GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)

BY
ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

GENERAL BIOLOGY
Activities of Living Things
Introduction
Biology (bois, means life, logos, means knowledge) is a science devoted to the study of living organisms.
Science has progressed by breaking down complex subjects of study into their component parts so that today there
are numerous branches of biology, this principles is often called “reductionist” principle and carried to its logical
conclusions, it has focused attention on the most elementary forms of matter in living and non-living system. The
aim of biology must ultimately be to explain the living world in terms of scientific principles, although appreciating
that organisms behave in ways which often seen beyond the capabilities of their component parts. All that we can
do is to describe the observable phenomena that distinguish living matter from non-living matter. These are as
follows.
All living things manifest certain characteristics. They demonstrate the ability to use energy from the environment
for survival and carry out their various activities. For continuous survival, protoplasm must be added. Waste must
be gotten rid of. New ones or offspring must be produced. Seven characteristics distinguish living things from non-
living things. These are: 1. Nutrition 2. Respiration 3. Irritability 4. Movement 5. Waste elimination 6. Reproduction
7. Growth
Characteristics of living organisms
These are activities which distinguish living things from non-living things, they includes:.

a. Nutrition: Nutrition is the ability of living organisms to feed. The reason for feeding is to enable living things
to live and carry out life processes. Like growth. Reproduction etc. Living things take in. materials from their
surroundings that they use for growth or to provide energy. Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain
energy and raw materials from nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
b. Growth: this is defined as an irreversible increase in size or height of organisms. It involves using food to
produce new cells. The permanent increase in cell number and size is refers to as growth. Growth is seen in all
living organisms.
c. Movement: is the ability of an organism to move its own body or part of its body from one place to another.
Living organism move in order to look for food. Reproduction or run away from danger or respond to environment.
All living things move. Plants also move in many different ways. The movement may be so slow that it is very
difficult to see or notice.
d. Irritability: This is defined as the ability of organisms to respond to stimuli. All living things are able to
sense and respond to stimuli around them such as light, temperature, water, gravity and chemical substances. The
response can be quick or slow.

e. Respiration: is the exchange of gases between organisms and their environment. Animal for example take
in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.

Respiration involves the release of energy from food substances in all living cells. Living things break down food
within their cells to release energy for carrying out the following processes.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
f. Excretion: is defined as the removal of metabolic waste products from the body. The purpose of excretion
is to remove waste products from the body. All living things excrete. As a result of the many chemical reactions
occurring in cells, they. have to get rid of waste products which might poison the cells. Excretion js defined as the
removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and substances in excess from the body of living
organism.

g. Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to give birth to young ones. Reproduction occurs in two
forms. Asexual reproduction and· sexual reproduction. All living organisms have the ability to produce offspring's.

h. Death: This is the permanent termination of all vital functions or life processes in an organism or cell. It can
occur as a result of an accident, medical conditions, biological interaction, malnutrition, poisoning, senescence, or
suicide. After death, organisms are recycled by the ecosystem, providing energy and nutrients for other living
creatures. The remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical cycle. Organisms may be consumed by a
predator or a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms
that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. These characteristics of living
organisms. They form the basis of the study of Biology.

i. Adaptation: it can be said to be the living organisms get used to their various environment in such a way that
they would be comfortable. This is done in order to survive.

j. Competition: it is the ability of living things to struggle for all the necessities of life in order to survive in
their various environment. Living things compete for food, light, space, water and even mating partners in order to
survive and be in continuous existence.

