considerations
treatment plants based on the treated water flowrate are
presented in Figures 4-1 and 4-2. Both cost curves are
Many financial factors should be considered by the
based on the same treatment system design criteria.
designer and the client. The client can superimpose
Tabulations of the breakdowns of the capital costs for
financial restrictions (beyond any of the technical factors
both curves are provided in Appendix D. The curve in
mentioned above) which result in increased (or de-
Figure 4-1 is based on the facility criteria employed in
creased) capital cost. These include, but are not limited
the hypothetical design for the 570-gpm treatment arse-
to, the following: inflationary trends, interest rates, financ-
nic system in Appendix B. The curves in Figure 4-2 are
ing costs, land costs (or availability), cash flow, labor
based on the “ideal” facility requirements presented
rates, electric utility rates, and chemical costs. All or
earlier in this chapter for the same treatment system
some of these factors could affect the capital investment
(see Table 4-1). This information demonstrates the dra-
with reduced operating cost because interest rates are
matic differences in capital cost that can occur for the
low, inflation is anticipated, cash is available, and labor
same treatment plant in different circumstances. The
and electric utility rates are high; or the opposite can be
costs related to the curve in Figure 4-1 are representa-
true. The varying combinations of factors that could
tive of average capital costs. Examples of some of the
develop are numerous; each one will affect the ultimate
equipment, material and labor cost proposal and esti-
capital cost.
mating items employed in Figures 4-1 and 4-2 are
included in Figure 4-3 and Tables 4-2 and 4-3.

39
 CODE PRESSURE VESSEL FABRICATOR QUOTATION
FOR ADSORPTIVE MEDIA TREATMENT VESSELS (two required)

Vessel Specification and Quotation #1280m 07/24/01

Customer
Attention
R.F.Q. Pricing for your Arsenic Removal Water
Treatment Project

Description Vertical Skid-Mounted Vessel

Size 120" O.D. × 8'0" S/S; Capy, 5,450 gal
Design Pressure and Temp 50 PSIG @ 175° Fahrenheit
Corrosion Allowance None requested or provided
Design Criteria A.S.M.E. Section VIII, Div. 1
Radiography Spot (RT-3)
Code Stamp Yes and National Board Registration
Constructed of Carbon steel
Supports (4) carbon steel legs with skid to provide 24"
to bottom seam
Nozzles and Appurtenances:

2 20" quick opening manway

1 4" CL150 FF single-tapped pad flange, hillside-type
1 4" CL150 FF single-tapped pad flange
2 8" CL150 FF single-tapped pad flanges
1 False bottom
8 Interior carbon steel lateral support clips
1 Interior carbon steel header support clip
2 sets Exterior pipe support brackets
2 Lifting lugs
1 Uncaged ladder from grade to top head
1 Skid

Valves, gauges, gaskets, or any items not listed above are excluded.

Surface Preparation and Coatings:

Interior surface prep: SSPC-SP-5 White metal sandblast
Interior surface coat: Plasite 4006 (35 MDFT)
Exterior surface prep: SSPC-SP-6 commercial sandblast
Exterior surface primer: Rust inhibitive primer
Exterior topcoat: None requested or provided
Note, interior coating is forced cured to meet NSF 61 requirements for potable water

Shipping: Weight, 9,500 lb; Dims., 10' diameter × 12.5' OAL.

Price: FOB Madera CA, $ 27,500.00 each, not including taxes.

Price based on a quantity of 2, and is valid for 90 days.

Delivery Schedule: Based upon current schedule.

Drawings for approval: 2 weeks after order.
Fabricate and ship: 12 to 14 weeks after drawing approval.

Terms: Progress payment to be arranged.

Figure 4-3. Code Pressure Vessel Fabricator Quotation for Adsorptive Media Treatment Vessels

40
Table 4-2. Process Pipe, Fittings, Valves, and Static Mixers – Itemized Cost Estimate(a)

Material Unit Total Labor Unit Total

(b) (c)
Price Material Price Labor Total
Item Quantity ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
8" Schedule 80 PVC Pipe (P/E) 400 ft 8.00/ft 3,200 5.00/ft 2,000 5,200
8" Schedule 80 PVC Coupling (s × s) 8 50 ea. 400 12.50 ea. 100 500
8" Schedule 80 PVC Tee (s × s × s) 30 170 ea. 5,100 15.00 ea. 450 5,550
8" Schedule 80 PVC 90E ELL (s × s) 18 120 ea. 2,160 12.50 ea. 225 2,385
8" Schedule 80 PVC Van Stone Flange(s) 66 55 ea 3,630 12.50 ea. 825 4,455
8" Wafer Style PVC Butterfly Valve with EPDM Seals 25 280 ea 7,000 50.00 ea. 1,250 8,250
8" PVC Wafer Style Check Valve with EPDM Seals 3 650 ea. 1,950 100.00 ea. 300 2,250
8" PVC In-Line Static Mixers 4 1,700 ea. 6,800 100.00 ea. 400 7,200
(d)
Totals 30,240 5,550 35,790
(a) Manually operated 570 gpm arsenic removal water treatment system with treatment process pH adjustment and spent media regeneration.
(b) Prices effective August 2001 (markup included).
(c) Labor rate @ $50/hr.
(d) Tools, installation equipment, pipe supports, accessories, bolts, nuts, gaskets, mobilization, material storage, etc. not included.

41
 Table 4-3. Chemical Feed Pumps, and Static Mixers – Itemized Cost Estimate(a)

Material Total Labor Unit Total

(b) (c)
Unit Price Material Price Labor Total
Item Quantity ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Acid feed pumps for 66°B• H2SO4 for adjustment of raw water pH for potable water treatment. 1 900 ea. 1,100 400 ea. 400 1,500
Chemical metering pump will be positive displacement. A bleed valve will be provided for the manual
evacuation of entrapped vapors and safe relief of pressure in the discharge line. Flowrate 0-2.5 gph.
Turndown 1,000:1. Pressure: 50 psig (max). Suction lift: 6•0• (min.) for acid. Temperature 70°F–
90°F. Materials of construction: PVDF pump head, housing, suction tubing, discharge tubing and
® ® ®
bleed valve, Teflon -faced Hypalon diaphragm, Teflon seats and o-rings, ceramic ball checks.
Includes: injector, foot valve, suction and discharge tubing. Connections: -inch I.D. tubing.
Acid feed pumps for 66°B• H2SO4 for raw water pH adjustment for neutralization of regenerated 2 650 ea. 1,300 400 ea. 800 2,100
treatment media for pH adjustment of regeneration wastewater. Chemical feed pump to be air-
operated diaphragm type. Size: ½-inch self-priming. Pump to include compressed air supply
filter/regulator. Flowrate 1-4 gpm. Suction lift: 6•0• (min.) for sulfuric acid. Discharge pressure:
50 psig (max.) Temperature 70°F–90°F. Air pressure: 100 psi (max.) Materials of construction:
Kyner body. Teflon™ diaphragms and check valves. Connections: Sulfuric acid – ½-inch NPT,
Compressed air – ¼-inch NPT. Self-lubricating.
42

Caustic soda feed pumps for 50% NaOH for adjustment of treated water pH. Chemical metering 1 1,100 ea. 1,100 400 ea. 400 1,500
pump will be positive displacement diaphragm type pump. A bleed valve will be provided for the
manual evacuation of entrapped air or vapors and safe relief of pressure in the discharge line. Pump
control will be manual. The electronic circuitry will be EMI-resistant and will employ a metal oxide
varistor for lightning protection. Flowrate 0-5 gph. Turndown 1,000:1. Pressure: 100 psig (max).
Suction lift: 6•0• (min.) for caustic soda. Temperature 70°F–90°F. Materials of construction: Glass-
® ®
filled polypropylene pump head, housing, and bleed valve, Teflon -faced Hypalon diaphragm,
®
Teflon seats and o-rings, ceramic ball checks. Includes: injector, foot valve, suction and discharge
tubing. Connections: •-inch I.D. tubing.
Caustic soda feed pump for 50% NaOH for raising feedwater pH for regeneration of treatment media. 1 750 ea. 750 400 ea. 400 1,150
Chemical feed pump to be air-operated diaphragm type. Size: ¾-inch self priming. Pump to include
compressed air supply filter/regulator. Flowrate 4-7 gpm. Suction lift: 6•0• (min.) for caustic soda.
Discharge pressure: 50 psig (max.) Temperature 70°F–90°F. Air pressure: 100 psi (max.) Materials
®
of construction: Polypropylene body. Teflon diaphragms and check valves. Connections: Caustic –
¾-inch NPT, Compressed air – ¼-inch NPT. Self-lubricating.
Totals 3,250 2,000 5,250
(a) Manually operated 570 gpm arsenic removal water treatment system with treatment process pH adjustment and spent media regeneration.
(b) Prices effective August 2001 (markup included).
(c) Labor rate @ $50/hr.
 5.0 Treatment Plant Operation

5.1 Introduction plant operating and maintenance instructions (O&M

Manual) should be available at the project site. Included
Upon completion and approval of the final design package in the O&M Manual are the valve number diagram which
(plans and specifications), the owner (client) proceeds to corresponds to brass tags on the valves (see Figure 5-
advertise for bids for construction of the treatment plant. 1), a valve directory furnished by the contractor, and a
The construction contract normally is awarded to the firm valve operation chart (see Table 5-1).
submitting the lowest bid. Occasionally, circumstances
arise that disqualify the low bidder, in which case the The filter vessel and piping should be disinfected in
lowest qualified bidder is awarded the contract. Upon accordance with American Water Works Association
award of the construction contract, the engineer may be (AWWA) standard procedures. The treatment bed
requested to supervise the work of the construction con- material then is placed in the treatment vessels and the
tractor. This responsibility may be limited to periodic vis- plant is ready to start operation.
its to the site to assure the client that the general intent of
the design is being fulfilled; or it may include day-to-day For systems that regenerate spent adsorptive media,
inspection and approval of the work as it is being per- there are four basic modes of operation: treatment,
formed. The engineer should review and approve all backwash, regeneration, and neutralization. Operating
shop drawings and other information submitted by the details for each of these modes are covered in this chap-
contractor and/or subcontractors and material suppliers. ter. It is important to note that each of the above modes
All acceptable substitutions should be approved in writ- uses raw water during each operation.
ing by the engineer. Upon completion of the construction
phase of the project, the engineer normally is requested For systems that replace spent adsorptive media, there
to perform a final inspection. This entails a formal are two basic modes of operation: treatment, and
approval indicating to the owner that all installed items replacement of spent media. The latter mode consists of
are in compliance with the requirements of the design. removal of spent media, and placement and conditioning
Any corrective work required at that time is covered by a of new media (per initial startup as described in Section
punch list and/or warranty. The warranty period (normally 5.2). The removal of spent adsorptive media can be
one year) commences upon final acceptance of the proj- accomplished by various methods. Because the spent
ect by the owner from the contractor. Final acceptance adsorptive media is already wet, the simplest method is
usually takes place upon completion of all major punch accomplished by flushing the adsorptive media in a water
list items. slurry out of the treatment vessel, through a valved
media removal nozzle located in the side of the vessel
Preparation for treatment plant startup, startup and oper- immediately above the false flat bottom, and into a con-
ator training may or may not be included in the construc- tainment vessel. The containment vessel should be port-
tion contract. Although this area of contract responsibility able for transport to a disposal site. The containment
is not germane to this manual, the activities and events vessel also should incorporate screened drains to permit
that lead up to routine operation are. This chapter dis- transfer water to drain from the spent media in the
cusses those steps in the sense that the operator is per- containment vessel. The containment vessel should be
forming them. The operator could be the contractor, the capable of holding 150% of the volume of the spent
owner’s representative, or an independent third party. adsorptive media. Spent media removal from the treat-
ment vessel also can be accomplished by manual means,
System operating supplies, including treatment chemi- vacuum equipment, and other pneumatic transfer sys-
cals, laboratory supplies, and recommended spare parts tems. Examples of several other removal methods are
should be procured, and stored on site. The treatment given in Appendix E.

43
Figure 5-1. Valve Number Diagram

44
Table 5-1. Valve Operation Chart for Treatment Vessels in Spent Adsorptive Media Regeneration
Operational Modes(a)

Regeneration
Valve No. Chemicals
Mode 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Caustic Acid
Treatment – lead position • x • x x x x x x x
Regeneration
Drain x x x x x x x • x x
Backwash x x x x • • x x x x
Drain x x x x x x x • x x
Upflow regeneration x x x x • • x x • x
Upflow rinse x x x x • • x • x x
Drain x x x x x x x • x x
Downflow regeneration x x x x x x • • • x
Downflow rinse x x x x x x • • x x
Downflow neutralization pH 2.5 x x x x x x • • x •
Downflow neutralization pH 4.0 x x x x x x • • x •
Downflow neutralization pH 5.5 x x x x x x • • x •
Treatment
Treatment – lag position x • x • x x x x x x
Treatment regeneration other vessel • x x • x x x x x x
Treatment – lead position • x • x x x x x x x
(a) Refer to Figure 5-1 for valve location.
Legend: x = valve closed; • = valve open.

