Problem 6.

(a) A rectangular section metal bar

has a width of 10 mm and can support a maximum

compressive stress of 20 MPa; determine the

minimum breadth of the bar when loaded with a

force of 3 kN. (b) If the bar in (a) is 2 m long and

decreases in length by 0.25 mm when the force is

applied, determine the strain and the percentage

strain.

(a) Since stress, σ = force

area

then, area, A = 6

3000N

20 10 Pa

Fs

= 150 × 10–6 m2 = 150 mm2

Cross-sectional area = width × breadth, hence

breadth = area 150

width = 10 = 15 mm

(b) Strain, ε = contraction 0.25

original length = 2000 = 0.000125

Percentage strain = 0.000125 × 100 = 0.0125%

Problem 7. A pipe has an outside diameter of

25 mm, an inside diameter of 15 mm and length

0.40 m and it supports a compressive load of

40 kN. The pipe shortens by 0.5 mm when the load

is applied. Determine (a) the compressive stress

(b) the compressive strain in the pipe when

supporting this load.

Compressive force F = 40 kN = 40000 N,

and cross-sectional area A = ( 2 2 )

4Ddπ

−,

where D = outside diameter = 25 mm

and d = inside diameter = 15 mm.

Hence, 2 2 2

2262

42

4 (25 15 )mm

4 (25 15 ) 10 m

Now, from equilibrium conditions

P = F1 + F2

i.e. P = σ1A1 + σ2A2 (2.7)

Substituting equation (2.6) into equation (2.7) gives:

P=21

A1 + σ2A2 = σ2

11

2
2

EAAE

= σ2

1122

AEAE

E+

Rearranging gives: σ2 = ( )

PE

AE+AE

Problem 4. A bar 1.60 m long contracts axially

by 0.1 mm when a compressive load is applied to

it. Determine the strain and the percentage strain.

Strain ε = =

==

contraction

original length

mm

mm

01

1 60 10

01

1600
3

. 0.0000625

Percentage strain = 0.0000625 × 100 = 0.00625%

Problem 5. A wire of length 2.50 m has a percentage

strain of 0.012% when loaded with a

tensile force. Determine the extension of the wire.

Original length of wire = 2.50 m = 2500 mm

and strain = 0.012

100 = 0.00012

Strain ε = extension

originallength

L hence,

extension x = εL = (0.00012)(2500) = 0.30 mm

Problem 6. (a) A rectangular section metal bar

has a width of 10 mm and can support a maximum

compressive stress of 20 MPa; determine the

minimum breadth of the bar when loaded with a

force of 3 kN. (b) If the bar in (a) is 2 m long and

decreases in length by 0.25 mm when the force is

applied, determine the strain and the percentage

strain.

(a) Since stress, σ = force

area

A
then, area, A = 6

3000N

20 10 Pa

Fs

= 150 × 10–6 m2 = 150 mm2

Cross-sectional area = width × breadth, hence

breadth = area 150

width = 10 = 15 mm

(b) Strain, ε = contraction 0.25

original length = 2000 = 0.000125

Percentage strain = 0.000125 × 100 = 0.0125%

Problem 7. A pipe has an outside diameter of

25 mm, an inside diameter of 15 mm and length

0.40 m and it supports a compressive load of

40 kN. The pipe shortens by 0.5 mm when the load

is applied. Determine (a) the compressive stress

(b) the compressive strain in the pipe when

supporting this load.

Compressive force F = 40 kN = 40000 N,

and cross-sectional area A = ( 2 2 )

4Ddπ

−,

where D = outside diameter = 25 mm

and d = inside diameter = 15 mm.