The Cell, Its General Structure and Activities

The Cell Concept
Diversity of Cells
Cells are of different kinds, different sizes shapes and form. But there is one thing common among them, they all
possess nucleus and cytoplasm with other organelles structure of kinds of cells.
A cell can be define as the fundamental unit of life, it is the building block of every living organisms. It was 1st
found by Robert Hook in 1665, while examining the cork materials under the microscope, he found out that the cork
materials of little chambers which it finally turned out as cell. Cells occur in variety of shape and sizes, some are
big and can be seen with naked eye, similarly some can only be seen by the use of microscope or magnified lens.
E.g. Onions cell and amoeba can only be seen with the help of a magnified lens.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and functions in living organisms. Two scientists, Schlieden and Schwann
proposed what is commonly known as cell theory in 1838 and 1839 respectively. In 1855, another idea that new
cells can only come from pre-existing cells was proposed.
An easy way of looking at cells is to consider them as a bag of chemicals that is capable of surviving and multiplying
itself. The chemical constituent of each bag is such that it is different in many ways from those outside it. If this

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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

difference cannot be maintained, life could not exist. The barrier is a very thin membrane called the cell surface
membrane. It serves as a border control point regulating the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.

Structure of plant cell

Plant cells are bounded by a relatively rigid cell which is formed by the secretion of the protoplasm (living cell)
within it. When plant cells divide, primary walls are formed. As the wall continues to thicken, it may later become
a secondary wall. Another way of looking at cells is to see them as a small unit of living protoplasm surrounded by
a non-living wall in the case of plants. In the case of animal cells, it is always a cell surface membrane. The most
prominent structure in the cell the nucleus. It contains a deep staining material known as chromatin. Chromosomes
which contain the genetic material (DNA) of the plant cell are regulated by the DNA which is capable of replicating
itself so that new cells can be formed. Between the nucleus and the cell surface membrane, there is a living material
known as cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains another distinct part of the cell that has a particular structure and
function. It is called organelle.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
Structure of Animal Cell Diagram

Diagram of animal cell

The similarities and differences between plant cells and animal cells. The diameter of a typical animal cell
is about one hundred of a millimeter (l00 um pronounced ten micrometer). It is bounded by a cell surface membrane,
which encloses the protoplasm. At the centre of the cell is the nucleus which controls the activities of the cell. The
nucleus is surrounded by the cytoplasm. The protoplasm embraces the nucleus and cytoplasm. A nuclear envelop
bounds the nucleus (a dense body) and fine deep staining threads called chromatin.
Differences between Plant Cell and Animal Cell
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cellulose cell wall present Cellulose cell wall absent
Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent
A large central vacuole Small central vacuole
Cell wall is not rigid a relatively rigid cell wall
Absent of cilia in plant cell Cilia are found in animal cell
Present of plastid as chlorophyll Absent of plastid
Present of plasmodesmata Absent of plasmodesmata

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

Similarities between plant and animal cells

a. Both have nucleus.