Vessel A Vessel B
Valve No. Valve No.
A1 Feedwater B1 Feedwater
A2 Feed from Vessel B B2 Feed from Vessel A
A3 Treated to Vessel B B3 Treated to Vessel A
A4 Treated water (to distribution) B4 Treated water (to distribution)
A5 Regeneration upflow feed B5 Regeneration upflow feed
A6 Regeneration upflow waste B6 Regeneration upflow waste
A7 Regeneration downflow feed B7 Regeneration downflow feed
A8 Regeneration downflow waste B8 Regeneration downflow waste

5.2 Adsorptive Media Initial Startup The vessel should be half-filled with water prior to plac-
ing the alumina through a manway in the top head of the
The operator should thoroughly review the O&M Manual, vessel. As activated alumina is carefully distributed into
become familiarized with every component of the plant, the vessel from the top, heat is generated by the wetting
and resolve any questions that arise. of the caustic “coating” on the alumina grains. The water
in the tank dissipates this heat, thereby preventing
The placement of the adsorption media in the treatment cementing of the bed. The water also separates the fines
vessel, which takes place immediately prior to initial from the granular materials, protects the underdrain
startup or during replacement of spent media, is a critical assembly from impact, and initiates stratification of the
step in the future system performance. The dry material bed. It is recommended that the bed be placed in two or
usually is delivered in drums or sacks. The volume of the three lifts. In the two-bed treatment system, alternate
media is determined on a dry weight basis. The actual placing of media and backwashing steps can be worked
density varies with the degree of packing of the bed. together between the two treatment units. Thereby,
Unless instructed otherwise by the manufacturer, 45 lb/ft3 media placement can be a continuous operation. The
is a suggested media density for use in weight calcula- bed should be thoroughly backwashed with raw water
tions for activated alumina. For media density of other after each lift. The backwash rate should be adjusted to
adsorptive media, consult the manufacturer. The virgin provide 50% bed expansion. For activated alumina, this
granular activated alumina material is “coated” with is typically 7 gpm/ft2 except for extremely warm or cold
caustic. A small amount of fines can become airborne water for which flowrates may have to be adjusted up or
and are irritating to the personnel who are handling down respectively. During bed placement, each back-
them. Eye, skin, and inhalation protection are recom- wash step should be a minimum of 30 min and, depend-
mended during vessel loading activity. ing on the quantity of fines in the media, could extend to
2 hr. The purpose of this stringent effort is to remove all
of the fines from the bed. If the fines remain in the bed,

45
potential problems can develop such as channeling, 1984, 1981). Because acid feedrates are a function of
excessive pressure drop, or even cementing. The extra raw water alkalinity, they vary from one water to another.
backwashing effort during bed placement permits fines As raw water pH moves above 6.0 or below 5.0, arsenic
at the bottom of the bed to work their way up and out to removal capacity deteriorates at an increasing rate.
waste. Because the lower portions of the bed (which However, when the alkalinity of the raw water is
contain the largest particles) do not expand during extremely high and/or the cost of acid is very high, it can
backwash, fines not backwashed out of the bed at that be more cost-effective to operate in a pH range of 6.0-
stage may be permanently locked into the bed. The 6.5 in order to reduce the acid consumption (even
backwash water should be directed to waste. though arsenic removal efficiency is also reduced). For
other adsorptive media, consult the manufacturer for
5.3 Treatment Process with Spent information regarding treatment process pH adjustment
requirements.
Treatment Media Regeneration
The downflow treatment for the first (virgin) run can now
Upon completion of backwashing of a virgin bed, the bed
begin. See the valve operation chart (Table 5-1) for
should be drained and the vessel opened. Approximately
valve positions for this function. It is recommended that
•- to ¼-inch of fine bed material should be skimmed from
one vessel be placed in operation at a time. This allows
the top of the bed. The finest grain material tends to
the operator to concentrate on initial raw water pH
blind the bed, causing channeling and/or excessive pres-
adjustment on one treatment unit until it is in stable oper-
sure drop. Once that material is removed, the vessel can
ation; the operator then can devote full concentration to
be closed and refilled with water.
the second treatment unit.
At this point the plant should be cleaned up. Airborne
The basic flow schematic for the treatment mode is
fines that form a dust-like coating on piping and equip-
illustrated in Figure 5-2.
ment should be removed. Good housekeeping should
begin immediately and be continued on a permanent
With activated alumina, the initial effluent pH is high with
basis.
no arsenic removal (similar to the neutralization mode
explained later). After a short period, both pH and arse-
The pressure loss checkout mentioned in Section 3.4,
nic in the treated water drop to anticipated levels. At that
Final Design, should be accomplished at this point, just
time, the treated water can be directed to storage and/or
prior to startup. See Table 5-2 for calculated pressure
distribution. The first treatment unit will be returned to
drop through activated alumina treatment media. If there
operation in the lead position after the pH of the second
is a pressure loss problem, it should be corrected prior to
treatment unit has also been stabilized at pH 5.5. De-
treatment startup. For other adsorptive media, consult
pending on the requirements of the state or local regu-
the manufacturer for information on pressure drop.
latory agency, samples may have to be analyzed at a
certified testing laboratory prior to approval of distribution
Table 5-2. Calculated Activated Alumina (−28, +48 of treated water.
Mesh) Downflow Pressure Drop Data
In the series process utilizing two treatment vessels, the
Pressure Drop
Water Flowrate in psi per Foot of Modified Reynolds entire arsenic removal process takes place in a treat-
2
(gpm/ft ) Bed Depth Number ment band that initially is contained in the lead vessel.
2.0 0.009 2375 The arsenic ions are completely removed within the
3.0 0.018 3555 treatment band. After an extended treatment period, the
4.0 0.028 4735 adsorptive media at the top of the treatment band
5.0 0.040 5900 becomes saturated. The treatment band then begins to
6.0 0.053 7111 migrate downward slowly through the treatment bed until
7.0 0.068 8291 arsenic starts to break through. Breakthrough is defined
as the first detectable amount of arsenic appearing in the
5.3.1 Treatment Mode effluent from the lead column. Although the detectable
level will vary depending on the analytical method used
to measure the arsenic, it would likely be near 3 µg/L. An
Prior to start of operation, the pH instrumentation should
example of a breakthrough curve of the lead column is
be calibrated. The most critical requirement for efficient
shown in Figure 5-3. As breakthrough occurs, there is a
low-cost operation is the control of the raw water
long period of slowly increasing arsenic concentration
adjusted pH. For activated alumina, the optimum condi-
the treated water. The treatment band then enters the
tion for maximum arsenic removal exists when the
treatment media in the lag column where treatment
treatment pH is in the range of 5.0-6.0. The best results
have occurred when the pH is held rigidly at 5.5 (Rubel,

46
Figure 5-2. Basic Operating Mode Flow Schematics

47
 After tank B1 After tank A1 Effluent Influent

Bed Volumes of Water Treated—x1000 BV

3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.4 5.6 5.9
120.0

100.0 Activated alumina replaced and tanks

Arsenic Concentration—µg/L

repositioned on May 25, 1999

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0
10-µg/L Arsenic
0.0
09/30/98 11/11/98 01/06/99 02/17/99 03/31/99 05/12/99 06/23/99 08/04/99

Sampling Date

Figure 5-3. Typical Breakthrough Curve for Arsenic. The vertical dash line represents the date of the
media replacement. The horizontal dash line represents 10-µg/L arsenic level. Tank B1
was used as a roughing filter and tank A1 as a polishing filter before the media replacement
on May 25, 1999; after that, tank A1 was used as a roughing filter and the recharged tank
B1 as a polishing filter (Source: Wang et al., 2002).

removes the remaining arsenic. As treatment progres- aeration, and/or blending with raw water. Regardless of
ses, the treatment band progresses downward through the method of pH adjustment, it should take place and
the lead column until the media in the column is com- be stabilized at the desired level prior to delivering the
pletely saturated. At that point, the arsenic concentration treated water into distribution.
in the raw water entering and the treated water leaving
the lead column are the same. The treatment band is High pH in the treated water is also a concern. Normally
entirely contained in the lag column. The lead column the maximum allowable pH is 8.5; however, there are
then can be removed from the treatment train to provide exceptions where pH 9.0 may be permitted. Most sys-
regeneration of the treatment media. For systems that tems desire pH in the 7.5-8.0 range. When the treated
do not regenerate the treatment media, the spent treat- water is approved and the pH stabilized for distribution, it
ment media in the lead column should be replaced with flows out of the plant past a failsafe pH sensor with high
new (virgin) treatment media. Whether the media is and low level alarms. If there is a pH excursion exceed-
regenerated or replaced, the arsenic removal treatment ing the allowable limits, an interlock (incorporating the
capacity is restored for a follow on treatment cycle in the pH alarms with the well pump(s) magnetic starter) de-
treatment vessel. The treatment vessel with fresh adsorp- energizes the well pump(s). Simultaneously, the chemi-
tive media is returned for treatment service in the lag cal pumps shut down as their controls are interlocked with
position. The treatment vessel that was formally in the the well pump(s) power circuitry. The failsafe pH override
lag position is placed in the lead position. automatically prevents any treated water for which pH is
out of tolerance from entering the distribution system. In
Concurrently, in the vessel that has completed the regen- the event of such an excursion, the operator manually
eration process, the treated water pH gradually drops to controls the well pump(s) to divert the unacceptable
the adjusted raw water pH level where it remains through water to waste, determine the cause of the deviation,
the duration of the run. Because the pH of the treated and make corrections prior to placing the treatment sys-
water is lower than the normally accepted minimum pH tem back on line. Probable causes for treated water pH
of 6.5, it should be raised either by chemical addition, deviations are: change in water flowrate, change in acid

48
flowrate, change in caustic flowrate, and change in raw Refer to Table 5-1 for valve positions for the backwash
water chemistry. mode. The basic flow schematic for the backwash mode
is illustrated in Figure 5-2. For most effective backwash,
As breakthrough occurs in the lead column, there is a it is recommended that the vessel be drained prior to
long period of slowly increasing arsenic concentration in backwash. As backwash water flows into a drained bed,
the lead column effluent. This period increases the arse- it lifts the entire bed approximately 1 ft prior to the bed
nic loading on the media of the lag column and results in fluidizing. This action provides an efficient scouring action
lower operating costs. It should be noted that the higher without excessive abrasion to the adsorptive media
the raw water arsenic level, the greater the adsorption grains. Backwash water samples should be inspected
(driving force) capacity. Because many other factors can frequently to determine that filtered material is still being
affect this capacity, the precise amount is difficult to removed and treatment media is not being washed out
predict. The operator should be cognizant of the fact that of the bed. Excessive backwash causes abrasion that
the more water treated during a run, the lower the oper- wears down the adsorptive media grains, and also wastes
ating cost. raw water and increases the wastewater disposal vol-
ume. Therefore, backwash volume should be minimized.
In raw waters where the arsenic level is very low, part of It is prudent to periodically inspect the media level of
the raw water can bypass treatment and be blended each treatment bed to determine whether bed volume
back with the treated water. A skilled operator may be has changed.
able to develop many techniques such as this to mini-
mize operating costs. 5.3.3 Regeneration Mode
High iron content in raw water can cause problems dur- The most efficient, cost-effective method of regenerating
ing a treatment run. The iron oxidizes, precipitates, and an activated alumina treatment bed upon completion of a
is filtered from solution by the adsorptive media. This treatment run includes two discrete regeneration steps.
results in increased pressure drop, and shortened treat- The first step is upflow following draining of the bed after
ment runs. Raw water iron content greater than 0.3 mg/L the backwash mode. The upflow regeneration is followed
is cause for concern. However, if the iron concentration by an upflow rinse. The unit is then drained to the top of
is above 0.3 mg/L, the secondary MCL, an iron removal the treatment bed prior to the second regeneration step
process should be considered as the treatment process (which is downflow). Both steps use a 5% (by weight)
for arsenic removal in place of the adsorptive media NaOH solution. For regeneration procedures for other
process because of the capability of the process to adsorptive media, consult the manufacturer.
remove arsenic.
The object of regeneration is to remove all arsenic ions
5.3.2 Backwash Mode from the media before any part of the media is returned
to the treatment mode. Arsenic ions lose their attraction
It is important that the bed be backwashed with raw (adsorptive force) and become repelled by the alumina
water after each treatment run prior to regeneration for when the pH rises above 10.5. The higher the pH, the
two reasons. First, any suspended solids that have been faster and more efficient the regeneration. However, too
filtered from the raw water by the treatment bed tend to high a pH not only costs more (because of higher caustic
blind the bed. Therefore, these particles should be for regeneration and acid for neutralization consump-
removed from the bed. Second, even though filtration tion), but is also increasingly aggressive to the alumina.
may have been negligible, the downward flow tends to The 5% NaOH solution is the maximum concentration
pack the bed. An upflow backwash will expand the bed, required for high efficiency regeneration (recovery of
and break up any tendency towards wall effects and total arsenic capacity). A skilled operator might be able
channeling. A backwash rate of 7 gpm/ft2 will expand the to reduce the concentration of the NaOH to 4% with the
−28, +48 mesh activated alumina bed approximately 50%, same high efficiency performance. However, below 4%,
which is recommended. For other adsorptive media, efficiency deteriorates rapidly. This lower caustic con-
backwash flowrate requirements should be provided by centration can reduce caustic consumption for regenera-
the manufacturer. As mentioned in prior chapters of this tion up to 20%. As described in Chapter 3.0, the dilution
manual, the backwash rate may vary with grain size, of the caustic takes place at an injector in the regenera-
material density, and water temperature. Care must be tion water piping. Both the raw water and the 50% NaOH
taken to avoid backwashing granular bed material out of are metered prior to injection into the regeneration main.
the treatment unit. Normally backwashing lasts 10 min or The accuracy of the metering ranges from ±2% to ±5%
until all suspended solids are removed from the treat- depending on the type of flow instrumentation.
ment media.