Hence, 2 2 2

2262
42

4 (25 15 )mm

4 (25 15 ) 10 m

3.142 10 m

=−

=−×

=×

Aπ

(a) Compressive stress, σ = 4 2

40000N

3.142 10 m

A−=

= 12.73 × 107Pa

= 127.3 MPa

(b) Contraction of pipe when loaded,

x = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m, and original length

L = 0.40 m. Hence, compressive strain,

ε=
0.0005

0.4

xL

= = 0.00125 (or 0.125%)

Problem 8. A circular hole of diameter 50 mm is

to be punched out of a 2 mm thick metal plate. The

shear stress needed to cause fracture is 500 MPa.

Determine (a) the minimum force to be applied

to the punch, and (b) the compressive stress in the

punch at this value.

(a) The area of metal to be sheared, A = perimeter of

hole × thickness of plate.

Perimeter of hole = πd = π(50 × 10–3) = 0.1571 m.

Hence, shear area, A = 0.1571 × 2 × 10–3

= 3.142 × 10–4 m2

Since shear stress =

force

area ,

shear force = shear stress × area

= (500 ×â•›106 × 3.142 × 10–4) N

= 157.1 kN,

which is the minimum force to be applied to the punch.

(b) Area of punch =

2 (0.050)2

44

πdπ

= 0.001963 m2

The effects of forces on materialsâ•… 27

Part Two

Compressive stress

force
area =

157.1 10 N

0.001963m

= 8.003 × 107 Pa = 80.03 MPa,

which is the compressive stress in the punch.

Problem 9. A rectangular block of plastic

material 500 mm long by 20 mm wide by 300 mm

high has its lower face glued to a bench and a force

of 200 N is applied to the upper face and in line

with it. The upper face moves 15 mm relative to

the lower face. Determine (a) the shear stress, and

(b) the shear strain in the upper face, assuming the

deformation is uniform.

(a) Shear stress, τ =

force

area parallel to theforce

Area of any face parallel to the force

= 500 mm × 20 mm

= (0.5 × 0.02) m2 = 0.01 m2

Hence, shear stress, τ = 2

200N

0.01m

= 20000 Pa or 20 kPa

(b) Shear strain, γ =

xL
(see side view in Figure 2.6)

15

300 = 0.05 (or 5%)

Figure 2.6

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 12â•…_Further problems

on strain

1. A wire of length 4.5 m has a percentage

strain of 0.050% when loaded with a tensile

force. Determine the extension in the wire.

[2.25 mm]

2. A metal bar 2.5 m long extends by 0.05 mm

when a tensile load is applied to it. Determine

(a) the strain, (b) the percentage strain.

[(a) 0.00002 (b) 0.002%]

3. An 80 cm long bar contracts axially by

0.2 mm when a compressive load is applied

to it. Determine the strain and the percentage

strain. [0.00025, 0.025%]

4. A pipe has an outside diameter of 20 mm,

an inside diameter of 10 mm and length

0.30 m and it supports a compressive load of

50 kN. The pipe shortens by 0.6 mm when

the load is applied. Determine (a) the compressive

stress, (b) the compressive strain in

the pipe when supporting this load.

[(a) 212.2 MPa (b) 0.002 or 0.20%]

5. When a circular hole of diameter 40 mm is

punched out of a 1.5 mm thick metal plate,

the shear stress needed to cause fracture is

100 MPa. Determine (a) the minimum force

to be applied to the punch, and (b) the compressive

stress in the punch at this value.

[(a) 18.85 kN (b) 15.0 MPa]

6. A rectangular block of plastic material

400 mm long by 15 mm wide by 300 mm

high has its lower face fixed to a bench and

a force of 150 N is applied to the upper face

and in line with it. The upper face moves

12 mm relative to the lower face. Determine

(a) the shear stress, and (b) the shear strain in

the upper face, assuming the deformation is

uniform. [(a) 25 kPa (b) 0.04 or 4%]

2.7â•… Elasticity, limit of proportionality

and elastic limit

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to

its original shape and size on the removal of external

forces.

Plasticity is the property of a material of being permanently

deformed by a force without breaking. Thus if a

material does not return to the original shape, it is said

to be plastic.

