Izmir Institute of Technology

Dept. of ChE.

Process Dynamics
and Control-ChE 402
Chapter 4 – Dynamic
behaviour of first and
second order processes

Asst. Prof. Dr. Can Kızılkaya

Learning objectives for Chapter4

 Define standard input changes in process dynamics

 Obtain the output response of 1st order processes
for standard input changes
 Analyze output responses for limiting conditions
 Express the general form for 2nd order TF models
 Classify 2nd order processes based on their
damping coefficient (ζ)
 Analyze the step response for different classes of
2nd order processes
 Describe performance characteristics of 2nd order
underdamped processes
Quote of the week

• Don't worry about too many things at once. Take a

handful of simple things to begin with, and then
progress to more complex ones. Think about not just
tomorrow, but the future.

• Steve Jobs
• 1955 – 2011
Advantages of transfer functions

 Transfer functions make it easy to compare the effects of

different inputs.
Advantages of transfer functions

 Dynamic behaviour of the process can be generalized easily.

Gain

Time constant
Why do we use standard inputs ?

In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems,

it is important to know how the process responds to
changes in the process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are widely
used for two reasons:

1. They are representative of the types of changes that

occur in plants.

2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.

Standard inputs are defined as deviation variables

In your textbook, standard inputs are defined ALREADY in

the deviation variable form, such that:

WHY ?  Because in process dynamics, we assume that

the process is at steady state, before any change occurs in
the system. The change occurs at t=0, so:
Standard process inputs

1. Step input

2. Ramp input

3. Rectangular pulse

4. Sinusoidal input

5. Impulse input

6. Random inputs
Step input

Industrial process can be subjected to sudden and

sustained (kept) changes.

Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly

switched from one supply to another, causing sudden
changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
Step input

A sudden change in a process variable can be

approximated by a step change of magnitude, M:

The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as

t = 0.
 Special Case: If M = 1, we have a “unit step change”.
We give it the symbol, S(t).
Step input

Example:
The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter
2 is suddenly changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by
changing the electrical signal to the heater. Thus,

Q  t   8000  2000S  t  , S  t  = unit step

and
Q  t   Q  Q  2000 S  t  , Q  8000 kcal/hr
Ramp input

 Industrial processes often experience “drifting

disturbances”, that is, relatively slow changes up or down
for some period of time.
 The rate of change (the slope) is approximately constant.

Examples of ramp changes: Feed composition, catalyst

activity, ambient temperature.

We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp

input:
Rectangular pulse

 Processes are sometimes subjected to a sudden step

change that then returns to its original value.

Examples:
Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.
The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.

uRP
h

0 tw t (Time)
Rectangular pulse
Three important examples of inputs
Sinusoidal input

Period

Angular frequency
Sinusoidal input

Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.

They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:

0 for t  0
usin  t  =  (5-14)
 A sin t  for t  0
where: A = amplitude, ω = angular frequency
A
usin ( s )  2
s  2
Examples:

1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.

2. 60-Hz electrical noise
Sinusoidal input

• This type of input is in particular useful for a stability analysis

method that is called Frequency Response Analysis

• Beyond the scope of this course

Impulse input

 Here,
U I  t     t  and U I ( s )  1
 It represents a short, transient disturbance.
 It is the limit of a rectangular pulse for tw→0 and h = 1/tw

True impulse functions are not encountered in normal plant

operations. To obtain an impulse input, it is necessary to
inject a finite amount of energy or material into a process
in an infinitesimal length of time, which is not possible.

Examples:
1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.
2. Injection of a tracer dye.
Random inputs

 If an input u exhibits random fluctuations, we can

characterize it in statistical terms, the mean value and
the standard deviation.

 Beyond the scope of this course.

Response of 1st order processes

 In your textbook, for simplicity, Y’(s) is shown as Y(s), in

the TF models.

 Careful: A TF models always relates output and input

in deviation variable form.
Step response

Dev. var. form!

Dev. var. form!