49
The rule of thumb for the volume of 5% caustic solution lower than that is too aggressive and is not recom-
required per activated alumina regeneration step is mended. For neutralization procedures for other adsorp-
15 gal/ft3 of treatment media. Because there are two tive media, consult the media manufacturer.
regeneration steps (upflow and downflow), the actual
regeneration time exclusive of draining, flushing and At the start of the downflow neutralization mode, the
neutralization is 2 hr. The minimum time recommended valves are positioned according to Table 5-1, and the
per step for the solution to flow through the bed is flow is adjusted to the normal treatment mode rate. The
60 min. The maximum time of 90 min for each step is basic flow schematic for the neutralization mode is illus-
recommended. For a 5-ft-deep treatment bed, a flow of trated in Figure 5-2. After 15 min the acid pump is
1.25 gpm/ft2 for a period of 60 min for each regeneration started, and the pH of the raw water is adjusted to 2.5.
step is sufficient. This equates to 1 gal 50% NaOH per Acid feedrate again varies with the alkalinity of the raw
cubic foot of treatment media for each regeneration step water. The raw water flowrate may have to be reduced
(upflow and downflow). to achieve pH 2.5 at the maximum acid pump feedrate.

For the valve position during each step of the regenera- As the neutralization mode proceeds, the pH of the
tion mode, refer to Table 5-1. The basic flow schematics treated water gradually drops below 13. The rate of pH
for the regeneration modes are illustrated in Figure 5-2. reduction increases at an increasing rate. As the treated
After backwash, prior to the upflow regeneration step, water pH drops below 10, the treated water arsenic level
the bed will be drained to remove water, which dilutes begins to drop below that of the raw water. At the point
the caustic concentration. Upon completion of the upflow where the arsenic level drops below the MCL, the water
regeneration, the caustic feed pump is turned off and the becomes usable and can be directed to storage. When
caustic soda day tank refilled. The raw water continues the treated water pH drops to 8.0, the raw water pH is
to flow for 60 min at 2.5 gpm/ft2 flowrate upward through adjusted up to 4.0 as the bed rapidly neutralizes. When
the bed, flushing out the arsenic. After this rinse step is the treated water pH drops to 6.5, the raw water pH is
completed, the vessel is drained to the top of the treat- adjusted up to 5.5 where it remains through the duration
ment bed, again to remove dilution water. The downflow of the treatment cycle. The regenerated treatment unit
regeneration then takes place for 60 min. The downflow now starts the next cycle in the treatment mode. Prior to
regeneration is followed by draining fluid down to the top placement of the regenerated treatment unit into service
of the bed prior to the start of the neutralization mode. in the lag position, the operator should open the manway
in the top head of the vessel to check the level of the
5.3.4 Neutralization Mode treatment media. Approximately 5% of the activated alu-
mina will be dissolved during regeneration. The operator
The neutralization mode is critical to the success of the should replace the lost activated alumina by adding an
following treatment run. The object of this mode is to equal amount to bring the bed back to the original level.
return the bed to the treatment mode as rapidly as possi- The operator should backwash the bed with water
ble without dissolving the activated alumina. The pH of adjusted to pH 5.5 for 30 min. The regenerated treat-
the treatment media after completion of the regeneration ment unit will then be placed into service in the lag posi-
is 13+. It should be adjusted down to pH 5.5, and there- tion. It remains there until the treatment vessel in the
fore will pass through pH ranges where ions that com- lead position is removed for regeneration.
pete for absorption sites on the alumina will be adsorbed
onto the bed. The minimum pH that can be safely A summary of the regeneration process for the activated
exposed to the granular activated alumina is 2.5. A pH alumina process is shown in Table 5-3. For similar infor-

Table 5-3. Typical Process Conditions for Regeneration of an Activated Alumina Treatment System(a)

Step Flow Rate Time Wastewater

2
No. Step Liquid Direction (gpm/ft ) (minutes) (gal)
1 Backwash Raw water Upflow 7 10 30
2 Regeneration 5% NaOH Upflow 1.2 60-90 15
3 Rinse Raw water Upflow 2.5 60 30
4 Regeneration 5% NaOH Downflow 1.2 60-90 15
5 Neutralization Raw Water adjusted to pH 2.5 Downflow Varies Time to achieve pH of 8.0 240
6 Neutralization Raw water adjusted to 4.0 Downflow Varies Time to achieve pH of 6.5
7 Neutralization Raw water adjusted to 5.5 Downflow Varies Time to achieve pH of 5.5
Total 330
(a) Consult manufacturer for similar information on other adsorption media.

50
mation on other adsorptive media with regeneration capa- 5.5 Operator Requirements
bility, the manufacturer should be contacted.
A qualified operator for an arsenic removal water treat-
The volume of wastewater produced during the regener- ment plant should have thorough arsenic removal pro-
ation of a treatment bed will vary with the physical/chem- cess training, preferably at an existing treatment plant.
ical characteristics of the raw water. A rule of thumb that The operator should be able to service pumps, piping
can assist the operator in his logistical handling is that systems, instrumentation, and electrical accessories.
300-400 gal of wastewater is produced per cubic foot of The operator should be fully informed about the safety
activated alumina during each regeneration. Typical vol- requirements and physical/chemical characteristics of
umes of wastewater generated per cubic foot of activated both acid and caustic in all concentrations. Corrosive
alumina during each regeneration step for a hypothetical chemical safety requirements as to clothing, equipment,
treatment bed are shown in Table 5-3. antidotes, and procedures must be thoroughly under-
stood. The operator should be thoroughly trained to run
Operational experience at a specific treatment plant will routine water analyses including the method for deter-
present deviations from these quantities. mining arsenic levels. The operator should be well
grounded in mathematics for operation cost accounting
5.4 Treatment Process with Spent and treatment run recordkeeping. The operator, above
Treatment Media Replacement all, should be dependable and conscientious.

Treatment systems that are designed to replace spent 5.6 Laboratory Requirements
adsorptive media undergo the same initial startup proce-
dure as those that are designed for regeneration of In addition to the O&M Manual, the treatment plant should
spent media. For those procedures, see Section 5.2. have the latest edition of Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater prepared jointly
5.4.1 Treatment Mode by the American Public Health Association–American
Water Works Association–Water Environment Federa-
The treatment mode for systems that replace spent tion (APHA-AWWA-WEF, 1995). This manual supplies
adsorptive media is identical to that described in Section the plant operator with necessary information for accept-
5.3.1 for systems that employ treatment process pH able methods for analyzing water. A recommended list of
adjustment with the exception that it is also applicable to items for analysis is illustrated in Figure 3-1. The primary
systems that do not employ treatment process pH requirement is accurate analysis for arsenic and deter-
adjustment. For those systems that do not employ pH mination of pH. As long as pH meters are calibrated and
adjustment, the treatment mode merely deletes all refer- cleaned regularly, high precision measurements are
ence to pH adjustment from the treatment process. The easily obtained. Care should be exercised to prevent
duration of treatment cycles for the systems without contamination of pH buffers.
treatment process pH adjustment is greatly reduced
(Rubel, 1984) depending upon the adsorptive media. Total arsenic can be effectively preserved in field sam-
The relative performance is a function of the adsorptive ples and analyzed by several analytical methods down
media, and the raw water chemistry for each individual to the MCL of 10 µg/L or less. Preservation of total
water treatment system. High concentrations of ions arsenic is accomplished by acidifying the sample to pH
including but not limited to silica, alkalinity, hardness, <2. The Arsenic Rule lists four U.S. EPA approved ana-
fluoride, and sulfate as well as high pH may adversely lytical methods: inductively coupled plasma–mass spec-
affect the adsorptive media arsenic capacity as well as troscopy (ICP-MS), graphite furnace atomic absorption
the percent removal of arsenic. (GFAA), stabilized temperature platform (STP) GFAA,
and gaseous hydride atomic absorption (GHAA). These
methods are U.S. EPA-approved for compliance require-
5.4.2 Media Replacement Mode
ments and require expensive analytical equipment that is
found only at extremely large water treatment plants.
The media replacement mode includes removal of spent
During the past several years, several companies have
media for disposal and replacement with fresh (virgin)
developed portable test kits for field analysis of arsenic.
adsorptive media for the next treatment cycle. Several
methods are available for spent media from treatment
Several arsenic tests kits have been evaluated under the
vessels. The method used will vary with the size of the
U.S. EPA Environmental Technology Verification (ETV)
treatment vessel. Typical removal methods are discussed
program by the Advanced Monitoring Systems Center
in Section 5.1 and Appendix E. Installation of replace-
managed by Battelle in partnership with U.S. EPA.
ment adsorptive media should repeat the procedures
These kits were tested for monitoring arsenic in the 1 to
described in Section 5.2.
100 µg/L range. Information on the test kits can be found

51
on the Internet (http://epa.gov/etv/verifications/vcenter1- record of purchases of all spare parts, chemicals, labora-
21.html). Although these test kits may be adequate for tory equipment and reagents, tools, services, and other
monitoring process performance, they are not U.S. EPA- sundry items. This should be supplemented by a file of
approved methods for use in reporting MCL compliance up-to-date competitive prices for items that have been
data. For regulatory data, water samples must be ana- previously purchased.
lyzed by U.S. EPA/state-certified testing laboratories
employing U.S. EPA-approved methods. 5.7.5 Correspondence Files
5.7 Operating Records The plant operator should retain copies of all corre-
spondence pertaining to the treatment plant in chrono-
A system of records should be maintained on file at the logical order. Included would be intradepartmental notes
treatment plant covering plant activity, plant procedures, and memos, in addition to correspondence with other
raw water chemical analyses, plant expenditures, and individuals and/or organizations.
inventory of materials (spare parts, tools, etc.). The plant
operator should have the responsibility of managing all 5.7.6 Regulatory Agency Reports
aspects of the treatment plant operation. The operator is
accountable to the water system management. The The plant operator should maintain a complete file of
recommended record system should include, but not be copies of all reports received from state, county, or other
limited to, the items described in the following sub- regulatory agencies pertaining to the treatment plant.
sections.
5.7.7 Miscellaneous Forms
5.7.1 Plant Log
The operator should have an adequate supply of accident
A daily log should be maintained in which the plant oper- and insurance forms.
ator records daily activities at the plant. This record should
include a listing of scheduled maintenance, unscheduled
5.8 Treatment Plant Maintenance
maintenance, plant visitors, purchases, abnormal weather
conditions, injuries, sampling for state and other regula-
The maintenance concept for the arsenic removal water
tory agencies, etc. This record should also be used as a
treatment plant is to isolate the equipment to be serviced
tool for planning future routine and special activities.
by means of shutoff valves, vent and drain lines (as
required), repair or replace equipment, fill lines, open
5.7.2 Operation Log valves, and start service. To accomplish this, all equip-
ment items are equipped with isolating valves, and all
The operator should maintain a log sheet for each treat- piping systems have vents at high points and drains at
ment run for each treatment unit. Thereby, a permanent low points.
plant performance record will be on file. Figure 5-4 illus-
trates a copy of a suggested condensed form. Equipment manufacturers’ recommended spare parts
should be stocked at the treatment plant to avoid lengthy
5.7.3 Water Analysis Reports maintenance shutdowns.

It is recommended that the plant operator run an analy- If the entire treatment plant needs to be shut down and
sis of raw and treated arsenic levels once each week for the plant has bypass, the plant itself can be bypassed.
each unit, and should run a total raw water analysis once This can be done by closing the butterfly valves in the
per month. Changes in raw water may necessitate raw water and treated water line and then opening the
changes in the treatment process. Raw water changes butterfly valve in the bypass line. This would result in
that can impact the treatment process include, but are untreated water with excessively high arsenic being
not limited to, pH, alkalinity, iron, manganese, hardness, pumped to distribution, an event that should not occur
phosphate, silica, sulfate, sodium, TDS, and turbidity. without the approval of the water system manager and
Figure 3-1 illustrates a copy of a suggested form. A the regulatory agency.
permanent file of these reports can be a valuable tool.
5.9 Equipment Maintenance
5.7.4 Plant Operating Cost Records
Equipment manufacturer’s maintenance instructions
Using accounting forms supplied by the water system’s should be included in the Suppliers Equipment Instruc-
accountants, the plant operator should keep a complete tions section of the O&M Manual.

52
 ARSENIC REMOVAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT
OPERATION LOG

Unit # Run # Date Start Date End

TREATMENT TO RESERVOIR
Meter End Meter Start Total Treated k-gal.
BYPASS TO RESERVOIR
Meter End Meter Start Total Treated k-gal.
BACKWASH TO WASTE
Meter End Meter Start Total k-gal.
REGENERATION TO WASTE
Upflow:
Meter End Meter Start Total k-gal.
Downflow:
Meter End Meter Start Total k-gal.
RINSE TO WASTE
Meter End Meter Start Total k-gal.
NEUTRALIZATION RINSE TO WASTE
Meter End Meter Start Total k-gal.
TOTAL WASTEWATER SUMMARY
Total to Tank k-gal. PERCENT WASTE %

TREATED WATER LOG

Treatment Treated As ∑ As
Meter ∆ Meter ∑ ∆ Meter Raw As As* ∆ As Removed Removed
Date (k-gal) (k-gal) (k-gal) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg) (mg)

* Average treated water arsenic.