Within certain load limits, mild steel, copper, polythene

and rubber are examples of elastic materials; lead

and plasticine are examples of plastic materials.

28â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part Two

If a tensile force applied to a uniform bar of mild steel

is gradually increased and the corresponding extension

of the bar is measured, then provided the applied force

is not too large, a graph depicting these results is likely

to be as shown in Figure 2.7. Since the graph is a

straight line, extension is directly proportional to the

applied force.

Figure 2.7

The point on the graph where extension is no longer

proportional to the applied force is known as the limit

of proportionality. Just beyond this point the material

can behave in a non-linear elastic manner, until the

elastic limit is reached. If the applied force is large,

it is found that the material becomes plastic and no

longer returns to its original length when the force is

removed. The material is then said to have passed its

elastic limit and the resulting graph of force/extension

is no longer a straight line. Stress, σ = F

A , from Section

2.5, and since, for a particular bar, area A can be considered

as a constant, then F α σ.

Strain ε = xL

, from Section 2.6, and since for a particular

bar L is constant, then x α ε. Hence for stress

applied to a material below the limit of proportionality

a graph of stress/strain will be as shown in Figure 2.8,

and is a similar shape to the force/extension graph of

Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.8

2.8â•… Hooke’s law

Hooke’s law states:

Within the limit of proportionality, the extension of a

material is proportional to the applied force

It follows, from Section 2.7, that:

Within the limit of proportionality of a material, the

strain produced is directly proportional to the stress

producing it

Young’s modulus of elasticity

Within the limit of proportionality, stress α strain, hence

stress = (a constant) × strain

This constant of proportionality is called Young’s

modulus of elasticity and is given the symbol E.

The value of E may be determined from the gradient

of the straight line portion of the stress/strain graph.

The dimensions of E are Pascals (the same as for stress,

since strain is dimension-less).

E = sε

Pa

Some typical values for Young’s modulus of elasticity,

E, include:

Aluminium alloy 70 GPa (i.e. 70 × 109 Pa), brass

90 GPa, copper 96 GPa, titanium alloy 110 GPa, diamond

1200 GPa, mild steel 210 GPa, lead 18 GPa,

tungsten 410 GPa, cast iron 110 GPa, zinc 85 GPa,

glass fibre 72 GPa, carbon fibre 300 GPa.

Stiffness

A material having a large value of Young’s modulus is

said to have a high value of material stiffness, where

stiffness is defined as:

Stiffness = F

force

extension

For example, mild steel is a much stiffer material than

lead.

Since E =

sε

,σ=F

A and ε = xL

then E =

AxL

= FL

Ax = F L

xA

i.e. E = (stiffness) × LA

The effects of forces on materialsâ•… 29

Part Two

Stiffness Fx

is also the gradient of the force/extension

graph, hence

E = (gradient of force/extension graph)

LA

Since L and A for a particular specimen are constant,

the greater Young’s modulus the greater the material

stiffness.

Problem 10. A wire is stretched 2 mm by a force

of 250 N. Determine the force that would stretch

the wire 5 mm, assuming that the limit of proportionality

is not exceeded.

Hooke’s law states that extension x is proportional to

force F, provided that the limit of proportionality is not

exceeded, i.e. x α F or x = kF where k is a constant.

When x = 2 mm, F = 250 N,

thus 2 = k(250), from which,

constant k = 2

250 = 1

125

When x = 5 mm, then 5 = kF

i.e. 5 = 1

125
F

from which, force F = 5(125) = 625 N

Thus to stretch the wire 5 mm, a force of 625 N is

required.

Problem 11. A tensile force of 10 kN applied to a

component produces an extension of 0.1 mm.