b. Both have cytoplasm.
c. Both have vacuole.
d. Both have mitochondria.
e. Both have Golgi bodies
f. Both have Ribosomes
CELL WALL: This is the outside region surrounding a plant cell, it is freely permeable to small molecules.
CELL MEMBRANE: This is equivalent to the cell wall of a plant and it is found in animal cell, it is a thin elastic
membrane producing important varieties between interior and exterior of the cell, it is semi permeable allowing
easy movement of water and small molecules to pass through, while other molecules like sodium and protein
molecules move through it with difficulties.
PLASMA MEMBRANE: Is the inner flexible layer surrounding the cytoplasm, it is usually tidily press against the
cell wall or cell membrane, and this is because of the presence of the cytoplasmic fluid.
CYTOPLASM: This consist of all substances enclosed by the plasma membrane excluding the nucleus, it is a
complex heterogeneous materials consisting of watery medium known as ground substance, it contains all the cell
organelles and pigments, the ribosomes, the vacuole reserves deposit of sugar and all other materials are contain in
this medium.
PROTOPLAST: This comprises of all content of cell minus cell wall or cell membrane i.e. cytoplasm plus nucleus,
the protoplast is the living part of the cell.
TONOPLAST: Is the membrane surrounding the vacuoles of a cell.
NUCLEUS: This contains semi fluid medium in which the genetic materials chromosomes are suspended in it, it is
the control center of the cell.
NUCLEA MEMBRANE: It is a semi permeable membrane between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
RIBOSOMES: This are small round bodies that are found free in the cytoplasm or attach to the endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosome sets for protein synthesis.
MITICHONDRIA: This are spherical or rough shape bodies found in the cell cytoplasm, they are surrounded by
membrane similar to cell membrane, they contain enzymes that carry out oxidation of food substances that can be
used by the cell in carrying out its other activity, they usually found aggregated in most active region of the cells
and it is refer to as power house.
GOLGI APARATUS: Is a sac of membrane lied sacs it is continuously formed at one end and broken up as bubbles
of vesicle at the other end. This vesicle carry exports materials like enzymes and hormones which the cell makes,
they move toward the plasma membrane and transport the materials out of the cells, this is known as Exocytosis,
thus Golgi apparatus is said to park and export materials from the cell.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
Function of Golgi apparatus
1. It serve as packaging devices
2. It also help in protein synthesis
3. It plays an important role in the synthesis of complex polysaccharide such as lucus and the component of
the cell wall.
4. It is also found to manufacturing additional cell membrane so as to replay those use during formation of
vacuole.
VACOULE: In plants a large central vacuole is usually found in a matured cell, it is lined with a membrane and
filled with a cell sab, cell sab act as a store house for many substances including excretory products.
LYSOSOMES: These are cell organelles above the size of a mitochondria, they contain enzymes that catalyze the
breakdown of polysaccharide, protein and nucleic acid. This enzymes are kept within the lysosomes so that they
don’t destroy the cell itself, harmful particles, bacteria and nonfunctional mitochondria in the cell that are to be
digested are first incorporated into lysosome before being digested. When a cell is dead or injured, it lysosome helps
to disintegrate and clear up the injured area so that healthy cells can replace the bad ones.
Some historically important events in cell biology
 1590 Jansen invented the compound microscope, which combines two lenses for greater magnification.
 1665 Robert Hooke, using an improved compound microscope, examined cork and used the term "cell" to
describe its basic units. He thought the cells were empty and the walls were the living material.
 1650-1700 Antony van Leeuwenhoeck, using a good quality simple lens (mag.x200), observed nuclei and
unicellular organisms, including bacteria. In 1676 bacteria were described for the first time as `animalcules.'
 1700-1800 further descriptions and drawings published, mainly of plant tissues, although the microscope
was generally used as a toy.
 1827 Dolland dramatically improved the quality of lenses. This was followed by a rapid spread of interest
in microscopy.
 1831-3 Robert Brown described the nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in plant cells. 1838-9
Schleiden (a botanist) and Scheann (a zoologist)
 1840 Purkyne gave the name protoplasm to the contents of cells, realising that the latter were the living
material not the cell walls. Later the term cytoplasm was introduced (cytoplasm + nucleus = protoplasm).
 1855 Virchow showed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.
 1828 Haeckel established that the nucleus was responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary characters.
 1866-88 Cell division studied in detail and chromosomes described
 1880-3 Chloroplasts discovered.
 1890 Mitochondria discovered.
 1898 Golgi apparatus discovered
 1887-1990 Improvements in microscopes, fixatives, stains and sectioning. Cytology+ started to become
experimental. Cytogenetics+, with its emphasis on the functioning of the nucleus in heredity, became a
branch of cytology.
 1900-1990 Mendel's work, forgotten since 1865, was rediscovered giving an impetus to cytogenits. Light
microscopy had almost reached the theoretical limits of resolution, thus slowing down the rate of progress.
 1930s Electron microscope developed, enabling much improved resolution.
 1946-date Electron microscope became widely used in biology, revealing much more detailed structure in
cells. This `fine' structure is called ultrastructure.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