Figure 5-4. Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plant Operation Log

53
5.10 Treatment Media 5.11 Treatment Chemicals Supply
Maintenance
The operator should carefully monitor the consumption
The plant operator should inspect the surface of each of liquid chemicals and reorder when necessary. The
treatment bed at least once a month. If the level of a bed operator should have a method of determining the depth
lowers more than 8 inches, makeup adsorptive media of liquid in the storage tank (e.g., dipstick) and equating
should be added. Makeup adsorptive media should be that to the volume of liquid in the tank. Figure 5-5 illus-
evenly distributed. There should be a minimum depth of trates a liquid depth versus volume curve for a 5,000-gal
2.0 ft of water above the surface of the existing bed horizontal cylindrical tank with dished head.
through which the makeup adsorptive media will be
added. The vessel should be closed immediately and 5.12 Housekeeping
backwashed at 7 gpm/ft2 (or at rate recommended by the
manufacturer) for at least 30 min. It is very important to The plant operator should wash down all equipment at
flush the fines out of the virgin activated alumina as soon least once per month. Floors should be swept. Bathroom
as it is wetted. and laboratory fixtures should be cleaned once per
week. All light bulbs should be replaced immediately
It is important that the treatment beds should not remain upon failure. Emergency shower and eyewash should be
in the drained condition for more than an hour. Treat- tested once per week. Any chemical spill should be neu-
ment units not in use should remain flooded. tralized and cleaned up immediately. Equipment should
be repainted at least once every five years.

Figure 5-5. 5,000-gal Chemical Storage Tank – Liquid Volume

54
 6.0 Central Treatment Plant Operating Cost

6.1 Introduction the treatment system with maximum capability and flexi-
bility. The system includes adsorptive treatment media
The prime objectives in central treatment plant design with spent media regeneration and pH adjustment capa-
are to provide the client with a low-capital cost installa- bilities (with manual or automatic operation) that is appli-
tion that works efficiently and reliably; is simple to oper- cable primarily to activated alumina.
ate; and is inexpensive to operate. Operating costs nor-
mally are passed directly on to the water user in the Manufacturers of other adsorptive media indicate that
monthly water bill. These costs include the following: their products are not as pH-sensitive as activated alu-
mina, and therefore do not require pH adjustment. How-
1. Treatment chemical costs ever, some of these materials are vulnerable to a loss of
arsenic removal capacity when the treatment process pH
2. Operating labor costs adjustment is not provided, due to competition from com-
peting ions such as silica, phosphate, and sulfate. Manu-
3. Utility costs facturers also indicate that As(III) requires oxidation to
As(V) to accomplish total arsenic removal by their prod-
4. Replacement treatment media costs ucts, and that those products have such a large arsenic
removal capacity that spent media regeneration is not
5. Replacement parts and miscellaneous materials considered necessary. Some of these products are not
costs capable of regeneration, and, therefore, must be replaced
upon exhaustion of capacity. Under these parameters,
those products do not require operating cost for pH
6. Waste disposal cost (not included in this manual).
adjustment chemicals.
As the consumer’s water bill normally is based on met-
This manual discusses systems that are capable of pro-
ered water consumption, the costs for treatment are pro-
viding spent media regeneration and treatment process
rated on the unit of volume measurement. The units of
pH adjustment. By including these capabilities in the sys-
volume are usually 1,000 gal, or 100 ft3 (750 gal). The
tem design, the operation of the treatment plant has the
rate units employed in this design manual are ¢/1,000
flexibility to include or exclude those functions. If the
gal. Some systems do not meter consumption; instead,
system includes these capabilities, the operator may still
they charge a flat monthly rate based upon the size of
elect to replace the spent adsorptive media with virgin
the branch connection to the water main. Although this
activated alumina (or a different adsorptive media) instead
latter mode of distribution saves the cost of meters as
of regenerating the spent media. If a different adsorptive
well as the reading of meters, it does not promote water
media replaces the original adsorptive media, the pH
conservation. Therefore, far more water is pumped,
adjustment can also be added to or eliminated from the
treated, and distributed, resulting in a net increase in
operation. Therefore, the operator has the option of
operating cost.
replacing the spent adsorptive media or regenerating it.
The common denominator that applies to both the oper-
Size of system is another variable that impacts the mode
ating cost and the bill for water consumption is the unit of
of operation. Except for replacement of spent media,
volume, 1,000 gal. Each operating cost factor can be
operating labor requirements do not vary with the size of
reduced to cost/1,000 gal. The sum total of the annual
the system, but do vary with the type of operation; the
operating costs based on total water production yields
smaller system will tend to employ the simplest oper-
the cost per 1,000 gal.
ation. Replacement of spent treatment media in place of
regeneration is the main factor to consider. Spent media
6.2 Discussion of Operating Costs replacement requires removal and disposal of spent
media, placement and conditioning of virgin media in
Similar to capital cost, many variables affect operating place of the regeneration process, and processing and
cost. This manual indicates the types of operating cost disposal of regeneration wastewater and waste solids.
variables that are evaluated during each stage of the
design phase of the project and during the operation of Besides treatment system size, other items that influ-
the treatment plant. The example method employed in ence the mode of operation are the feedwater arsenic
this manual provides the user with the ability to design

55
concentration and the arsenic removal capacity of the containers used to store and deliver the chemicals have
adsorptive media. The arsenic removal capacity of an not been used for any other chemical; or if they have,
adsorptive medium increases as the arsenic concentra- that they have been decontaminated according to pro-
tion increases. The arsenic adsorptive capacity vs. arse- cedures required by the governing regulatory agency.
nic concentration also may vary between media. The
costs of the adsorptive media vary. These factors are Chemical costs are variable; recently these costs have
evaluated in selection of the treatment concept and the been volatile. Like all commodities, there is sensitivity to
adsorptive media. The frequency of spent media replace- the supply and demand fluctuation of the marketplace.
ment/regeneration, cost of treatment chemicals, cost of The geographic location of the treatment plant site in
adsorptive media, waste disposal costs, and cost/avail- relation to that of the supplier has an impact on the deliv-
ability of operating personnel not only vary with geo- ered cost. In some cases, the delivery costs are greater
graphic locations but also are sensitive to price volatility. than the cost of the chemical. The conceptual design
Therefore, the operational flexibility provided in Chapter evaluates the chemical logistics and determines the
3.0 of this manual allows the system to adapt to the most cost-effective mode of procurement as well as
optimum adsorptive media and operating method at any whether chemicals for pH adjustment are economically
time. feasible.

The manual method is satisfactory for each operation Chemical costs are sensitive to the volume and contain-
mode of the adsorptive media arsenic removal process. ment mode of the commodity purchased. Because com-
If spent adsorptive media regeneration is included in the modity handling is minimized, bulk tank truck quantities
operation, automatic operation also should be evaluated. entail the least cost. Tank truck quantities are normally
If the spent adsorptive media is replaced in place of re- 48,000 lb. Bulk deliveries require chemical storage tanks
generation, automatic operation is not a practical option. within containment basins located at the treatment plant
Media replacement is a manual function. As the feed- site with necessary safety provisions and weather pro-
water arsenic concentration increases, the frequency of tection. The same commodities can be routinely pur-
spent adsorptive media regeneration increases. As the chased in drums (55-gal or 30-gal), totes, carboys, gal-
size of the system increases, automatic operation be- lon jugs, etc. These packaged quantities result in much
comes more attractive. Therefore, automatic operation higher unit prices than bulk quantity. The drum and other
will be beneficial for larger systems with high feedwater small container prices also depend on the quantity pro-
arsenic concentration requiring more frequent regenera- cured at one time. Small containers also introduce addi-
tion and stringent limits on operator time. tional handling requirements for the treatment plant
operator. For very small treatment systems, bulk pro-
The following subsections discuss each of the operating curement and storage is not justified unless the feed-
costs previously listed. water arsenic and alkalinity concentrations are extremely
high. In special low flowrate systems where high arsenic
6.2.1 Treatment Chemical Costs and high alkalinity are present in the feedwater and drum
quantity costs are significantly higher than bulk quantity
The treatment chemicals discussed are limited to sulfuric costs, the increased chemical consumption could justify
acid (H2SO4) and caustic (NaOH). Both are highly corro- bulk purchase.

sive, hazardous liquid chemicals that require compatible The chemistry of the raw water to be treated is the most
materials of construction, containment provisions, safety significant factor affecting treatment chemical consump-
provisions, weather protection, and operator training. tion and cost. Arsenic and alkalinity are the key ions in
Although special precautions and training are required, the raw water; the higher the concentration of either ion,
they are routinely accomplished. Other acids and bases the higher the chemical consumption and cost per
can be substituted for those chemicals, but they are usu- 1,000 gal of treated water.
ally more costly and therefore rarely considered. Other
chemicals also are used for other requirements such as 6.2.1.1 Acid Cost
corrosion inhibition, precipitation of regeneration waste- The most cost-effective, commercially available chemical
water solids, dewatering of precipitated solids in waste- for lowering pH is concentrated sulfuric acid. Hydrochloric
water, and disinfection; however, these are site-specific acid also is applicable, but it is more difficult to handle,
requirements that are not covered in this manual. increases chlorides (i.e., is corrosive), and usually is
more costly. The chemical designation of commercially
The chemicals used for treatment of water for public available sulfuric acid is 66°B′ H2SO4. Its concentration is
consumption require NSF/ANSI STD 60 certification by 93.14%. The remaining 6.86% is water (plus other ions).
most state regulatory agencies. It also is recommended The other ions that could be present should be eval-
that the chemical supplier be required to certify that the uated and could result in a slight increase in their

56
concentration in the treated water. Frequently, small Total alkalinity (M) = 220 mg/L (as CaCO3)
quantities of iron and trace amounts of heavy metals are Arsenic (As) = 0.100 mg/L
present. For water treatment service, there are stringent pH = 8.0.
limits on the levels of contaminants in the acid which will
be rigidly enforced. NSF certification of the acid for use Based upon determination by titration, the quantity of
as an additive in drinking water is required. 66°B• H2SO4 required to adjust the pH to 5.5 is
205 mg/L. The amount of acid required per 1,000 gal
The most economical method of procuring acid is in bulk treated water is as follows:
tank truck quantities (48,000 lb) which are 3,100 gal
each. The tank trucks are loaded at each acid manufac- 205 mg 10 −6 kg lb 3.785 L
turer’s site or at a distribution storage site and delivered × × × 1000 gal × =
L mg 0.4545 kg gal
directly to the treatment plant where the acid is trans-
ferred to the acid bulk storage tank. Transfer is accom-
plished by means of compressed air, which is provided 1.71 lb/1,000 gal
by an air compressor on the truck (unless the treatment
plant can provide the compressed air). In addition to the Therefore, for an acid bulk quantity price of 5¢/lb, the
lower commodity price resulting from minimum handling acid cost per 1,000 gal treated water is 8.5¢. If the acid
and storage of the chemical, there is minimum chance of had been procured in drum quantities at 16¢/lb, the
contamination. At large treatment plants where there is resulting cost would be 27¢/1,000 gal. Conversely, if the
potential for high acid consumption, rail tank car quantity feedwater total alkalinity had been 100 mg/L as CaCO3
(200,000 lb) delivery, which is cheaper, may be justified. and the pH 7.5, then the resulting acid required to adjust
Capital expenditures for a 16,000-gal (minimum) storage pH to 5.5 would be 92.4 mg/L. That equates to 0.77
tank and a rail spur with unloading equipment then are lb/1,000 gal, or 3.9¢/1,000 gal (for acid bulk quantity
required. price of 5¢/lb). The acid requirement used in the esti-
mated operating cost estimate example is 8.5¢/1,000 gal.
The delivered cost of bulk tank truck quantities of sulfuric
acid normally ranges from 4.5 to 6¢/lb depending on the The acid consumption for neutralization of regeneration
geographic location of the treatment plant. Drum quantity wastewater is a function of the caustic concentration
costs are normally 10 to 12¢/lb higher. employed during regeneration and the raw water alka-
linity. This quantity varies from site to site. The consump-
The acid is consumed in three possible locations in the tion also is a function of the raw water arsenic level,
treatment process at arsenic removal treatment plants which dictates the frequency of regeneration, and the
utilizing adsorptive media with pH adjustment of process volume of water over which this cost is distributed. The
water and regeneration of spent media. First, it is used higher the arsenic level, the fewer gallons treated per
to adjust the raw water pH to the treatment requirement; treatment cycle. The weight of acid required for neutrali-
second, it is used to neutralize the treatment bed imme- zation after regeneration is normally in the range of
diately after regeneration; finally, it may be used for pH 10 lb/ft3 of treatment media.
adjustment of the regeneration wastewater. In plants that
replace the spent adsorptive media rather than regen- For the design example presented in Appendix B using
activated alumina, the arsenic removal capacity is
erate it, only the first acid feed location is required. The 38,940 mg/ft3 (600 grains/ft3) and the feedwater arsenic
raw water alkalinity dictates the amount of acid required concentration is 0.100 mg/L.
for the pH adjustment step. For treatment plants that do
not adjust treatment process pH, acid storage and feed Then, the number of gallons of water from which total
equipment is not required unless it is determined that arsenic is removed is
provisions for future pH adjustment capability is desirable.
38,940 mg/ft 3 389,400 L
The acid consumption for pH adjustment can be accu- = = 102,600 gal/ft 3
0.1/mg/L ft 3
rately projected by running a titration on a raw water
sample. The cost of acid required for pH adjustment is
Then, using 10 lb 66°B• H2SO4 per neutralization per
then determined by extending the acid addition in mg/L
cubic foot regenerated adsorptive media, the cost of the
to the weight (lb) required per 1,000 gal and multiplying
acid is
by the commercial cost for the acid.