Determine (a) the force needed to produce an extension

of 0.12 mm, and (b) the extension when

the applied force is 6 kN, assuming in each case

that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

From Hooke’s law, extension x is proportional to

force F within the limit of proportionality, i.e. x α F or

x = kF, where k is a constant. If a force of 10 kN

produces an extension of 0.1 mm, then 0.1 = k(10),

from which, constant k = 0.1

10 = 0.01

(a) When an extension x = 0.12 mm, then

0.12 = k(F), i.e. 0.12 = 0.01 F, from which,

force F = 0.12

0.01 = 12 kN

(b) When force F = 6 kN, then

extension x = k(6) = (0.01)(6) = 0.06 mm

Problem 12. A copper rod of diameter 20 mm

and length 2.0 m has a tensile force of 5 kN

applied to it. Determine (a) the stress in the rod

(b) by how much the rod extends when the load is

applied. Take the modulus of elasticity for copper

as 96 GPa.

(a) Force F = 5 kN = 5000 N and cross-sectional area

A=

πd

= (0.020)2

= 0.000314 m2

Stress, σ =

A=2

5000N

0.000314m

= 15.92 × 106 Pa = 15.92 MPa

(b) Since E =

sε

then strain ε =

15.92 10 Pa

96 10 Pa E

s×

= 0.000166

Strain ε =
xL

, hence extension,

x = εL = (0.000166)(2.0) = 0.000332 m

i.e. extension of rod is 0.332 mm

Problem 13. A bar of thickness 15 mm and having

a rectangular cross-section carries a load of

120 kN. Determine the minimum width of the bar

to limit the maximum stress to 200 MPa. The bar,

which is 1.0 m long, extends by 2.5 mm when

carrying a load of 120 kN. Determine the modulus

of elasticity of the material of the bar.

Force, F = 120 kN = 120000 N and cross-sectional area

A = (15x)10–6 m2, where x is the width of the rectangular

bar in millimetres.

Stress σ =

A , from which,

A=6

120000N

200 10 Pa

Fs

= 6 × 10–4 m2

= 6 × 10–4 × 106 mm2

= 6 × 102 mm2 = 600 mm2

Hence, 600 = 15x, from which,

width of bar, x =
600

15 = 40 mm

Extension of bar = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m

Strain ε =

xL

= 0.0025

1.0 = 0.0025

Modulus of elasticity, E = stress

strain =

200 106

0.0025

= 80 × 109 = 80 GPa

30â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part Two

Problem 14. An aluminium alloy rod has a

length of 200 mm and a diameter of 10 mm. When

subjected to a compressive force the length of the

rod is 199.6 mm. Determine (a) the stress in the rod

when loaded, and (b) the magnitude of the force.

Take the modulus of elasticity for aluminium alloy

as 70 GPa.

(a) Original length of rod, L = 200 mm, final length of

rod = 199.6 mm, hence contraction, x = 0.4 mm.

Thus, strain, ε =

0.4

200

xL
= = 0.002

Modulus of elasticity, E = stress

strain

sε

hence stress, σ = Eε = 70 ×â•›109 × 0.002

= 140 ×â•›106 Pa = 140 MPa

(b) Since stress σ =

force

area

A , then force, F = σA

Cross-sectional area, A =

2 (0.010)2

44

πdπ

= 7.854 ×â•›10–5 m2.

Hence, compressive force,

F = σA = 140 ×â•›106 × 7.854 × 10–5 = 11.0 kN

Problem 15. A brass tube has an internal diameter

of 120 mm and an outside diameter of 150 mm and

is used to support a load of 5 kN. The tube is 500

mm long before the load is applied. Determine by

how much the tube contracts when loaded, taking

the modulus of elasticity for brass as 90 GPa.