Cell Activities
Cell Division
A cell must be existing to give birth to another cell. Biologist refer to that s `Cell coming from pre-existing cell.
Cells multiply to keep the organism growing (increase). Even where the organism has substantially stopped growing,
cells still multiply to renew old and dead cells. Cell division is very active at the tip of a typical plant (Apex).
In general two groups of living organism exist, depending on the nuclear materials. This group of cells are
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
PROKARYOTIC CELL: This are lower organisms whose nuclear materials are in form of nucleoid instead of
definite nucleus. Prokaryotic cell lack most of nuclear plasmic organelles, there is no nuclear membrane, and they
also lack other membranous structure such as Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes etc. many of the function
of the mitochondria are carried out by the inner surface of the plasma membrane.
EUKARYOTIC CELL: This are more advance where cell are surrounded by double membrane (cell membrane and
plasma membrane) and their genetics materials are contained in the nucleus e.g. Eukaryotic are in plant cell and
animal cell. Cell division is necessary for two main reasons in all living organisms, this process are…
1. For growth
2. For reproduction
In all we have two types of cell division namely Mitosis and Meiosis. Cell division involves the division of the
cell cytoplasm and nucleus into two daughter nuclei depending on the type of division i.e. two daughter cell in case
of mitosis and four daughter cells in case of meiosis.
Mitotic division (vegetative cell division) i.e. multiplication division is aimed at growth, for reproduction meiotic
division i.e. reduction division is required.

MITOSIS: (Reproductive cell division)

Is a process by which cell nucleus divide to produce two daughter nuclei each containing identical set of
chromosomes as the parents. For instance, if the parent’s cells has ten (10) pairs of chromosomes after mitosis each
daughter cell will have ten (10) pairs of chromosomes. Mitotic cell division is usually start with one cell and ends
up with million numbers of cell, each having the same number of chromosomes as the parents, this has resulted in
growth and size.
In this division the division of the nucleus is flowed immediately by an equal division of the cytoplasm, this is
referred to as cytokinesis. After the division of the cytoplasm the cell wall in case of plant or cell membrane in case
of animals is formed. This is eventually followed by the separation of the two daughter cells. Mitosis only occurs
in somatic tissues which are ordinary body cells, such as, liver cells, skin cells, etc
Stages during cell division in mitosis, There are five phases:
1. Interphase: This stage is of variable duration depending on the function of the cell, it is the period when
they carried out synthesis of organelles and increase in size.
2. Prophase: At this stage each chromosomes shortens and thickens and is seen to consist of two (2) chromatids
and the centromere begin to separate.
3. Metaphase: At this stage the nuclear membrane disappear, a spindle fibre is formed, the chromosomes line
up across the equatorial region of the cell and became attached to the spindle fibre at their centromeres.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
4. Anaphase: At this stage the sister chromatids are polled apart of the opposite polls of the cell and the spindle
fibre contract.
5. Telophase: At the final stage of the mitotic cell division, a nuclear membrane is formed around each set of
chromatid and the cell divides into two (2) daughter cells.

MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS: Involve the production of gametes needed in sexual reproduction, sexual reproduction involves the union
of two haploids gamates, one from each parents. The specialize process of cell division that leads to the production
of this gamates is what is known as meiosis.
Meiosis is a process of nuclear division involving the reduction number of chromosomes from diploid (2)
state to a haploid (n). The chromosomes number is reduced by half in meiosis e.g. if the diploid state of a cell is 20
chromosomes, after meiotic division it will produce 4 haploid daughter cells or gamates each having 10
chromosomes, 4 haploid gamates are obtain from 1 diploid parents cell, because meiosis consist of 2 consecutive
division, each gamates sex cell will contain 1 of each homologous chromosomes pair of the diploid cells.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

When such cell or gamates unite in sexual reproduction it gives rise to zygote having the same number of
chromosomes and composition as the parents, meiotic division is divided into 2 segments, meiosis I and meiosis II,
within each of this segments the five stages or phases that exist in mitosis also exist here (prophase, metaphase,
interphase, anaphase and telophase).
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Cell
Prokaryotes cell Eukaryotes Cells