For the design example presented in Appendix B, a 10 lb acid/ft 3 × 5¢/lb

= 0.5¢/1,000 gal
hypothetical feedwater analysis includes the following: 103 (1,000 gal)/ft 3

57
Therefore, for the example provided in Appendix B, acid requirements) is 2 gal/ft3 per regeneration. As with the
cost is as follows: acid required for neutralization, the caustic consumption
is a function of the raw water arsenic level which dictates
1. Activated alumina with spent media replacement and the frequency of regeneration and the volume of water
without pH adjustment = 0¢/1,000 gal over which this cost is distributed. This varies from treat-
ment system to treatment system.
2. Activated alumina with spent media replacement
with pH adjustment = 8.5¢/1,000 gal The caustic consumption for treated water pH adjust-
ment is also a function of raw water alkalinity and the
3. Activated alumina with spent media regeneration desired treated water pH. The concentration of free CO2
and pH adjustment = 9¢/1,000 gal. in the water after the initial pH adjustment with sulfuric
acid will determine the caustic requirement. The con-
6.2.1.2 Caustic Cost sumption requirement is again accurately determined by
continuing the original titration required for acid to lower
Caustic (NaOH) can be procured in either solid (100% the pH to the treatment level of 5.5; then adding the 50%
NaOH) or liquid (50% NaOH or lower). The 50% NaOH NaOH required to raise the pH to the desired level (e.g.,
is the standard concentration that is handled and applied 7.5). The cost of caustic required then is determined by
to water treatment applications. That concentration is a extending the caustic addition in mg/L to the weight
byproduct of the chlorine manufacturing process. There- required per 1,000 gal and multiplying by the commercial
fore, it requires minimum handling to place it into a price for the delivered caustic.
48,000-lb bulk tank truck (3,850 gal). The problem with
50% NaOH concentration is that it freezes at 55°F; it is For the design example presented in Appendix B for
also very viscous and difficult to transfer at temperatures which the feedwater pH had been adjusted to 5.5 for
below 70°F. Therefore, it normally requires heating. treatment, the treated water pH is readjusted back to a
Also, because it is 50% water by weight, the freight is a desired level (for example, pH 7.7). For the Appendix B
cost factor. Solid caustic in bead or flake form is also example, the 50% NaOH requirement determined by
readily available in drums or bulk. Its freight cost is titration is 210 mg/L. The required quantity of 50% NaOH
roughly half that of the liquid, but getting it into solution is per 1,000 gal treated water is as follows:
difficult and dangerous. Regardless of the economics,
solid caustic is not recommended for this application. 210 × 10−6 ppm × 1,000 gal (8.34 lb/gal) =
Commercially available caustic in the 25% NaOH con- 1.75 lb/1,000 gal
centration has a freezing point of 0°F; however, freight
costs for shipping this material are high (75% water). Therefore, at a caustic bulk quantity price of 12.5¢/lb, the
Capital cost for larger storage and pumping require- caustic cost per 1,000 gal is 21.9¢/1,000 gal. If the
ments also are increased. Even though heating and caustic had been procured in drum quantities at 23¢/lb,
temperature protection are required, the 50% NaOH is the cost would be 40¢/1,000 gal. The caustic used in the
recommended. Transferring caustic from tank trucks to estimated operating cost example is 21.9¢/1,000 gal.
storage tanks is accomplished with compressed air simi-
lar to the method for acid. Using the same activated alumina arsenic capacity
(38,940 mg/ft3 [600 grains/ft3]) and volume of water
The delivered cost of bulk tank truck quantities of 50% treated per treatment cycle (102,600 gal) discussed in
NaOH presently ranges from 10 to 15¢/lb depending on Section 6.2.1.1, the cost of caustic soda is as follows:
the geographic location of the treatment plant. Drum
quantity cost are normally 10 to 12¢/lb higher.
2 gal × 12.7 lb/gal (50% NaOH) × 12.5¢/lb
=
For the activated alumina adsorptive media with treat- 103 (× 1,000 gal treated water)
ment process pH adjustment and spent media regenera-
tion, the caustic is consumed at two locations in the 3.1¢/1,000 gal treated water
treatment process. First, it is used to raise the pH of the
treated water to the level desired for distribution; second; Therefore, for the example provided in Appendix B,
it is used to raise the pH of the raw water to the level caustic soda cost is as follows:
required for treatment media regeneration. The first
requirement may be reduced or replaced by aeration of 1. Activated alumina with spent media replacement
the treated water to strip free CO2 from the treated water. without pH adjustment = 0¢/1,000 gal

The volume of 50% NaOH required for a 5% NaOH con- 2. Activated alumina with spent media replacement
centration regeneration (includes upflow and downflow with pH adjustment = 21.9¢/1,000 gal

58
3. Activated alumina with spent media regeneration Operator hourly rate: 30,000/2,000 = $15.00/hr
with pH adjustment = 25¢/1,000 gal. 30% (overhead and fringe benefits): = $ 4.50/hr
Operator Rate: $19.50/hr
6.2.2 Operating Labor Costs
Total operator cost: 543 hr/year × $19.50/hr =
Operating labor cost is difficult to quantify. The operator $10,589/year
is required to be dependable and competent; however,
the position is not always full-time. Depending on the Total gallons water produced:
size of the system and the other duties available for the 0.5(570 gpm) × 1,440 min/day × 365 days/year =
operator, the operator’s time should be distributed over 149,800,000 gal/year
several accounting categories. Except for days when
spent media regeneration or replacement takes place, Labor cost/1,000 gal: $10,589/149,800 (1,000 gal) =
the treatment plant normally requires less than 1 hr per $0.07/1,000 gal.
day of operator attention. During regeneration, the oper-
ator may be required to spend approximately 8 hr over a If the operator had no other responsibilities and the oper-
12-hr period. Where spent media replacement is imple- ator’s entire salary were expended against this treatment
mented, the operator time requirement is a function of plant operation, the operating labor cost would become
the size of the system. $0.25/1,000 gal. Obviously, there are many variables,
which can be controlled in different ways. Depending on
On routine operating days, the operator checks the sys- the operational philosophy of the designer/planner/man-
tem to see that pH is being controlled, takes and analyzes ager, the operating labor cost can be minimized or
water samples, checks instruments (flow, temperature, maximized over a very broad range. In the case of a
pressure), and makes entries in daily logs. The only very high production plant, the operating labor require-
exceptions to the normal routine include special activities ment is not significantly larger than that for a very small
including but not limited to arsenic analyses in treatment treatment plant. Therefore, depending on relative sala-
plant lab, equipment maintenance, and chemical tank ries, the resulting cost per 1,000 gal can range from a
truck deliveries. During the remainder of the time, the few cents to more than a dollar. In proper perspective,
operator is able to operate and maintain other systems the operating labor cost should fall in the $0.02 to $0.30/
(distribution, pumps, storage, etc.), read meters, or handle 1,000-gal range.
other municipal responsibilities (e.g., operate sewage
treatment plant). There should always be a second oper- If the treatment plant in the example in Appendix B had
ator available to take over in case of an emergency; that used automatic operation in place of manual operation,
individual should be well versed in the operation of the the operating labor costs might be lower. However,
plant. because a higher skilled operator is required to maintain
and calibrate the more sophisticated instrumentation and
Using the example treatment plant presented in Appen- control equipment, the operating labor cost may not be
dix B, the cost of operational labor will be as follows (it is lower. Therefore, no reduction of operating labor cost is
assumed that the hours not used for treatment plant assumed for systems with automatic operation.
operation will be efficiently used on other duties):
For the example presented in Appendix B, there are
Given: three additional operational concepts for which labor
Flowrate: = 570 gpm costs should be considered. They are as follows:
Annual average utilization: = 50%
Number of regenerations per year: = 4 The first concept applies to the activated alumina meth-
Operator annual salary: = $30,000 od with spent media replacement and pH adjustment.
Overhead and fringe benefits: = 30% For that operational concept, the treatment runs are the
Available hours per year: = 2,000/man same duration and the day-to-day operator requirements
are the same. However, the media replacement effort for
Then: a large treatment vessel is larger. The resulting labor
Number of hours on requirement and resulting costs are as follows:
regeneration/year: 4×8 = 32 hr
Number of hours on routine Number of hours on spent media
operations/year: 1 × (365−4) = 361 hr replacement/year: 4 × 20 = 80 hr
Number of hours on extra Number of hours on routine
tasks/year: 50 × 3 hr = 150 hr operations/year: 1 × (365−4) = 361 hr
Total plant operator time: = 543 hr Number of hours on extra
tasks/year: 50 × 3 hr = 150 hr

59
 Total plant operator time: 591 hr 6.2.3 Utility Cost
Total labor cost: 591 hr/year × $19.50/hr = The utility cost is normally electric utility. However, there
$11,525/year also can be telephone and natural gas (or oil) utility
costs. Telephone service to the treatment building is
Labor cost/1,000 gal: recommended as a safety precaution in case of accident
$11,525/149,800 (1,000 gal) = $0.08/1,000 gal. as well as operator convenience. Cost for that service
should be the minimum available monthly rate. Depend-
The second concept applies to the activated alumina ing upon the local climate, the cost for heating can vary.
example method with spent media replacement without The purpose of the building is to protect the equipment
pH adjustment. This operational concept entails much from elements (primarily freezing), not for operator com-
lower media arsenic capacity. For this example, the acti- fort. Normally the treatment units act as heat sinks, main-
vated alumina media capacity reduces from 38,940 mg/ft3 taining an insulated building at a temperature near that
(600 grains/ft3) to 5,192 mg/ft3 (80 grains/ft3). The spent of the raw water. In cold climates, the building should
media replacement frequency increases from 4/year to have an auxiliary heat source to prevent freezing of
30/year. pipes in the event that the water is not flowing. If the
client determines that the treatment building is to serve
The resulting labor requirements and tasks are as additional functions, heating to a comfort temperature
follows: could be an additional required cost.
Number of hours on spent media Electric power will be needed for the following functions:
replacement/year: 30 × 12 = 360 hr
Number of hours on routine labor 1. Chemical pumps
requirements/year: 1 × (365−30) = 335 hr
Number of hours on extra tasks/year: 2. pH controls
20 × 3 hr = 60 hr
Total plant operator time: 755 hr 3. Caustic storage tank immersion heater
4. Lighting
Total labor cost: 755 hr/year × $19.50/hr =
$14,723/year 5. Convenience receptacle

Labor cost/1,000 gal: 6. Aeration unit blower (optional)

$14,723/149,800 (1,000 gal) = $0.098/1,000 gal. 7. Repressurization pump (optional)
The third concept applies to the other adsorptive media 8. Extra load on well pump for regeneration/backwash
that can be applied to arsenic removal treatment system wastewater, and loss of head through the treatment
with spent media replacement without pH adjustment. system.
Furthermore, the arsenic removal capacity may be such
that the spent media need only be replaced once per Items 1, 2, 4, and 5 are negligible. Item 3 is a function of
year. The resulting labor and cost requirements are as the climate and the heat losses through the insulation.
follows: Provisions to conserve energy for this function should be
incorporated. Item 6 is a relatively small load (1-3 hp
Number of hours on spent media blower motor). Item 7 is potentially the biggest electrical
replacement/year: 1 × 20 = 20 hr load. This requirement only exists when aeration is used
Number of hours on routine to adjust treated water pH, and the water is pumped to
operations/year: 1 × (365−1) = 364 hr an elevated storage tank. This electrical load can be
Number of hours on extra tasks/year: equal to the well pump motor load. However, when
20 × 3 hr = 60 hr repressurization is a requirement, then the well pump
Total plant operator time: 444 hr should be modified to reduce its discharge pressure
capability to only that which is required to pump the raw
Total labor cost: 444 hr/year × $19.50/hr = water through treatment into the clearwell in place of the
$8,658/year pressure to pump to the elevated storage tank. Then the
net increase of electrical energy consumption is nearly
Labor cost/1,000 gal: negated. Item 8 amounts to 3-5% of the well pump elec-
$8,658/149,800 (1,000 gal) = $0.06/1,000 gal. trical energy consumption.

60
The electrical utility rates also vary considerably from tering such conditions an upstream filter (e.g., bag filter)
one geographic location to another. In August 2001, should be evaluated.
rates varied from $0.03 to $0.20/kWh. The electrical util-
ity cost can range from $0.005 to $0.02 per 1,000 gal A typical pricing structure for a representative activated
under normal conditions. Under abnormal conditions, the alumina product suitable for arsenic removal is provided
cost could be 5¢/1,000 gal or higher. in Table 6-1.