 Step response

Normalized (standardized) x and y axis

What does Gain and Time Constant physically mean ?
Gain

Time constant

 Gain (K): Sensitivity of the output to the input.

 As K increases, the output is more sensitive to the input. As K
increases, The output is effected more by change in the input)
 If K is positive, as input increases, output increases. If K is
negative, output decrease as input increases.
 Time constant ( : The speed that output responds to the input.
 As increases, the output responds slower to the input.
Example: Stirred tank heating system
Example: Stirred tank heating process

 A stirred-tank heating system is used to preheat a reactant stream

containing a suspended solid catalyst at a constant flow rate of 1000
kg/h. The volume in the tank is 2 m3, and the density and specific
heat of the suspended mixture are, respectively, 900 kg/m3 and 1
cal/g °C. The process initially is operating with inlet and outlet
temperatures of 100 and 130 °C. The following questions concerning
process operations are posed:

 (a) What is the heater input at the initial steady state and the values
of K and T?
 (b) If the heater input is suddenly increased by + 30%, how long will
it take for the tank temperature to achieve 99% of the final
temperature change? Calculate the st.st. change in T.
 (c) Assume the tank is at its initial steady state. If the inlet
temperature is increased suddenly from 100 to 120 °C, how long will
it take before the outlet temperature changes from 130 to 135 °C?
Example: Stirred tank heating process
 a) What is the heater input at the initial steady state and the values of K and T?
 Solve the energy balance equation at st. st., with the given vales of parameters.
Example: Stirred tank heating process

 b) If the heater input is suddenly increased by + 30%, how long will it take
for the tank temperature to achieve 99% of the final temperature change?
Calculate the st.st. change in T.

To achieve 99% of final T 

5 tau amount of time is needed

 From dynamic modelling of this system, we have derived:

Example: Stirred tank heating process

 Therefore
 New st.st. Value:
)

 c) Assume the tank is at its initial steady state. If the inlet temperature is
increased suddenly from 100 to 120 °C, how long will it take before the
outlet temperature changes from 130 to 135 °C?

5 ) )

20
1
Ramp response

For large values of time:

Ramp response
Transfer Functions of Liquid Storage Systems

A = Cross-sectional area

Common process unit in chemical plants

Transfer Functions of Liquid Storage Systems

• 3 typical cases may occur for the outlet stream

i) Outlet valve functions as a linear resistance to outlet flow rate.

Then, q is a function of h.

For these systems, V and h can be the output variables. More commonly, h
is the output variable.
Transfer Functions of Liquid Storage Systems

• 3 typical cases may occur for the outlet stream

i) Outlet valve functions as a linear resistance to outlet flow rate.

Then, q is a function of h.

1st order TF with:

Transfer Functions of Liquid Storage Systems

ii) Outlet valve functions as a non-linear resistance to outlet flow

rate. Then, q is a function of h.

Results in a 1st order TF, after LINEARIZATION!

Transfer Functions of Liquid Storage Systems

ii) Instead of a valve, a pump is attached to outlet strem. So, q can

be set to any constant value at any time. Then, q is not a function of
h. This system is called an integrating system, results in a different
TF model.

Valve is attached to outlet stream Pump is attached to outlet stream

Response of integrating systems

Transfer Functions
NO STEADY STATE GAIN!

• No steady-state will be obtained, unless

the tank overflows or empties for a step
change in qi (if M is positive, tank
overflows), or q (if M is positive, tank
empties)
Response of integrating systems - example

A vented cylindrical tank is used for storage

between a car unloading facility and a CSTR
that uses the tank contents as a feedstock.
qi(t) q(t)

a) The process is initially at st. st. at h = 2m. At t=0, the tank car empties.
How long can the reactor be operated before the feed tank is depleted
?
b) Another tank car is moved into place and connected to the tank, while
flow continues into the reactor at 0.02 m3/s. If flow is introduced to the
feed tank as h=1m, how long can the transfer pump from the tank car
be operated ? Assume that the pump starts the flow at .
Response of integrating systems - example

a)

At the time the tank car empties, a step change with magnitude M occurs:

, ,
Response of integrating systems - example

b)

When pump flow rate changes, a step change with magnitude M occurs:

, ,
When do we encounter 2nd order TF ?