Force in tube, F = 5 kN = 5000 N, and

cross-sectional area of tube,

A(22)(22)
2

4 4 0.150 0.120

0.006362m

=πD−d=π−

Stress in tube, σ 2

5000N

0.006362m

0.7859 10 Pa

=A=

=×

Since the modulus of elasticity, E =

stress

strain

sε

then strain, ε =

0.7859 10 Pa

90 10 Pa E

s×

= 8.732 × 10–6

Strain, ε =

contraction
original length

L thus,

contraction, x = εL = 8.732 ×â•›10–6 × 0.500

= 4.37 ×â•›10–6 m.

Thus, when loaded, the tube contracts by 4.37 μm

Problem 16. In an experiment to determine the

modulus of elasticity of a sample of mild steel,

a wire is loaded and the corresponding extension

noted. The results of the experiment are as shown.

Load (N) 0 40 110 160 200 250 290 340

Extension

(mm)

0 1.2 3.3 4.8 6.0 7.5 10.0 16.2

Draw the load/extension graph.

The mean diameter of the wire is 1.3 mm and

its length is 8.0 m. Determine the modulus of

elasticity E of the sample, and the stress at the limit

of proportionality.

A graph of load/extension is shown in Figure 2.9

Figure 2.9

E=

AxL

sε

==FL

xA
Fx

is the gradient of the straight line part of the load/

extension graph.

Gradient, Fx

=3

200N

6 10 m

BC

AC − =

= 33.33 × 103 N/m

The effects of forces on materialsâ•… 31

Part Two

Modulus of elasticity = (gradient of graph) L

Length of specimen, L = 8.0 m and cross-sectional area

A = 2 (0.0013)2

44

πdπ

= 1.327 × 10–6 m2

Hence modulus of elasticity,

E = (33.33 × 103) 6

8.0

1.327 10−
 ×

= 201 GPa

The limit of proportionality is at point D in Figure

2.9 where the graph no longer follows a straight

line. This point corresponds to a load of 250 N as

shown.

Stress at the limit of proportionality

= force

area = 6

250

1.327 × 10−

= 188.4 × 106 Pa = 188.4 MPa

Note that for structural materials the stress at the elastic

limit is only fractionally larger than the stress at the

limit of proportionality, thus it is reasonable to assume

that the stress at the elastic limit is the same as the

stress at the limit of proportionality; this assumption

is made in the remaining exercises. In Figure 2.9, the

elastic limit is shown as point F.

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 13â•…_Further problems on

Hooke’s law

1. A wire is stretched 1.5 mm by a force of

300 N. Determine the force that would

stretch the wire 4 mm, assuming the elastic

limit of the wire is not exceeded.

[800 N]
2. A rubber band extends 50 mm when a force

of 300 N is applied to it. Assuming the

band is within the elastic limit, determine

the extension produced by a force of 60 N.

[10 mm]

3. A force of 25 kN applied to a piece of

steel produces an extension of 2 mm.

Assuming the elastic limit is not exceeded,

determine (a) the force required to produce

an extension of 3.5 mm, (b) the extension

when the applied force is 15 kN.

[(a) 43.75 kN (b) 1.2 mm]

4. A test to determine the load/extension

graph for a specimen of copper gave the

following results:

Load (kN) 8.5 15.0 23.5 30.0

Extension (mm) 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14

Plot the load/extension graph, and from

the graph determine (a) the load at an extension

of 0.09 mm, and (b) the extension

corresponding to a load of 12.0 kN.

[(a) 19 kN (b) 0.057 mm]

5. A circular section bar is 2.5 m long and has

a diameter of 60 mm. When subjected to a

compressive load of 30 kN it shortens by

0.20 mm. Determine Young’s modulus of

elasticity for the material of the bar.

[132.6 GPa]
6. A bar of thickness 20 mm and having a

rectangular cross-section carries a load of

82.5 kN. Determine (a) the minimum width

of the bar to limit the maximum stress to

150 MPa, (b) the modulus of elasticity of

the material of the bar if the 150 mm long

bar extends by 0.8 mm when carrying a

load of 200 kN.