6.2.4 Replacement Treatment

Media Cost Table 6-1. Price for Typical −28, +48 Mesh
Activated Alumina
The consumption of treatment media per regeneration (a)
Quantity Price
for a system with process water pH adjustment and spent
2,000–10,000 lb $1.00/lb
media regeneration in a well-operated activated alumina
12,000–20,000 lb 0.90/lb
arsenic removal water treatment plant should be 5% of
22,000–38,000 lb 0.75/lb
the bed volume. However, there are additional ways in
40,000 lb and over 0.70/lb
which the media can be lost.
(a) August 2001 prices.

The loss of media occurs during regeneration. In order to

remove virtually all of the arsenic from the grains of acti-
vated alumina with a 5% NaOH regenerant solution, a A conservative bed replacement estimate is 20% per
small amount of aluminum is dissolved. This is a process year. In the example in Appendix B where two 380 ft3
requirement because the attractive forces between the beds are used, the media replacement will be:
arsenic and the alumina are extremely strong.
2 × 380 ft3 × 45 lb/ft3 × $.70/lb × 0.2 = $4,788/year
During regeneration and neutralization, excessively high
and/or low pH contact will attack the treatment media. If $4,788/149,800 (1,000 gal) = $0.032/1,000 gal.
the pH of the regeneration solution exceeds the recom-
mended 5% NaOH, the solution becomes increasingly As discussed in Section 6.2.2, there are three additional
aggressive to the activated alumina. Similarly, if the pH operational concepts for which replacement media costs
of the neutralization solution is lower than pH 2.0, a will be considered, they are as follows:
more severe dissolving of the alumina takes place. Sam-
ples taken during the regeneration cycle should period- The first concept applies to the activated alumina exam-
ically be analyzed for aluminum. ple method with spent media replacement and pH adjust-
ment. As pointed out, four spent treatment beds will be
Backwash, if conducted carelessly, also can result in replaced per year.
media carry over. An excessive backwash rate can
expand the treatment media by an amount that carries the Therefore, the media replacement cost for this treatment
adsorptive media out of the vessel resulting in loss of mode is:
media. Monitoring the backwash water will detect and
provide prevention of that. If backwash water flows into 4/year (380 ft3) (45 lb/ft3) × $0.70/lb = $47,880/year
the wastewater surge tank, the lost media can be recov- The replacement treatment media cost/1,000 gal =
ered.
$47,880/year
= $0.32/1,00 0 gal
A final way for the media to be lost is through the effluent 149,800 (1,000 gal)
underdrain (collection system) within the bed. If media
grains ever appear in the treated effluent, the treatment The second concept applies to the activated alumina
unit should be immediately taken out of service for example method with spent media replacement without
inspection (and repair) of the collection system. pH adjustment. This operational concept entails very low
media arsenic capacity. The spent media replacement
Media replacement costs are difficult to predict. Signifi- frequency increases from 4/year to 30/year. Therefore,
cant media replacement can occur at a treatment plant the media replacement cost for this treatment mode is:
where backwash at an excessive rate for an extensive
period has been required to remove filtered solids from 30/year (380 ft3) (45 lb/ft3) × $0.70/lb = $359,100/year
the media. A plant in which suspended solids in the raw
water require frequent extended backwashing is vulner- The replacement treatment media cost/1,000 gal is
able to loss of media problems. For systems encoun-

61
 $359,100/year replacement pump heads) should be kept in stock in the
= $2.40/1,00 0 gal treatment plant, to prevent extended plant shutdown in
149,800 (1,000 gal)
the event a part is required. Also included are consum-
ables such as laboratory reagents (and glassware), and
The third concept applies to the other adsorptive media recordkeeping supplies. An operating cost allowance of
that can be applied to arsenic removal water treatment $0.01/1,000 gal of treated water is conservative.
systems with spent media replacement without pH
adjustment. Furthermore, the arsenic removal capacity
may be so much greater than activate alumina that the 6.3 Operating Cost Summary
spent media need only be replaced once per year.
These media have been reported to cost from $1 to The range of adsorptive media arsenic removal water
$4/lb. treatment plant operating costs discussed above are
summarized in Table 6-2. As has been pointed out, the
Therefore, if that arsenic removal capacity is verifiable, range of costs is very broad.
then the media replacement cost using $1/lb for this
treatment mode is: For adsorptive media arsenic removal water treatment
plants in which flowrates, raw water arsenic concentration,
1/year (380 ft3) (45 lb/ft3) × $1.00/lb = $17,100/year raw water analyses (pH, alkalinity, silica, sulfate, etc.),
adsorptive media, labor rates, and utility rates vary from
the values used in the example in Appendix B, the oper-
The replacement treatment media cost/1,000 gal is: ating costs will deviate from those indicated in Table 6-2.
The information included in this subsection provides a
$17,100/year method for the determination of an operating cost esti-
= 0.11¢/1,00 0 gal mate for any adsorptive media arsenic removal water
149,800 (1,000 gal)
treatment plant.

6.2.5 Replacement Parts and

Miscellaneous Material Costs
This is a very small operational cost item. Replacement
parts (e.g., chemical, pump diaphragms, seals and

Table 6-2. Operating Cost Tabulation for an Activated Alumina Plant(a)

Operating Cost Items

Flowrate: 570 gpm Dollars/1,000 Gal Treated Water
Manual Operation Activated Alumina Activated Alumina Activated Alumina Other Adsorptive Media
with Spent Media with Spent Media with Spent Media with Spent Media
Replacement Replacement Regeneration Replacement
(c)
without pH Adjustment with pH Adjustment with pH Adjustment without pH Adjustment
Treatment Chemicals – acid 0.00 0.08 0.09 0.00
– caustic 0.00 0.22 0.25 0.00
(b)
Operating Labor 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06
Utility 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01
Replacement Treatment Media 2.40 0.32 0.03 0.11
Replacement Part and Misc. Material 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Total 2.52 0.73 0.47 0.19
(a) Wastewater and waste solids, processing and disposal not included.
(b) Applicable to automatic operation.
(c) Cost to oxidize As(III) to As(V) not included.

62
 7.0 References

American Public Health Association–American Water 021. United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Works Association–Water Environment Federation. National Risk Management Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewaters, 19th ed. A.E. Greenberg (Ed.), American Lowry, J.D., and S.B. Lowry. 2002. Oxidaton of As(III) by
Public Health Association, Washington, DC. Aeration and Storage. EPA/600/R-01/102. United States
Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Man-
Battelle. 2002. Cost Estimating Program for Arsenic agement Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
Removal by Small Drinking Water Facilities. Developed
for the United States Environmental Protection Agency, Rubel, F. 1981. Report on Investigation of Alcoa F-1
National Risk Management Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH. Activated Alumina for Removal of Excess Arsenic from
December. Potable Water. Aluminum Company of America, P.O.
No. TC331114TC. December 11.
Clifford, D., L. Ceber, and S. Chow. 1983. “Arsenic(III)/
Arsenic(V) Separation by Chloride-Form Ion-Exchange Rubel, F. 1984. Concept Design Report of Arsenic
Resins.” Proceedings of the XI AWWA WQTC. Removal Water Treatment Plants at Fallon, Nevada.
Department of the Navy, Contract No. N62474-81-C-
Edwards, M., S. Patel, L. McNeill, H. Chen, M. Frey, 8532. May 14.
A.D. Eaton, R.C. Antweiler, and H.E. Taylor. 1998. “Con-
siderations in As Analysis and Speciation.” J. AWWA Rubel, F., and F. Williams. 1980. Pilot Study of Fluoride
(March): 103-113. and Arsenic Removal from Potable Water. EPA-600/2-
80-100. August.
Ficklin, W.H. 1982. “Separation of Arsenic (III) and Arse-
nic (V) in Groundwaters by Ion Exchange.” Talanta, Wang, L., A. Chen, T. Sorg, and K. Fields. 2002. “Field
30(5): 371-373. Evaluation of Arsenic Removal by IX and AA.” J. AWWA,
94:4: 161.
Ghurye, G., and D. Clifford. 2001. Laboratory Study on
the Oxidation of Arsenic III to Arsenic V. EPA/600/R-01/

63
 Appendix A

Summary of Subsystems Including Components

The items that are designated as “optional” are not man- f. Aeration subsystem(optional)
datory requirements. Some of those items may already i. Air blower (optional)
be included in systems other than treatment and there- ii. Clearwell (optional)
fore, would be redundant. Other items, though desirable, g. Booster or repressurization pump (optional)
are not mandatory. Automatic and semiautomatic opera- h. Disinfection injection (optional)
tion is optional. Therefore, for each instrument and con- i. Isolation valve
trol item, though not indicated for clarity, there is an
automatic option. 4. Raw Water Bypass Main
a. Flow control
For Schematic Flow Diagram, see Figure A-1. b. Flowrate measurement, flow total
c. Backflow preventer
1. Raw Water Influent Main d. Isolation valve
a. Flow control
b. Flowrate measurement, flow total 5. Backwash/Regeneration Feed Main (optional)
c. Acid injection for pH adjustment a. Flow control
d. In-line static mixer b. Flowrate measurement, flow total
e. pH measurement, indicator, alarm, and fail-safe c. Caustic injection for pH adjustment
control d. Acid injection for pH adjustment
f. Pressure indicator e. In-line static mixer
g. Pressure control (optional) f. pH measurement
h. Backflow preventer g. Sample after pH adjustment piped to sample
i. Sample before pH adjustment piped to sample panel (optional)
panel (optional) h. Backflow preventer
j. Sample after pH adjustment piped to sample i. Isolation valve
panel (optional)
k. Isolation valve 6. Wastewater Main (optional)
l. Temperature indicator (optional) a. Backflow preventer
b. Process isolation valves
2. Intervessel Pipe Manifold c. Acid injection for pH adjustment
a. Process control valves d. Coagulation chemical injection
b. Pressure indicators e. In-line static mixer
c. Sample piped to sample panel (optional) f. Sample after chemical injection piped to sample
panel (optional)
3. Treated Water Effluent Main
a. Caustic injection for pH adjustment 7. Treatment Unit
b. In-line static mixer a. Pressure vessel
c. pH measurement, indicator, alarm and fail-safe b. Treatment media
control c. Internal distribution and collection piping
d. Sample after pH adjustment piped to sample d. Pressure relief valve
panel (optional) e. Air/vacuum valve
e. Pressure indicator f. Operating platform and/or ladder (optional)

65
Figure A-1. Flow Diagram for Dual Vessel Series Downflow Treatment System with pH adjustment with
Regeneration of Spent Media

66
8. Sample Panel (optional) iii. Between feed pumps and regeneration feed
a. Manifolds and wastewater mains injection points
i. Influent manifold (influent main sample and (optional)
raw water samples from each treatment iv. Backflow prevention
vessel after pH adjustment)
ii. Effluent manifold (effluent main sample after 10. Caustic Storage and Feed Subsystem
pH adjustment, treated water samples from a. Emergency shower and eye wash, signage
each treatment vessel and wastewater b. Caustic storage tank (outside treatment building)
manifold sample after pH adjustment and i. Fill, discharge, drain, vent, and overflow
chemical injection) piping
iii. pH indicator (influent sample manifold and ii. Liquid level sensor (optional)
effluent sample manifold) iii. Immersion heater with temperature control
iv. Sample collection spigots with drain iv. Weather protection
b. Wet chemistry laboratory bench with equipment, v. Containment basin (optional)
glassware, reagents, etc. c. Caustic day tank (inside treatment building)
i. Fill line float valve
9. Acid Storage and Feed Subsystem ii. Drain valve
a. Emergency shower and eyewash, signage iii. Containment basin (optional)
b. Acid storage tank (outside treatment building) d. Caustic piping (interconnecting piping)
i. Fill, discharge, drain, vent, and overflow i. Between storage tank and day tank
piping ii. Between feed pump and, regeneration feed
ii. Liquid level sensor (optional) main injection point (optional)
iii. Desiccant air dryer in vent (optional) iii. Between feed pump and treated effluent
iv. Weather protection main injection point (optional)
v. Containment basin iv. Backflow prevention
c. Acid day tank (inside treatment building)
i. Fill pipe float valve 11. Backwash Water Disposal System (optional)
ii. Drain valve a. Surge tank (optional)
iii. Containment basin b. Unlined evaporation pond (optional)
d. Acid pumps c. Sewer (optional)
i. Treatment unit pH adjustment d. Drainage ditch (optional)
ii. Neutralization pH adjustment e. Other discharge method (optional)
iii. Wastewater pH adjustment (optional)
e. Acid piping (interconnecting piping) 12. Toxic Regeneration Wastewater Disposal System
i. Between storage tank and day tank a. Surge tank (optional)
ii. Between feed pumps and raw water b. Wastewater reclamation system (optional)
injection point c. Other discharge method (optional)