• Two coupled 1st order differential equations (Stirred

tank heating, CSTR, etc.)

• Two first order systems in series

2nd order process example (Two coupled 1st order ODEs)

1st order process 2nd order process

Ce, Te, he

Energy is transferred immediately from

Metal heating element has high Ce
the heating element to tank contents
2nd order process example (Two coupled 1st order ODEs)

Heat transfer coefficient for heating element

Area for Heat transfer
Energy balance for the liquid inside tank

Energy balance for heating element

2nd order process example (Two coupled 1st order ODEs)

b2 b1 K

2nd order TF model = 2nd order in s in the denominator

General form of a 2nd order process

K
G(s) = 2 2
 s  2s  1

• ζ: Damping coefficient (Dimensionless)

• Provides a measure of the amount of damping in the

system: The amount of oscillation in a process
response after perturbation

• Small ζ  Little damping: Large degree of oscillation

General form of a 2nd order process

• The overdamped and critically damped forms of 2nd

order TF most often appear when two 1st order
systems occur in series.
Two alternative forms for the overdamped 2nd order system

Block Notation:

Composed of two first order subsystems (G1 and G2)

K
G(s) =
1 2s 2 + (1   2 )s + 1

1   2
   1 2 =
2 1 2
Step response of 2nd order systems

Overdamped systems

Critically damped systems

Step response of 2nd order systems
Overdamped and critically damped systems
Step response of 2nd order systems

Underdamped systems

Underdamped form is frequently encountered in

investigating the properties of processes under feedback
control. Control systems are sometimes designed so that
the controlled process responds similar to an
underdamped 2nd order system.
Step response of 2nd order systems
Underdamped systems
Conclusions related to responses of 2nd order systems

• Large values of result in a slow response.

• Fastest response without overshoot is obtained for

critically damped case ( = 1).

• Responses exhibit a higher degree of oscillation and

overshoot as approaches zero.
Comments on underdamped 2nd order processes

• Control system designers sometimes attempt to make

the response of the controlled variable to a setpoint
change approximate the ideal step response of an
underdamped second-order system, so that the
controlled variable shows the desired amount of
overshoot and oscillation as it settles at the new
operating point.

• When damped oscillation is desirable, values of in the

range 0.4 to 0.8 may be chosen. In this range, the
controlled variable y reaches the new operating point
faster than with = 1.0 or 1.5, but the response is much
less oscillatory (settles faster) than with = 0.2.
Performance characteristics for underdamped
2nd order processes

y’(t)
Performance characteristics for underdamped
2nd order processes
• 1. Rise Time. tr is the time the
process output takes to first reach
the new steady-state value.
• 2. Time to First Peak. tp is the time
required for the output to reach its
first maximum value.
• 3. Settling Time. ts is the time
required for the process output to
reach and remain inside a band
whose width is equal to 5% of the
total change in y for 95% response
time
• 4. Overshoot. OS =alb (%
overshoot is 100 alb).
• 5. Decay Ratio. DR = c/a (where c
is the height of the second peak).
• 6. Period of Oscillation. P is the
time between two successive peaks
or two successive valleys of the
response.
Analytical expressions for performance characteristics

a. Overshoot
a    
 exp  
b  1   2 
 

b. time of first maximum

 
t p 
1   2

c. decay ratio
c   2   a 2
 exp   
a  1   2  b 2
 

d. period of oscillation
2 
p 
1   2
Performance characteristics vs
Learning objectives for Chapter4

 Define standard input changes in process dynamics

 Obtain the output response of 1st order processes
for standard input changes
 Analyze output responses for limiting conditions
 Express the general form for 2nd order TF models
 Classify 2nd order processes based on their
damping coefficient (ζ)
 Analyze the step response for different classes of
2nd order processes
 Describe performance characteristics of 2nd order
underdamped processes