[(a) 27.5 mm (b) 68.2 GPa]

7. A metal rod of cross-sectional area

100 mm2 carries a maximum tensile load

of 20 kN. The modulus of elasticity for

the material of the rod is 200 GPa. Determine

the percentage strain when the rod is

carrying its maximum load. [0.10%]

8. A metal tube 1.75 m long carries a tensile

load and the maximum stress in the tube

must not exceed 50 MPa. Determine the

extension of the tube when loaded if the

modulus of elasticity for the material is 70

GPa. [1.25 mm]

9. A piece of aluminium wire is 5 m long and

has a cross-sectional area of 100 mm2. It is

subjected to increasing loads, the extension

being recorded for each load applied. The

results are:

32â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part Two
Load (kN) 0 1.12 2.94 4.76 7.00 9.10

Extension

(mm)

0 0.8 2.1 3.4 5.0 6.5

Draw the load/extension graph and hence

determine the modulus of elasticity for the

material of the wire. [70 GPa]

10. In an experiment to determine the modulus

of elasticity of a sample of copper, a wire

is loaded and the corresponding extension

noted. The results are:

Load (N) 0 20 34 72 94 120

Extension

(mm)

0 0.7 1.2 2.5 3.3 4.2

Draw the load/extension graph and determine

the modulus of elasticity of the

sample if the mean diameter of the wire is

1.23 mm and its length is 4.0 m.

[96 GPa]

2.9â•… Ductility, brittleness and

malleability

Ductility is the ability of a material to be plastically

deformed by elongation, without fracture. This is a

property that enables a material to be drawn out into

wires. For ductile materials such as mild steel, copper

and gold, large extensions can result before fracture

occurs with increasing tensile force. Ductile materials

usually have a percentage elongation value of about

15% or more.

Brittleness is the property of a material manifested

by fracture without appreciable prior plastic deformation.

Brittleness is a lack of ductility, and brittle

materials such as cast iron, glass, concrete, brick and

ceramics, have virtually no plastic stage, the elastic

stage being followed by immediate fracture. Little or

no ‘waist’ occurs before fracture in a brittle material

undergoing a tensile test.

Malleability is the property of a material whereby

it can be shaped when cold by hammering or rolling.

A malleable material is capable of undergoing plastic

deformation without fracture. Examples of malleable

materials include lead, gold, putty and mild

steel.

Problem 17. Sketch typical load/extension

curves for (a) an elastic non-metallic material,

(b) a brittle material and (c) a ductile material.

Give a typical example of each type of material.

(a) A typical load/extension curve for an elastic nonmetallic

material is shown in Figure 2.10(a), and

an example of such a material is polythene.

Figure 2.10

(b) A typical load/extension curve for a brittle material

is shown in Figure 2.10(b), and an example

of such a material is cast iron.

(c) A typical load/extension curve for a ductile material

is shown in Figure 2.10(c), and an example

of such a material is mild steel.

2.10â•… Modulus of rigidity

Experiments have shown that under pure torsion (see

Chapter 11), up to the limit of proportionality, we have

Hooke’s law in shear, where

shear stress

shear strain = rigidity (or shear) modulus

or

tγ

= G (2.1)

where τ = shear stress, γ = shear strain (see Figures 2.5

and 2.6) and G = rigidity (or shear) modulus.

The effects of forces on materialsâ•… 33

Part Two

2.11â•… Thermal strain

If a bar of length L and coefficient of linear expansion α

were subjected to a temperature rise of T, its length will

increase by a distance αLT, as described in Chapter 21.

Thus the new length of the bar will be:

L + αLT = L(1 + αT)

Now, as the original length of the bar was L, then the

thermal strain due to a temperature rise will be:

ε = extension
original length

LT

=a
i.e. thermal strain, ε = αT

However, if the bar were not constrained, so that it can

expand freely, there will be no thermal stress.

If, however, the bar were prevented from expanding

then there would be a compressive stress in the bar.