67
 Appendix B

Treatment System Design Example

This design example is applicable to a specific manually

operated activated alumina arsenic removal water treat- Solve for: h (treatment bed depth)
ment system employing treatment process pH adjust- d (treatment bed diameter)
ment and regeneration of spent treatment media. This A (treatment bed horizontal surface area)
design example is adaptable to any other arsenic removal V (treatment bed volume)
adsorptive media treatment system by deletion of equip- Mw (total weight of treatment media)
ment and/or adjustment of equipment size as described D (vessel outside diameter)
in Chapter 3.0. This example is applicable to any of the H (vessel overall height)
following combinations of options:
When EBCT = 5 min, then flowrate = 1½ gpm/ft3
1. Replacement of spent media in place of regeneration media.
2. Deletion of treatment process pH adjustment
3. Application of other adsorptive media in place of Then, q = 570 gpm; therefore
activated alumina
4. Adjustment of EBCT 570 gpm
5. Adjustment of flowrate V= = 380 ft 3
1.5 gpm/ft 3
6. Adjustment of arsenic concentration
7. Adjustment of raw water chemical analysis
8. Automatic operation in place of manual operation. Then, when h = 5 ft,

Given: V 380 ft 3
A= = = 76 ft 2
q (flowrate) = 570 gpm h 5 ft
N (number of treatment trains) = 1
n (number of treatment vessels/train) = 2
4A 4 × 76 ft 2
Raw water arsenic concentration = 0.100 mg/L Then, d 2 = = = 96.76 ft 2
Arsenic MCL = 0.010 mg/L π π
Treated water arsenic design concentration =
0.008 mg/L (max) Then, d = 9.83 ft = 9• 10•
Activated alumina arsenic removal capacity =
1,376 g/m3 (600 grains/ft3) Then, D = d + 1• = 9• 11•, therefore use D = 10• 0•
(Note: Indicated capacity applies only to system with (then, A = 77.2 ft2)
raw water 0.100 mg/L arsenic concentration and
treatment process pH adjusted to 5.5) (9.92) 2 × 5π
Md (media density) = 45 lb/ft3 Then, V = = 386 ft 3
4
EBCT = 5 min
Pipe material–Type I Schedule 80 PVC, Then, Mw = 2 vessels × 386 ft3 × 45 lb/ft3 = 34,800 lb
v (pipe velocity) = 5 ft/second (max.)
p (system pressure): 50 psig (max.) Because the media quantity is almost a 40,000 lb
T (ambient temperature): 95°F (max.) truckload, it is prudent to procure a truckload quantity.
Tw (water temperature): 85°F (max.)
Then the treatment vessel dimensions (see Figure 3-
1. Vessel and Treatment Bed Design (reference: 5) are as follows:
Figure 3-5)

69
 The storage tank supplies a polypropylene day
H = h + h/2 + 6• + (2)D/4 + 1• = tank located inside of the treatment building. A
100-gal day tank will satisfy more than 200% of
60• + 30• + 6• + 2 (120•/4)+ 1• = 157• = 13• 1• the maximum treatment process pH adjustment
acid requirements (41 gal/day) for maximum
D = 10•0• treatment flow of 820,800 gal for one day.
2. Pipe Sizing c. Acid Pump Size
Solve for: Sizes for all water pipe mains The acid feedrate required for the treatment
process pH adjustment function is: 570 gpm ×
Mains: q = 570 gpm (max) 60 min/hr × 0.05 gal acid/1,000 gal water =
Try 6•, v = 6.5• / sec. > 5• / sec., therefore NG 1.71 gph
Try 8•, v = 3.6• / sec. < 5• / sec., therefore OK
Use 8• Schedule 80 PVC The acid feedrate required for the treatment
process pH adjustment function (1.71 gph) is
Backwash rate is not to exceed rate required for satisfied by a positive displacement diaphragm
50% treatment bed expansion. pump that has a maximum flowrate of 2.5 gph
@ 50 psig with a 1,000:1 turndown capability
Then, backwash rate = A × 7 gpm/ft2 = 77.2 ft2 × (materials of construction to be recommended
7 gpm/ft2 = 540 gpm <570 gpm, therefore OK. (Note: for 66°B• H2SO4 service).
The backwash rate is sensitive to water temperature.)
For neutralization of the treatment bed after
3. Acid Subsystem Design completion of regeneration and the regeneration
(Note: This subsystem is not applicable for systems wastewater flowing from the treatment vessel to
that do not include treatment process pH adjustment.) the regeneration wastewater surge tank two
additional acid feed pumps are required (Note:
a. Storage Tank Size For systems that replace spent media in place of
regeneration, this equipment is not applicable.)
Storage tank size is based upon logistical require- The rule of thumb relating to the volume of acid
ments which are a function of treatment plant required to be applied to accomplish both func-
acid consumption rate and bulk tank truck deliv- tions is 1 gal/ft3 (activated alumina), or 386 gal/
eries of acid. The tank truck can deliver up to regeneration. The acid feed for these two func-
48,000 lb of 66°B• H2SO4. The density of this tions will take place over a period of 4 to 6 hr.
liquid is 15.5 lb/gal. Therefore, a delivery con- The first pump feeds acid into the regeneration
tains 3,100 gal. feedwater main to adjust the pH initially to 2.5,
then to 4.0, and finally at completion of the
In this example the peak treatment flow is neutralization to 5.5. The second pump feeds
570 gpm, and it is assumed that the acid con- acid into the wastewater main at a rate required
sumption (determined by titration) is 0.05 gal/ to adjust the pH of the entire wastewater batch
1,000 gal treated water. Then the acid consump- to a range of 6.0 to 6.5. This latter acid feed
tion is 1.71 gal/hr. Then, a tank truckload would requirement can take place at a constant rate
supply a minimum of 1,800 hr of treatment oper- that will provide the necessary wastewater pH
ation. Acid consumption for raw water pH reduc- for the volume of the entire wastewater batch
tion, which is a function of total alkalinity and (thoroughly mixed in the wastewater surge tank)
free CO2, is discussed in Appendix C. at the conclusion of the regeneration process.
The two acid feed pumps required for the two
A 5,000-gal acid storage tank provides capacity functions can be identical air-operated dia-
for more than 1½ bulk tank truckloads of 66°B• phragm pumps with maximum flowrate of 2 gpm
H2SO4. Therefore, when half a truckload has at 50 psig with a 100:1 turndown capacity
been consumed (providing capacity for the next (materials of construction to be recommended
truckload delivery), there is a minimum of a for 66°B• H2SO4 service).
900-hr (37 days) acid supply available in storage A 5-hp air compressor with a 60-gal receiver
before the acid supply is exhausted. capable of supplying 14.7 cfm at 175 psig com-
pressed air. The air compressor will supply com-
b. Day Tank Size pressed air for both air-operated diaphragm acid

70
 feed pumps, the air-operated diaphragm caustic c. Caustic Pump Size
soda feed pump, and (for automatic operation)
the pneumatic-operated process control butterfly The caustic feedrate required for the treatment
valves. If there is a wastewater sludge dewater- process pH adjustment function is: 570 gpm ×
ing system, the air compressor will be available 60 min/hr × 0.135 gal caustic/1,000 gal water =
to operate the air-operated diaphragm pump (for 4.6 gph.
sludge transfer) and the plate and frame filter
press. The caustic feedrate required for the treatment
process pH adjustment function (4.6 gph) is satis-
4. Caustic Subsystem Design fied by a positive displacement diaphragm pump
(Note: This subsystem is not applicable for systems that has a maximum flowrate of 5 gph @ 50 psig
that do not include treatment process pH adjust- with a 1,000:1 turndown capability (materials of
ment) construction to be recommended for 50% NaOH
service).
a. Storage Tank Size
For regeneration of the activated alumina treat-
Storage tank size is based upon logistical require- ment bed two regeneration steps are required
ments which are a function of treatment plant utilizing 15 gal of 5% NaOH/ft3 per step. (Note:
caustic consumption rate and bulk tank truck For systems that replace spent media in place of
deliveries of caustic. The tank truck can deliver regeneration this equipment is not applicable.)
up to 48,000 lb of 50% NaOH. The density of
this liquid is 12.9 lb/gal. Therefore, a delivery The following calculations provide the volume
contains 3,700 gal. and flowrate of 50% NaOH required per regen-
eration.
In this example the peak treatment flow is
570 gpm, and it is assumed that the caustic con- Given:
sumption (determined by titration) is 0.135 gal/ d1 = density 5% NaOH = 8.8 lb/gal
1,000 gal treated water. Then the caustic con- d2 = density 50% NaOH = 12.9 lb/gal
sumption is 4.6 gal/hr. Then, a tank truckload v1 = volume 5% NaOH/regeneration step-ft3 =
would supply a minimum of 800 hr of treatment 15 gal/step-ft3
operation. n = number of steps = 2 (upflow and downflow)
V = 386 ft3 (activated alumina)
A 5,000-gal caustic storage tank provides
capacity for more than 1¼ bulk tank truckloads Find:
of 50% NaOH. Therefore, when 75% of a truck- w1 = weight of 5% NaOH/step-ft3
load has been consumed (providing capacity for v2 = volume 50% NaOH required/regeneration
the next truckload delivery), a minimum of 900 gal step
remains, which provides a 200-hr (8-day) caustic
supply available in storage before the caustic Then: w1 = v1(d1) = 15 gal/ft3 × 8.8 lb/gal =
supply is exhausted. Note: When the supply 132 lb/step-ft3
remaining in the storage tank provides capacity
for a bulk tank truck delivery, spent media regen- Then: 100% NaOH = 132 lb/step-ft3 × .05 =
eration (if applicable) will be deferred until after 6.6 lb/step-ft3
caustic delivery.
Then: 50% NaOH =
b. Day Tank Size
100% NaOH × 2 = 13.2 lb/step - ft 3 =
The storage tank supplies a polypropylene day
tank located inside of the treatment building. A 13.2 lb/step - ft 3
500-gal day tank will satisfy more than 200% of = 1 gal/step - ft 3
12.9 lb/gal
the maximum treatment process pH adjustment
caustic requirements (110 gal/day) for maximum
treatment flow of 820,800 gal for one day as well Then: v2 = 1 gal/step-ft3 × 386 ft3 = 386 gal/step
as the requirement for one step of the two-step
spent media regeneration.

71
 Then: If, step duration is 60 min, Number of cubic feet of media per regeneration =
386 ft3
386 gal Tank construction – epoxy interior lined carbon steel
50% NaOH flowrate = = 6.4 gpm
60 minutes
Find:
Then: Total 50% NaOH required per regenera- Volume of wastewater per regeneration = 400 gal/ft3
tion = v2 × n = 386 gal/step × 2 steps = 772 gal. × 386 ft3 = 155,000 gal = 20,600 ft3

The caustic feed pump required for this function Dimensions of surge tank (use height = 20 ft)
will be an air-operated diaphragm pump with
maximum flowrate of 15 gpm at 50 psig with 4 × 20,600 ft 3
Then, (diameter) 2 = = 1,310 ft 2
100:1 turndown capability (materials of construc- π × 20 ft
tion to be recommended for 50% NaOH service.
The recommended air compressor for the acid Then, diameter = 36 ft
air-operated diaphragm pumps also will provide
the compressed air for this function. Then tank dimensions = 36• N × 20• h

5. Regeneration Wastewater Surge Tank Design Suggested Containment Basin Dimensions: length
80 ft, width 72 ft, height 4 ft; volume = 22,430 ft3 =
Given: 168,200 gal >155,000 gal.
Maximum volume of regeneration wastewater per
cubic foot media = 400 gal/ft3

72
 Appendix C

Discussion of Acid Consumption Requirements for pH Adjustment of Raw

Water

This manual discusses acid titration as the practical Then, increase in free CO2 (M multiplied by 0.88),
method used to determine the acid feed requirement for 200 × 0.88 = 176 mg/L
lowering the raw water pH to 5.5. However, this also can
be accomplished theoretically when a raw water analysis Then, total free CO2 = 176 + 4 = 180 mg/L
is available and raw water samples are not. This method
requires the pH, the total alkalinity (M as mg/L CaCO3), Then, using graph we find that the pH is 5.4 when:
and/or the free carbon dioxide (CO2 as mg/L) from the
raw water analysis in addition to the graph illustrated in a. M = 20 mg/L (as CaCO3)
Figure C-1. If only two of the three raw water analysis b. CO2 = 180 mg/L. Therefore, NG.
items are available, the third is determined by the graph.
The pH curves illustrated in Figure C-1 were developed Therefore, too much alkalinity was removed. Try
from theoretical chemical formulae which integrate the reducing M by 196 mg/L (as CaCO3) to 24 mg/L (as
relationship between pH, alkalinity and free CO2. CaCO3).