They lack true nucleus There is true nucleus

The genetic material (DNA)is not surrounded There genetic material (DNA) surrounded
or enclose by nuclear membrane
They lack intra cellular membrane bounded Present of intra cellular membrane bounded
organelles organelles
Absent of plasma membrane Present of plasma membrane
Absent of cell wall Present of cell wall

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
CELL AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment of a cell is its total surrounding. A cell exchange materials with its environment through a
biophysical processes called:

a. Diffusion and b. Osmosis.

The materials exchanged by cell includes

i. Food material (Nutrients)

ii. Gases (Oxygen,carbon dioxide) iii. Excretory substances iv. Water

a. Diffusion

Diffusion is a spontaneous movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low.
Concentration. It is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration (or high chemical
potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a result of random motion of the molecules
or atoms. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in chemical potential of the diffusing species.

Diffusion can also be defined as the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration (or
high chemical potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a result of random motion
of the molecules or atoms. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in chemical potential of the diffusing species.

A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity e.g. concentration, pressure, or temperature with the change in
anoter variable, usually distance. A change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration gradient, a
change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient, and a change in temperature over a distance is a
called a temperature gradient.

The rate of diffusion is increased when: The distance is decreased. The surface area is increased. The concentration
difference (concentration gradient)-is increased.

A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass
transport without requiring directed bulk motion.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

Movement of molecules/atoms from a region ofhigh concentration to a region of low concentration.

N.B: The rate of diffusion is increased when: The distance is decreased. The surface area is increased. The
concentration difference (concentration gradient) is increased.

Factors affecting rate of Diffusion

1. State of matter: Diffusion varies with the three state of matter (Solid, liquid and gas). The diffusion of gasses
is much faster than that of liquid because the molecule are freely associated with one another and thus, faster
to move than liquid molecules and solids
2. Size of molecules: the size of molecules affect the rate of diffusion: The larger the size of the molecules, the
slower the rate of molecular movement/diffusion and vice versa.
3. Difference in concentration. The greater the difference in concentration of molecules between two
areas/point, the greater the rate of diffusion.
4. Temperature: the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion

b. Osmosis

Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute
concentration to a more concentrated solution, up a concentration gradient. It is the spontaneous net movement of
solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction
that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.

Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane downward. a higher concentration
of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids,
supercritical liquids, and even gases

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)

The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane, the dots represent particles driving the osmotic
gradient.

Conditions necessary for Osmosis to take place

a. Presence of a stronger solution (i.e solution of high concentration)
b. Presence of a weaker solution such as distilled water
c. Presence of a selectively permeable membrane

Similarities between Diffusion and Osmosis

i. Both diffusion and osmosis involve movement of molecules ii. In both diffusion and osmosis, the movement of
molecules is through a concentration gradient

Differences between Diffusion and Osmosis

The primary differences between diffusion and osmosis it that:
i. Diffusion involves the movement of molecules of any chemical substance and ions from one place to another,
whereas osmosis exclusively refers to the movement of water molecules across a membrane.

ii. Diffusion does not involve semi-permeable membrane while osmosis involves a semi-permeable membrane

Absorption
Absorption is a process through which water and digested food are absorbed by the blood and supplied to all parts
of the body. The mechanisms involved in the process of absorption of digested food are simple diffusion, active
transport, facilitated transport, and passive transport.