Now ε =

−+

originallength newlength

originallength

LLT

(1 a )

=LLLT

−−a

i.e. strain, ε = –αT

and, since stress = strain × E,

then σ = – αTE

Problem 18. A steel prop is used to stabilise a

building, as shown in Figure 2.11. (a) If the

compressive stress in the bar at 20°C is 30 MPa,

what will be the stress in the prop if the

temperature is raised to 35°C? (b) At what temperature

will the prop cease to be effective?

Take E = 2 ×â•›1011N/m2 and α = 14 ×â•›10–6/°C.

Figure 2.11
(a) Additional thermal strain, εT = –αT

= –(14 × 10–6/°C) × (35 – 20)°C

i.e. ε T = –14 × 10–6 × 15 = –210 × 10–6

Additional thermal stress, s T = Eε T

= 2 ×â•›1011 N/m2 × (– 210 × 10–6)

i.e. s T = – 42 MPa

Hence, the stress at 35°C = initial stress + s T

= (–30 – 42) MPa

i.e. σ = –72 MPa

(b) For the prop to be ineffective, it will be necessary

for the temperature to fall so that there is no

stress in the prop, that is, from 20°C the temperature

must fall so that the initial stress of 30 MPa

is nullified. Hence, drop in stress = –30 MPa

â•… Therefore, drop in thermal strain

11

30 10 Pa

2 10 Pa E

s−×

= – 1.5 ×â•›10–4

Thermal strain, ε = αT

from which, temperature

T=

4
6

1.5 10

14 10

εa −

−×

= – 10.7°C

Hence, the drop in temperature T from 20°C is

–10.7°C

Therefore, the temperature for the prop to be

ineffective = 20°C – 10.7°C = 9.3°C

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 14â•…_Further problem on

thermal strain

1. A steel rail may assumed to be stress free at

5°C. If the stress required to cause buckling

of the rail is –50 MPa, at what temperature

will the rail buckle? It may be assumed that

the rail is rigidly fixed at its ‘ends’. Take

E = 2 ×â•›1011N/m2 and α = 14 × 10–16/°C.

[22.86°C]

2.12â•… Compound bars

Compound bars are of much importance in a number of

different branches of engineering, including reinforced

34â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part Two
concrete pillars, composites, bimetallic bars, and so on.

In this section, solution of such problems usually involve

two important considerations, namely

(a) compatibility (or considerations of displacements)

(b) equilibrium

N.B. It is necessary to introduce compatibility in

this section as compound bars are, in general, statically

indeterminate (see Chapter 6). The following worked

problems demonstrate the method of solution.

Problem 19. A solid bar of cross-sectional area

A1, Young’s modulus E1 and coefficient of linear

expansion α1 is surrounded co-axially by a hollow

tube of cross-sectional area A2, Young’s modulus

E2 and coefficient of linear expansion α2, as shown

in Figure 2.12. If the two bars are secured firmly

to each other, so that no slipping takes place with

temperature change, determine the thermal stresses

due to a temperature rise T. Both bars have an

initial length L and α1 > α2.

Figure 2.12 Compound bar

There are two unknown forces in these bars, namely F1

and F2; therefore, two simultaneous equations will be

required to determine these unknown forces. The first

equation can be obtained by considering the compatibility

(i.e. ‘deflections’) of the bars, with the aid of

Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 ‘Deflections’ of compound bar

Free expansion of bar (1) = α1 LT

Free expansion of bar (2) = α2 LT

In practice, however, the final resting position of the

compound bar will be somewhere in between these two

positions (i.e. at the position A–A in Figure 2.13). To

achieve this, it will be necessary for bar (2) to be pulled

out by a distance ε2L and for bar (2) to be pushed in by

a distance ε1L, where

ε1 = compressive strain in (1)

and ε2 = tensile strain in (2)

From considerations of compatibility (‘deflection’) in

Figure 2.13,

α1LT – ε1L = α2LT + ε2L

Dividing throughout by L gives:

α1T – ε1 = α2T + ε2

and ε1 = (α1 – α2)T – ε2

Now, σ1 = E1 ε1

and σ2 = E2 ε2 (or ε2 = 2

2E

Hence, σ1 = (α1 – α2) E1T – E1ε2

i.e. σ1 = (α1 – α2) E1T – σ2

E (2.2)

To obtain the second simultaneous equation, it will be

necessary to consider equilibrium of the compound bar.