Trial-and-error usage of these curves rapidly leads the Then, increase in free CO2 = 196 mg/L × 0.88 =
user to the acid feed requirement for the desired pH 172.5 mg/L
adjustment. The objective is to determine the amount of
alkalinity reduction that is required to lower the pH to the Then, total free CO2 = 172.5 + 4 = 176.5 mg/L.
desired amount, and then to convert the alkalinity reduc-
tion to acid addition. The user should be aware of the Then, using graph we find that the adjusted raw
fact that the reduction in alkalinity coincides with the water pH is 5.5 when:
corresponding increase in free CO2. The following exam-
ples best illustrate this method: a. M = 24 mg/L CaCO3
b. CO2 = 176.5 mg/L. Therefore, OK.
Example 1:
2. For each 100 mg/L (as CaCO3) reduction of total
Given: alkalinity, 105 mg/L 66°B• H2SO4 will be added.
Raw water pH = 8.0 Therefore, reduce M by 196 mg/L (as CaCO3) by
Raw water M = 220 mg/L as CaCO3 feeding 1.96 mg/L (CaCO3) × 105 mg/L H2SO4/mg/L
Raw water CO2 = 4 mg/L CaCO3 = 205.8 mg/L H2SO4 to adjust raw water pH
to 5.5. If we desire to find what acid feedrate would
Find: be required per 1,000 gal of treated water, we find
1. M and free CO2 for pH adjusted to 5.5 that:
2. 66°B• H2SO4 required feedrate to adjust pH
to 5.5 Feedrate = (205.8 × 10−6 mg/L) ×
(1,000 gal × 8.34 lb/gal) / (15.5 lb/gal) =
1. Try reducing M by 200 mg/L (as CaCO3) to 20 mg/L 0.11 gal H2SO4 / 1,000 gal water
(as Ca CO3)

73
Figure C-1. Graph of pH as a Function of Total Alkalinity and Free Carbon Dioxide

Example 2: Then, using the graph we find the adjusted pH to be

5.75 when:
Given:
Raw water M = 100 mg/L (as CaCO3) a. M = 20 mg/L (as CaCO3)
Free CO2 = 6 mg/L b. CO2 = 76.4 mg/L. Therefore, NG.

Find: Therefore, too little alkalinity was removed, try reduc-

1. Raw water pH ing M by 87 mg/L (as CaCO3) to 13 mg/L CaCO3).
2. M and free CO2 for pH adjusted to 5.5
Then, increase in free CO2 = 76.5 + 6 = 82.5 mg/L
3. 66°B• H2SO4 required feedrate to adjust pH
to 5.5 Then, using the graph we find the adjusted pH to be
5.55 when:
1. From graph we find raw water pH to be 7.5
a. M = 13 mg/L (as CaCO3)
2. Try reducing M by 80 mg/L (as CaCO3) to 20 mg/L b. CO2 = 82.5 mg/L. Therefore, NG.
(as CaCO3)
Therefore, too little alkalinity was removed; try reduc-
Then, increase in free CO2 = 80 × 0.88 = 70.4 mg/L ing M by 88 mg/L (as CaCO3) to 12 mg/L CaCO3).

Then, total free CO2 = 70.4 + 6 = 76.4 mg/L Then, increase in free CO2 = 88 × 0.88 = 77.5 mg/L

74
Then, total free CO2 = 77.5 + 6 = 83.5 mg/L 3. Therefore, reduce M by 88 mg/L (as CaCO3) by
feeding 0.88 × 105 mg/L H2SO4/100 mg/L CaCO3 =
Then, using the graph we find the adjusted raw 92.4 mg/L 66°B• H2SO4 to adjust raw water pH to 5.5
water pH to be 5.5 when:
Acid feedrate = (92.4 × 10−6 mg/L) ×
a. M = 12 mg/L (as CaCO3) (1,000 gal × 8.34 lb/gal) / (15.5 lb/gal) =
b. CO2 = 83.5 mg/L. Therefore, OK. 0.05 gal H2SO4 / 1,000 gal water

75
 Appendix D

Tabulations of Estimated Capital Cost Breakdowns for Arsenic Removal

Water Treatment Plants by Means of the Activated Alumina Process
at Typical and Ideal Locations

Contents
D-1 Typical Locations with Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent Media, and Without Process Water pH
Adjustment

D-2 Typical Locations with Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent Media, and with Process Water pH Adjustment

D-3 Typical Locations with Manual Operation, Spent Media Regeneration, and with Process Water pH Adjustment

D-4 Typical Locations with Automatic Operation, Spent Media Regeneration, and Process pH Adjustment

D-5 Ideal Locations with Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent Media, and Without Process Water pH
Adjustment

D-6 Ideal Locations with Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent Media, and with Process Water pH Adjustment

D-7 Ideal Locations with Manual Operation, Spent Media Regeneration, and with Process Water pH Adjustment

D-8 Ideal Locations with Automatic Operation, Spent Media Regeneration, and Process pH Adjustment

77
Table D-1. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Typical
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent
Media, and Without Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 7 9 13 21 21 32 32 32
Instrument and Controls 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 7
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Subtotal 40 51 69 102 114 140 147 151
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 19 24 25 29 29 31 31 31
Electrical 6 6 7 8 9 10 10 10
Painting and Miscellaneous 5 6 8 9 9 10 10 10
Subtotal 30 36 40 46 47 51 51 51
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Building and Concrete 26 29 35 35 35 40 40 40
Site Work and Miscellaneous 8 9 11 12 13 14 14 14
Subtotal 34 38 46 47 48 54 54 54
Contingency 10% 11 13 16 20 21 25 26 26
Total 115 138 171 215 230 270 278 282
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

Table D-2. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Typical
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent
Media, and With Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 8 10 15 24 24 36 36 36
Instrument and Controls 8 8 9 10 10 11 11 11
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 40 40 40 40 40 40
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 3 4 4 5 6 6 6 6
Subtotal 48 60 119 154 167 194 201 205
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 21 27 29 35 35 43 43 43
Electrical 8 8 10 13 15 17 17 17
Painting and Miscellaneous 6 6 7 11 11 13 13 13
Subtotal 35 41 46 59 61 73 73 73
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Building and Concrete 34 37 48 58 58 62 62 62
Site Work and Miscellaneous 9 10 12 13 14 15 15 15
Subtotal 43 47 60 71 72 77 77 77
Contingency 10% 13 15 23 29 30 35 36 36
Total 139 163 248 313 330 379 387 391
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

78
Table D-3. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Typical
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Spent Media
Regeneration, and With Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 11 18 21 32 32 49 49 49
Instrument and Controls 13 13 14 15 15 16 16 16
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 40 40 40 40 40 40
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 13
Subtotal 59 76 134 172 185 218 226 230
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 24 30 32 38 38 46 46 46
Electrical 8 8 10 13 15 17 17 17
Painting and Miscellaneous 6 6 7 11 11 13 13 13
Subtotal 38 44 49 62 64 76 76 76
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank 20 35 50 75 95 110 130 140
Building and Concrete 34 37 48 58 58 62 62 62
Site Work and Miscellaneous 14 15 18 20 21 23 23 23
Subtotal 68 87 116 153 174 195 215 225
Contingency 10% 17 21 30 39 43 49 52 54
Total 182 228 329 426 466 538 569 585
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

Table D-4. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Typical
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Automatic Operation, Spent Media
Regeneration, and Process pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 17 25 29 42 42 64 64 64
Instrument and Controls 58 60 61 63 63 66 66 66
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 40 40 40 40 40 40
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 14
Subtotal 111 131 190 231 244 284 292 296
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 29 35 37 44 44 51 51 51
Electrical 28 28 30 33 35 41 41 41
Painting and Miscellaneous 6 6 7 11 11 13 13 13
Subtotal 63 69 74 88 90 105 105 105
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank 20 35 50 75 95 110 130 140
Building and Concrete 34 37 48 58 58 62 62 62
Site Work and Miscellaneous 14 15 18 20 21 23 23 23
Subtotal 68 87 116 153 174 195 215 225
Contingency 10% 25 29 38 48 51 59 62 63
Total 267 316 418 520 569 643 674 689
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

79
Table D-5. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Ideal
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent
Media, and Without Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 7 9 13 21 21 32 32 32
Instrument and Controls 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 7
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Subtotal 40 51 69 102 114 140 147 151
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 17 22 23 27 27 29 29 29
Electrical 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 7
Painting and Miscellaneous 0 5 7 7 7 8 8 8
Subtotal 24 30 34 39 40 44 44 44
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Building and Concrete 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Site Work and Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Contingency 10% 7 9 11 15 16 19 20 20
Total 74 93 117 160 174 208 216 220
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

Table D-6. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Ideal
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Replacement of Spent
Media, and With Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 8 10 15 24 24 36 36 36
Instrument and Controls 8 8 9 10 10 11 11 11
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 3 4 4 5 6 6 6 6
Subtotal 48 60 79 114 127 154 161 165
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 19 25 27 33 33 40 40 40
Electrical 5 5 7 10 12 14 14 14
Painting and Miscellaneous 4 4 5 9 9 11 11 11
Subtotal 28 34 39 52 54 65 65 65
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Building and Concrete 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Site Work and Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Contingency 10% 8 10 12 17 19 22 24 24
Total 87 107 128 187 204 236 255 259
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

80
Table D-7. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Ideal
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Manual Operation, Spent Media
Regeneration, and With Process Water pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 11 18 21 32 32 49 49 49
Instrument and Controls 13 13 14 15 15 16 16 16
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 13
Subtotal 59 76 94 132 145 178 186 190
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 21 27 29 35 35 43 43 43
Electrical 4 4 6 9 11 13 13 13
Painting and Miscellaneous 4 4 5 9 9 11 11 11
Subtotal 29 35 40 53 55 67 67 67
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Building and Concrete 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Site Work and Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
Contingency 10% 10 12 14 19 21 25 26 27
Total 101 126 151 208 225 274 284 289
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

Table D-8. Estimated Capital Cost(a) Breakdowns for Central Arsenic Removal Water Treatment Plants at Ideal
Locations by Means of the Activated Alumina Process With Automatic Operation, Spent Media
Regeneration, and Process pH Adjustment (Multiply by $1,000)

Treatment Flowrate (gpm) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Process Equipment
Treatment Vessels 26 31 38 55 62 71 76 80
Treatment Media 3 7 13 20 25 30 32 32
Process Piping, etc. 17 25 29 42 42 64 64 64
Instrument and Controls 58 60 61 63 63 66 66 66
Chemical Storage Tanks N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chemical Pumps, Piping, etc. 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 14
Subtotal 111 131 150 191 204 244 252 256
Process Equipment Installation
Mechanical 26 32 34 41 41 48 48 48
Electrical 23 23 25 28 30 36 36 36
Painting and Miscellaneous 4 4 5 9 9 11 11 11
Subtotal 53 59 64 78 80 95 95 95
Misc. Installed Items
Wastewater Surge Tank 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Building and Concrete 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6
Site Work and Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6
Contingency 10% 17 20 22 28 29 35 36 36
Total 185 214 240 302 318 380 389 393
(a) August 2001 prices.
Note: Engineering, exterior utility pipe and conduit, wastewater and waste solids processing system, finance charges, real estate cost and taxes
not included.

81
 Appendix E

Alternative Methods for Removing Media from Very Small System Tanks

1. Pressurized Canister 3. Inverter

Fabricate a special cap for the top of the adsorptive Drain the water from the media. Construct a piece of
media tank. Drill two holes in the cap approximately equipment out of 2-inch steel angles that is approxi-
1 inch in diameter. Screw the cap onto the top of the mately one-half the height of the media tank. The media
tank. Attach a hose to each hole. Force raw water into tank should be strapped to the device and then inverted.
the tank through the first hose. Slowly lower the second The media in the tank will partially fall out into a wide,
flexible plastic hose down through the other opening in low-rise, pan. Use a hose stream to flush the inside of
the cap to the top of the media level. Turn on the water the tank clean. Strain out the larger support gravel from
pressure so as to force media out of the second hose. the flat pan and return it to the tank, along with new
Pipe the water/media mixture to disposal barrels. adsorptive media, once the tank is replaced in an upright
orientation.
The depth of the escape pipe should be adjustable;
probably using a friction fitting through a rubber cap or 4. Gravity Discharge from a Sidewall Flange
rubber washer. Movement capability (“wiggle”) in the
vertical alignment of the escape pipe will allow media to With this process, a gate valve or bolted flange connec-
be removed from the lower sides of the media bed. tion should be specified when the pressure tank was
being fabricated. The position of this fitting will be approx-
2. Industrial Wet/Dry Vacuum imately at the interface of the support media and adsorp-
tive media. When rebedding, the valve or flange is
Drain the water from the media. Hang a vacuum hose opened and the media then falls, or is flushed, into a
from a support above the tank opening with the open low-rise decant tub, where the water and media are
suction end hanging into the media. Vacuum out the separated. The media then is shoveled into the disposal
media. Remove media from vacuum compartment. For barrels. The media tanks must be elevated to allow the
this method, a high-powered motor/fan from an industrial decant tub to be placed below the outlet gate valve or
vacuum cleaner has been used, by mounting it on a flange. A process water line should be mounted near the
large barrel. When the first barrel was filled with media, top of the pressure tank to provide the wash water to
the motor/fan was remounted on the second barrel while flush out the media. A small pump will be needed to
the first barrel was capped and made ready for pickup/ address the decant water.
disposal.

83
 Appendix F

English to Metric Conversion Table

English Multiply by Metric

Inch 0.0254 meter (m)
Inch2 0.000645 m2
inch3 0.000016 m3
feet (ft) 0.3048 m
ft2 0.0929 m2
ft3 0.0283 m3
gallon (gal) 0.2642 liter (L)
gal 0.0038 m3
gal 0.0038 kiloliter (kL)
grains (gr) 0.0649 gram (g)
gr/ft3 2.2919 g/m3
pounds (lb) 0.4545 kilogram (kg)
lb/inches2 (psi) 0.00689 megapascals (MP)
lb/ft2 (psf) 4.8922 kg/m2
c/1,000 (gal) 0.2642 c/1,000 L

85