The three major functions that are basic to plant growth and development are:
• Photosynthesis – The process of using chlorophyll to capture light energy and convert it to energy stored in sugars.
Photosynthesis uses light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to generate glucose with a byproduct of
oxygen.
• Transpiration – The loss of water vapor through the stomates of leaves.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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• Respiration – The process of metabolizing (burning) sugars to yield energy for growth, reproduction, and other
life processes. Respiration uses glucose and oxygen to generate kinetic energy, with a byproduct of carbon dioxide
and water
A primary difference between plants and animals is the plant’s ability to manufacture its own food. In
photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide from air and water in the soil with the sun’s energy to generate
photosynthates (sugar) releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
Transpiration serves three essential roles:
 Movement of dissolved nutrients and minerals up from the roots (via xylem) and sugars (products of
photosynthesis) throughout the plant (via phloem). Water serves as both the solvent and the avenue of
transport.
 Cooling. 80% of the cooling effect of a shade tree is from the evaporative cooling effects of transpiration.
This benefits both plants and humans
 Turgor Pressure. Water maintains the turgor pressure in cells much like air inflates a balloon, giving form
to the non-woody plant parts. Turgidity is important so the plant can remain stiff, upright, and have a
competitive advantage when it comes to light. Turgidity is also important for the functioning of the guard
cells that surround the stomates, regulates water loss, and carbon dioxide uptake. Turgidity also is the force
that pushes roots through the soil
Respiration In respiration, plants (and animals) convert sugars (photosynthates) back into energy for growth and
other life processes. The chemical equation for respiration shows that the photosynthates are oxidized, releasing
energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Notice that the equation for respiration is the opposite of that for photosynthesis

IMPORTANCE GREEN PLANT

Green plant are essential for the existence of all kinds of life including human life, they are important in
this respect lies 1st in the fact that they are the only natural agent which are able to prepare the atmosphere by
absorbing the carbon dioxide and releasing an almost equal volume of oxygen.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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ABDULLAHI ISHAKU (FCGDP)
Green plant prepare food such as starch the cheap constituent of (rice, millet, sorghums) using carbon dioxide from
the air and water and inorganic salt from soil, both this functions are the monopoly of green plant and are performed
by the chloroplast of the leaf, during the day sunlight being the source of energy. Animals are therefore deeply
indebted to plant for their basic need for respiration, nutrition and energy.
Flowering plant may be classified into 3 groups (Herbs, Shrubs and Trees).
1, HERBS: This are soft tissues plant and are often small in size juice and contain little wood, this group can be
divided into three (Annuals, Biennials and Perennials).
ANNUALS: are the Herbs that live for only one year or complete their life cycle in one year. Examples are
rice, yam, maize, etc.
BIENNIALS: are the herbs that live for two years or complete their life cycle in two years, such plants are
common in temperate regions, they spend their first producing buds and the following year to produce flowers and
seeds and then they die. Example cocoyam.
PERENNIALS: are the plants that live for many years, example Jinja plants and other plants with often
storage organs. The parts above the ground dies up at the end of each growing season, but the underground parts
remain alive. This sends out new aerial shoot at the start of new growing season.
2. SHRUBS: This are the intermediate between herbs and trees, they are bushy plants with many branches but
lacking a main trunk, they are woody plants with several branches close to the ground, they also have hard tissues
example hibiscus.
3. TREES: This are the plant with single woody trunk of a large size which usually branches high up or sometimes
remain unbranched. Example mango, coconut.
Flowering plants can also be divided into two groups depending on the structural differences this are
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledo

Differences between Monocots Dicots

i. Seed leaves 1 2
ii. Root system Fibrous Tap
iii. Floral part Arrange in 3 or multiple of Arrange in 4 or multiple of
3(three) 4(four)
iv. Leaves Leave base is broad Leave base is narrow
v. Stem No secondary thickening, Secondary thickening is
vascular boundaries are present, vascular boundary are
scattered, no pith, no arrange in rings, pith cambium
cambium, little cortex, and cortex are present,
example maize, onion and example beans, orange etc.
grasses.

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A typical flowering plant consist of two main parts. The roots is the part under the ground, the
stems and leaves which together forms the shoots are typically aerial.