Let F1 = unknown compressive force in bar (1)

and F2 = unknown tensile force in bar (2)

Now, from equilibrium considerations,

F1 = F2

but σ1 = 1

A and σ2 = 2

Therefore, s 1A1 = s 2A2

or σ1 =

s22

(2.3)

Equating equations (2.2) and (2.3) gives

22

= (α1 – α2)E1T – σ2

2
E

i.e. σ2

E+22

= (α1 – α2)E1T

and 1 2

21

EA

sEA +

= (α1 – α2)E1T

The effects of forces on materialsâ•… 35

Part Two

from which, σ2 = 1 2 1

12

21

()ET

EA

EA

a −a

+
=121

1122

21

()ET

AEAE

EA

a −a

i.e.

()

()

EEAT

AEAE

aa

=+

12121

1122

(tensile) (2.4)

and σ1 = 2 2

i.e.
()

()

EEAT

AEAE

aa

=+

12122

1122

(compressive) (2.5)

Problem 20. If the solid bar of Problem 19 did

not suffer temperature change, but instead was

subjected to a tensile axial force P, as shown in

Figure 2.14, determine σ1 and σ2.

Figure 2.14 Compound bar under axial tension

There are two unknown forces in this bar, namely, F1

and F2; therefore, two simultaneous equations will be

required.

â•… The first of these simultaneous equations can be obtained

by considering compatibility, i.e.

deflection of bar (1) = deflection of bar (2)

or d1 = d2

But d1 = ε1L and d2 = ε2L

Therefore, ε1L = ε2L

or ε1 = ε2

Now, ε1 = 1
1E

and ε2 = 2

2E

Hence, 1

1E

=2

2E

or 2 1

s = s (2.6)

The second simultaneous equation can be obtained by

considering the equilibrium of the compound bar.

Let F1 = tensile force in bar (1)

and F2 = tensile force in bar (2)

Now, from equilibrium conditions

P = F1 + F2

i.e. P = σ1A1 + σ2A2 (2.7)

Substituting equation (2.6) into equation (2.7) gives:

P=21

E
E

A1 + σ2A2 = σ2

11

EAAE

= σ2

1122

AEAE

E+

Rearranging gives: σ2 = ( )

PE

AE+AE

1122

(2.8)

Since 2 1

s=
then σ1 = ( )

PE

AE+AE

1122

(2.9)

N.B. If P is a compressive force, then both σ1 and σ2

will be compressive stresses (i.e. negative), and viceversa

if P were tensile.

Problem 21. A concrete pillar, which is reinforced

with steel rods, supports a compressive

axial load of 2 MN.

(a)â•…_Determine stresses σ1 and σ2 given the following:

For the steel, A1 = 4 × 10–3 m2 and

E1 = 2 × 1011 N/m2

For the concrete, A2 = 0.2 m2 and

E2 = 2 × 1010 N/m2

(b)â•…_What percentage of the total load does the

steel reinforcement take?

(a) From equation (2.9),

σ1 = – 1
( 1 1 2 2)

PE

AE+AE

=–()

6 11

3 11 10

2 10 2 10
4 10− 2 10 0.2 2 10

×××

×××+××

=–()

17 17 9

888

4 10 4 10 10

8 10 40 10 48 10 12

××

==

×+××

= – 83.3 × 106

i.e. the stress in the steel,

σ1 = – 83.3 MPa