VEGETATION
The vegetation part of the plant consist of the stem, the leaves, the shoots and the roots. The flowers
are the reproductive part of the plant.
ROOT STRUCTURE: The root is produce from the radical of the seeds and grow deep into the
soil at the end of each main roots, and branch root is a growing point which is protected by a cone
shape covering of cells called ROOTCAP. The outer cells are slimy and they have the root to slide
pass the soil particles projecting from the root just above the root caps. Caps are delicate root hairs
which absorb water and minerals salts from the soil.
SPECIAL TYPES OF ROOTS
i. AERIAL ROOT: This types of root differed from the normal root because they appear above
ground, they are also sponge absorb water from the atmosphere and also mineral salt from the dust
which settles on them.
ii. CLASPING ROOT: This are developed by certain climbing figs which can able the plants to
climb by growing round and clasping its support.
iii. PROP ROOT: This developed from branches and help support the trees.
iv. BUTTRESS ROOT: This is mainly for support.
v. BREATHING ROOT: They grow from the main roots through the mold into the air.
vi. STORAGE ROOT: example sweet potatoes, carrots and cassava.
ROOT SYSTEM
When there is a definite main root from which smaller roots group, the root system is
referred to as TAP ROOT SYSTEM; in FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM there is no main roots but
many roots of similar size, e.g. in most grasses have fibrous root system. When roots are produce
from some other part of the plants and not from the radicle of the seeds is said to be
ADVENTITIOUS ROOT SYSTEM.
Functions of Root System
i. Absorption of water from the ground
ii. Anchorage of plant deep into the ground
iii. Storage organs e.g cassava, yam, carrot.

STEM

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY (BIO 111)
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A typical stem is eraped and has a growing point at tip, in the young plant this is protected
by number of smaller leafs overlapping each other to form a terminal bud, the angle between the
leaf and the stem is called the AXIL and contain an axillary bud which may give rise to branches.
If the terminal buds becomes damage, one of the axillary buds will take over the main growth of
the shoots. The part of the stem were a leaf is fixed is known as the NODE, and the distance to
node is called the INTERNODE.
Functions of Stem
i. It bears the leaves and branches
ii. It holds the leaves in position so that they get plenty of high.
iii Conduction of nutrients and water to the leaves.
iv. Manufactured food from the leaves to the leaves to the other parts.
v. Food storage e.g (sugar cane)
LEAF
A typical leaf consist of 3 main parts, this are …..
1 The Lamina or the leaf blade
2 The leaf stalk or petiole
3 The leaf base
The edge of the lamina is called a MARGIN, this may be SERRATED or SMOOTH. The
petiole (leaf stalk) is continued up from the entire lamina to form the MIDRIB or main VEIN
which give up branches on either side. In many plants the leaf base best appear up outgrowth and
this refers to as STIPULES. Typically leafs are green and they manufacture the food of the plant
from raw materials in the presence of sunlight.
VENATION: The arrangement of veins is called venation of the leaves. There are two kinds of
venation this are RETICULATE or PARALLEL.
Reticulate venation refers to the condition were the veins are irregularly arranged, WHILE
in Parallel venation several main veins run parallel to one another.
TYPES OF LEAF
1. SIMPLE LEAF: This have a single lamina or leaf blade e.g. hibiscus
2 .COMPOUND LEAF: The leaf blade is divided into a number of leaflets e.g. cassava, the leaflet
of compound leaf may be arranged in several ways, i.e. Pinnate and Bipinnate.
i. Pinnate leaf: are those leaf which the leaflets are arrange in pairs opposite to one another along
the length of the main stalk with a terminal leaflet sometimes at the tip.
ii. Bipinnate leaf: are those leaf in which each pinnate leaflets has a pair opposite leaflets
3. DIGITATE LEAF: This are those in which the leaflet radiate out from the end of the stalk like
the fingers of a hand.
4. TRIFOLITE LEAF: are those in which each leaf consist of three leaflets.

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